Cognitive Psychology Exam 3

Suppose we ask people to perform the following cognitive tasks. Which is MOST likely to strongly activate the visual cortex? -Imagine the meaning of the word ethics -Imagine the sound of your phone ringing -Imagine a typical unsharpened pencil. Approximate its length in inches. -Imagine the feel of a cat licking your cheek

Imagine a typical unsharpened pencil. Approximate its length in inches.

______________ Approach to Categorization: An abstract representation of the typical or average member of a category ie: man, person -Categorization is based on determining how similar an object is to the standard representation of the category -We have only one representation of a category in our mind and we compare all new examples to it to decide what they are -Has a weighted average of the important features of category members -Has characteristic features that describe what members of that category are "like" without describing any one example -AVERAGE of category members encountered in past -Contains the most important features (ignores atypical features) True of most (not all) instanced of that category

Prototype

Category member does not closely resemble category prototype

Low-prototypicality

What is the abbreviation for misleading postevent information?

MPI

mental movement in the absence of overt action. ie:which way should you turn the lid to open a jar of pickles?

Motor Imagery

Yerkes-Dodson _________ Hypothesis -Exactly how arousal/emotion impacts memory is complicated by things like task difficulty and exactly how arousing the info is -Where peak performance is depends on task

"Inverted-U"

Lindsay and Johnson misinformation with recognition vs source identification test (1989): 1. Participants witnessed an event -slide of clutter office scene 2. Exposure to MPI -narrative describing the scene -no MPI (control):included only items in the slide -MPI (misled):included some items not in the slide 3. RECOGNITION MEMORY TEST for items in the slide -List of items in the slide & items only suggested -Say "yes" only to those that were in the slide 3. SOURCE IDENTIFICATION TEST -List of items in the slide & items only suggested -For each decide: only in slide, only in narrative, in both, in neither -Makes source very salient What were the findings?

RECOGNITION MEMORY TEST: HIGH misinformation effect for MPI group -Two confusable sources:slide/narrative and same context/experimenter. People likely imagined the slide when reading narrative embedding MPI (items that could be seen in an office ie:calculator), into real scene, which made them confident enough not to question their source of memory. Lower criteria for saying saw it SOURCE IDENTIFICATION TEST NO misinformation effect -Since people were made more aware of possible sources for their memory, they examine memory more closely helps them be more accurate.. Higher criteria for saying info was in slides.

How is the exemplar approach to categorization different from prototype view?

Representation is not a single abstract "average" rather many specific examples

How is the exemplar approach to categorization similar to prototype view?

Representing a category is not defining it

pros of prototype approach

-Allows for variation within category -Consistent with much empirical evidence

What is Smith et al (1974) Sentence verification technique study? What was the finding?

-Asked to respond "yes"(true) or "no" (false) ie: "an apple is a fruit" "a pomegranate is a fruit" MEASURED RESPONSE TIMES -Found that response times were faster for objects rated higher in prototypicality (JUDGED MORE RAPIDLY)

Cons of prototype approach

-Because it relies on comparison to "an average" does not do well explaining how we learn atypical cases ie:penguins

Rosch (1975) (Prototypical // Priming Stimulus) FOUND

-Hearing the word "green" primes a highly prototypical "green" -ss faster to say "same" for pairs of "good" examples than pairs of "poor" examples

Sulin and Dooling (1974) researched how memory is reconstructive and the influence of inferences: -Different Groups read identical stories but main character was varied: "Gerald Martin (or Adolf Hitler) strove to undermine the existing government to satisfy his political ambitions. Many supported his efforts." "Carol Harris (or Helen Keller) was a problem child from birth. She was wild, stubborn, and violent." *Sentences could be inferred from our knowledge of the famous characters, but were not actually presented -Recognition test included some non-studied sentences like: "The dictator hated Jews." (Gerald Martin/Adolf Hitler) "She was deaf and blind" (Carol Harris/Helen Keller) What were the RESULTS? Short(5 minutes):__________________ Long(1 week):__________________

-No difference between groups -Participants who read about Hitler/Keller more likely to incorrectly remember the non-presened statements consistent with their knowledge.

Kossyln (1978) studied how mental imagery is affected by the size of an object ACUITY -imagine elephant & rabbit so elephant fills the field -imagine rabbit & fly so rabbit fills the field -in each case, answer questions about the rabbit "does rabbit have whiskers?" and Measured Response Time FINDING: _______to detect details on the larger animal Suggests imagery is acting like _____

-Quicker -perception

Carmichael, Hogan and Walter (1932) study: Three groups of participants shown 12 pictures. 2 groups heard different verbal labels, whilst a control group had no verbal labels. They were asked to draw what they had seen. The drawings were then compared to the original photos and label influenced Ss drawings Conclusion:___________________ Prentice (1954) studied the same as Carmichael et al, except Ss were asked to recognize the objects instead of draw the objects Results: The label effect disappeared Suggests results of Carmichael et al arose during ___________ rather than encoding, because Ss could recognize the non-distorted figures they must have _____ "correct" ___________ into memory

-The label (knowledge) biased memory of the objects -retrieval -encoded -representations

Prototype or Exemplar Approach? Which approach is best for which kind of categories?

-We may use both -Exemplars may work best for small categories(holidays) -Prototypes may work best for larger categories(birds)

In Memory for emotional information, an important dimension seems to be ___________ (physiological activity) rather than ___________ (positive, negative feeling). When people are _________ they remember the same way whether positive or negative.

-arousal -valence -aroused

Paivio's dual-coding theory: Paivio's idea is that the same information could possibly be encoded in _________ ways so that there would in essence be _________ codes for that info -Increases the chances it would be recovered/retrieved in the future

-both -2

Lindsay (2004) slime study induced a false childhood memory. This was done by receiving 2 True school related events (Grade 3-4 & Grade 5-6). Experimenter concocted a FALSE event for grade 1 involving a schoolmate putting slime on the teacher's desk. The critical manipulation was: Half of participants were given their ________________ as narrative was read. -Participants were encouraged to try to remember as much as possible, repeatedly use imagination, & put event in context (think about classmates and "critical manipulation"). -Participants returned to the lab after 1 week for final test False memories were higher at Time 2 after people repeatedly thought about and imagine the event for a week. False memories were significantly higher for the people that received the critical manipulation

-class photo for each year

What are 2 "aspects" of making source errors?

-confusable info in mind -attribution of that info to a given source

Talarico & Rubin (2003) researched Flashbulb Memory -Day after 9/11 asked students *about attacks & *about everyday events from days before attacks (Ss created own cues to events for later testing) -Tested people 1wk, 6wks, 32wks later FOUND: -Actual memory ____________ at same rate for 9/11 & everyday memories -Belief that memory was accurate stayed high for ________ but decreased for ___________ -Ratings of vividness and "reliving" also stayed high for ________ but dropped for __________

-decayed -9/11 -everyday -9/11 -everyday

Ganis et al (2004) Imagery & the brain;fMRI -Ss study object pictures before getting in scanner -In scanner:heard a probe word: "tree" *imagery: when heard a tone-imagine the object *perception: see a faint picture of the object -Asked "is object wider than tall?" -There was a complete overlap of activation from perception & imagery in front and middle of the brain(prefrontal cortex) -Differences were seen in the back of the brain(Visual cortex) SUGGESTS: Even though there is substantial similarity/overlap in the processes and representations of perception & imaging, there are ______________ that help us differentiate between what we __________ and what we ___________

-differences -perceive -imagine

Patient data show evidence for a double __________ between imagery and perception, which indicates ____ mechanisms. There is also evidence for _____ mechanisms

-dissociation -separate -shared

memory for emotional information take home message: Even highly ______________, very ________ and _______ memories can be wrong

-emotional -vivid -detailed

Pylyshyn (1973) Stated that spatial representation is an ____________ and proposed that imagery is ___________ and can be represented by language (verbally). Just appears to be spatial because of the way our semantic system is organized.

-epiphenomenon -propositional

Brown & Kulik coined the term ________________ -Research after Kennedy assassination -Argued there is a "Now Print" mechanism that results in memories that are highly detailed very vivid and long lasting like a photograph BUT Methods did not allow them to assess accuracy Only had reports at a later time no idea how reports compared to what really happened

-flashbulb memory

Peak performance depends on the task (how _______ it is), and there is individual ___________

-hard -differences

Loftus and Palmer studied the misinformation effect. In their study they had people watch film of an auto accident. Experimenter 1: Asked question about speed with different verbs (between subjects) "hit/smashed" >speeds were estimated to be ________ for verbs implying worse contact Experimenter 2: Replicated Exp 1 AND Had people come back 1 week later and asked "Did you see any broken glass?" >People more likely to say there was broken glass if they read ________ than __________

-higher -"smashed" -"hit"

emotional reactions, sense of vividness, etc is ________ for Flashbulb memory & often does not _______ with time

-higher -decrease

Roger Shepard was the first to suggest ________ and _______ share the same mechanisms

-imagery -perception

There seems to be plenty of evidence from mental rotation, scanning, and acuity studies that ________ and ________ share similar representations(spatial) and processes(we act on them as if they are 'real')

-imagery -perception

Stereotypes, schemas, and scripts __________ memory. Memory can include info not actually experienced but inferred because it is ________ and consistent with the stereotype, schema, script This can be helpful to fill gaps, generalize to new situations BUT can ____________ memory

-influence -expected -distort

emotion tends to improve _________ memory, often but not always disrupts memory for _____________, and tends to increase __________ memory (higher confidence, vividness ratings, higher belief in truth, etc)

-item -context -subjective

Kossyln's (1973) MENTAL SCANNING experiment -Ss memorize picture -create a mental image of it -Mentally move from one part of image to another -It took ________ for participants to mentally "move" long distances than short distances *motor-anchor>motor-portal FINDING: Like perception imagery is ____________ -Maintains relative distances -People move through the space the same

-longer -spatial

According to Paivio's dual-coding theory, Systems are NOT concerned with the ______________ of the info (ie: printed, auditory, visual, etc) NOT concerned with the ________ of the info (ie: perception or thought)

-modality -source

emotionally charged events are ____________ to remember than less emotionally charged events

-more easily

knowledge can also be represented in _________ which represent the way concepts are organized in the mind. A different kind of model for how _____________ and ____________ are associated in the mind

-networks -concepts -properties

Memory is _______ an exact record of what happens. Also includes and also _______ what actually happens, person's knowledge, experiences, expectations. Influenced by _____ and ________ factors

-not -reflects -social -cultural

Mechanisms ________ overlap. Visual perception involves _____________ processing, involves visual cortex and visual areas(very back of the brain and more anterior part). Imagery is a _______ process driven by parietal cortex(front of brain)

-partially -bottom-up -top-down

______________ inferences are based on knowledge gained through experience. Memory often includes indo that is implied by or is consistent with the to-be-remembered info but was not ______ stated

-pragmatic -Explicitly

Shepard and Meltzer (1971) Mental Rotation: First Application of quantitative cognitive methods to study imagery. -Participants saw 2 figures & had to say if they were the same (but rotated) or different. -Measured time to make the decision -The more the figure had to be rotated to match the longer it took to make decision. INFERENCE: Longer response time reflects time it takes people to actually rotate the image in their mind...more rotation takes longer -People manipulate mental images of objects just as they do actual object *They "move them in ________ time through _________

-real -space

with respect to brain activity for perception and imagery of objects (Ganis 2004) perception and imagery activate the __________ areas of the frontal lobe but perception activates more of the ______ of the brain than imagery does

-same -back

Brewer & Treyens studied how memory is influenced by people's __________ about offices. -ss waited in a cluttered office then went into another room and were asked to recall all they could about what was in the waiting room. -Recall of non-present but schema consistent items (ie:books) was __________ -Recall of present but inconsistent items (ie:picnic basket) was ___________

-schemas -high -low

_________ is the leading explanation for the misinformation effect? __________ memory is for where we got info -People misattribute memory from postevent (misinformation) to the originally witnessed event . A lot like DRM effect

-source memory error -Source

Kossyln et al (1978) MENTAL SCANNING experiment -Ss scanned an island with 7 locations, 21 possible "trips" -Took longer to scan greater distances **SUPPORTS idea that visual imagery is __________ (depictive), and we operate on these ___________ representations in real time. -representation & process the same as perception

-spatial -spatial

Kosslyn et al study on mental scanning supports idea that visual imagery is __________ and we operate on these __________ representations in real time? _________ and _________ the same as perception

-spatial -spatial -representation -process

experts are more likely to use _____________ when labeling objects, whereas non-experts are more likely to use________

-subordinate -basic

what did Finke and Pinkers (1982) study support and what did it have a strong argument against?

-supported Kosslyn because found strong evidence for spatial recognition -Had a strong argument against Plylshyns tacict knowledge

A better method to testing flashbulb memory is:

-time 1 as close as possible to event (baseline) -time 2+ later reports compared to baseline -Comparison with NON-emotional event

____________ refers to the tendency for eyewitnesses to a crime to focus attention on a weapon which causes _________ memory for other things that are happening

-weapon focus -worse

___________________________ Theory: Two distinct, but inter-related, systems in our mind for the processing and representation of information *VERBAL SYSTEM -specialized for dealing with linguistic info, processing of language -specialized for sequential processing due to the serial nature of language *NON-VERBAL SYSTEM -specialized for processing non-verbal objects and events such as processing spatial layout -enters into tasks such as the analysis and representation of scenes, maps, etc

Paivio's Dual-Coding

What were Lindsay's findings from the slime study?

People incorporate details from "real" memories (photo) into new memories of suggested events, making false memories seem more "real" -feature borrowing This also works with false pictures

What was the general finding from the 3-stage Misinformation Procedure?

People report witnessing things that were only suggested to them later -20-45% error rates -highly detailed confidently held

Are the following Advantages or Disadvantages Of (Re)Construction of memories? -Allows us to "fill in the blanks" (efficient) -Cognition is creative (understand language, solve novel problems, & make novel decisions)

Advantages

Specific kind of episodic memory -recollected events that belong to a person's "personal past" (very rich memories) -part of your "life story" (Includes a sense of self) -Multidimensional (spatial, emotional, sensory components)

Autobiographical Memory (AM)

What happened during the cognitive revolution?

Came up with ways to measure imagery

Category membership based on whether the object meets the ___________ of the category does not work well because not all members of everyday categories have the same defining features

Definition

______________ Approach to Categorization -concept is represented by multiple examples (rather than a single prototype) -Examples are actual category members -To categorize, compare the new item to stored examples. The more similar a newly experienced exemplar is to a known category member (stored exemplar), the faster it will be categorized -easily takes into account atypical cases -explains typicality effect -easily deals with highly variable categories ie:games

Exemplar

What did Tanaka & Taylor (1991) find out about how knowledge can affect categorization when they asked bird experts & non-experts to name objects? (interest was how they named birds)

Experts use more specific info to categorize, name at more specific level

What is the misinformation effect?

False information introduced after witnessed event can change witness' memory

Memory for circumstances surrounding learning about shocking highly emotionally (usually socially-shared) events -NOT memory for event itself -Memory for how you heard about it *where you were, who told you, what were you doing)

Flashbulb Memory (FB)

Bartlett's "war of the ghosts" experiment

Had participants attempt to remember a story from a different culture Repeated reproduction Results Over time, reproduction became shorter, contained omissions and inaccuracies Changed to make the story more consistent with their own culture

Collins & Quillian (1969) concepts are linked__________ Node = Category distance between concepts predicts how long it takes to retrieve info ie: A canary is...an animal(2)>a bird(1)

Hierarchically

Category member closely resembles category prototype -"typical" member

High-prototypicality

_________ Representations: Linguistically-based mental representations -derived by abstracting the meaning of the item to be represented -tend to abstract the "gist" of the info -"explanations" of the world based on meaning ie:digital clock

Propositional

"typical" instance. -An abstract representation of the typical or average member of a category

Prototype

___________ is an explanation proposed to account for the results of some imagery experiments that stated that participants unconsciously use knowledge about the world in making their judgments This explanation has been used as one of the arguments against the idea that imagery involves depictive or spatial representation

Tacit knowledge explanation

Pylyshyn (2003) argued Kosslyn's results can be explained by using real-word knowledge unconsciously Known as

Tacit-Knowledge explanation

____________________ are magnetic pulses applied to temporarily disrupt the functioning of part of the brain -If behavior is disrupted the deactivated part of the brain is causing (necessary for) that behavior

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

True or False Paivo's dual-code hypothesis states that info is usually (or at least can be) represented in verbal & non-verbal form

True

The following is a summary of evidence for _______ effect: -Highly prototypical objects JUDGED MORE RAPIDLY *sentence verification (Smith et al 1974) -Prototypical objects are NAMED MORE RAPIDLY ie: quickly name as many birds as possible, sparrow would be named before penguin -Prototypical category members are more AFFECTED BY A PRIMING STIMULUS *(Rosch 1975)

Typicality

Prototypical objects are processed preferentially -Highly prototypical objects JUDGED MORE RAPIDLY -Prototypical objects are NAMED MORE RAPIDLY ie: quickly name as many birds as possible, sparrow would be named before penguin -Prototypical category members are more AFFECTED BY A PRIMING STIMULUS

Typicality effect

patient ignores objects i one half of visual field in both perception and imagery

Unilateral neglect

What is it called when the tendency to focus attention on a weapon results in a narrowing of attention by arousal/emotion, & witnesses miss details about the crime and the perpetrator?

Weapon focus effect

______________ is the idea that people perform best at intermediate levels of arousal and that performance is lower at high or low levels of arousal

Yerkes-Dodson (Inverted-U) Hypothesis

Mental scanning experts usually find

a positive linear relationship between scanning time and distance on the image (ie: RT goes up as distance goes up)

Mental-scanning and mental rotation experiments found

a positive linear relationship between scanning time and distance on the image. ie: RT goes up as distance goes up

What is spatial representation?

a representation in which different parts of an image can be described as corresponding to specific locations in space

The prototype approach to categorization states that a standard representation of a category is based on

a single average of many category members that have been encountered in the past

Lindsay & Johnson's misinformation effect experiment that compared memory using a recognition test vs a source identification test showed that participants made more errors when tested with

a yes/no recognition memory test

Paivio's dual-coding theory: EVIDENCE: memory for... -pictures>words -concrete words>abstract words (ie:justice) BECAUSE________

abstract are less likely to evoke the spontaneous imaging of the word

Most evidence suggests there is nothing "special" about flashbulb memory with respect to _______. Especially once you control for amount of rehearsal or repeated review of the info

accuracy

A lesson to be learned from the research on flashbulb memories is that extreme vividness of a memory does not mean it is

accurate

Kosslyn (1978) did a study in which he had people form simultaneous images of two different size animals such as a rabbit alongside an elephant. He then asked the subjects basic questions about the animals. For example, if the rabbit had whiskers. Such studies use what is known about visual _________ to explore the similarities between perception and imagery

acuity

_____________ Representations: mental representations that retain much of the structure of the thing they represent -have a "closer" relationship to the thing they are representing -more "picture-like" or schematic ie:analogue clock -maintain much of the detail of the item and also lots of info about relationships ie:spatial

analogical

According to Rosch the _____________ level of categories is the psychologically "privileged" level of category that reflects people's everyday experience

basic

Propositional representations and Analogical representations ________ be used regardless of how information is originally experienced

can

which of the following is a basic level concept -motor vehicle -car -ford fiesta -all are at the same level

car

In Kosslyn et al., 1999, studied how TMS helps in imagery domain: -Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) was applied to visual area of the brain during perception & imagery task. -Control condition: TMS was applied to another area -Response times were slower for both perceive & imagine CONCLUSION: Brain activity in visual area of brain plays a ___________ role for both perception and imagery

casual

process by which things, ideas, etc.(concepts) are placed into groups(categories)

categorization

mental representation of information -both concrete("cat") and abstract ("justice") -used for a variety of cognitive functions (memory, reasoning, language)

concept

The fact that people's memories are based on what actually happened plus additional factors such as expectations other knowledge and other life experiences shows the

constructive nature of memory

When information undergoes changes during encoding and changes during remembering

constructive/reconstructive

In Bartlett's war of the ghosts experiment participants reproductions contained inaccuracies based primarily on

cultural expectations

In the "war of the ghosts" experiment participants reproductions contained inaccuracies based on

cultural expectations

_____________ does not prove to be helpful with categories

definitional

Is the following an Advantage or Disadvantage Of (Re)Construction of memories? Sometimes we make errors based on inferences, schemas, stereotypes, etc

disadvantage

Categories are represented by _____________ activity. More similar patterns of brain activity for categories with similar features.

distributed

Sometimes a behavioral event can occur at the same time as a cognitive process even though the behavior isn't needed for the cognitive process. For example, many people look toward the ceiling when thinking about a complex problem even though thinking would continue if they didn't look up THis describes an

epiphenomenon

The spatial experience of mental images is an ______________ -A secondary phenomenon that occurs alongside or in parallel to a primary phenomenon -something that accompanies real process/mechanism but is not actually the process/mechanism itself -ie:lights flashing as a mainframe computer carries out its calculations. The light indicates something is going on inside the computer but doesn't tell us what is actually happening, AND if all the lightbulbs blew out the computer would continue operating just as before

epiphenomenon

In categorization, members of a category that a person has experienced in the past (not abstract averages)

exemplar

______________ are actual members of a category that a person has encountered in the past

exemplars

Mental imagery involves

experiencing a sensory impression in the absence of sensory input

Bransford and Johnson -Ss rad sentences such as "The spy threw the secret document into the fireplace just in time since 30 seconds longer would have been too late." -Later took a recognition test. Some test statements were implied info: "The spy burned the secret documents" -RESULTS: 67.5% ________________ of reading actions that were only implied, they were never read. "The spy burned the secret documents"

false memories

which of the following is a subordinate level concept -motor vehicle -car -ford fiesta -all are at the same level

ford fiesta

Perky's experiment in which participants were asked to create visual images of common objects whole unbeknownst to them Perky projected faint images of the objects, showed

imagery and perception can interact with one another (ie: perception can influence imagery)

memory is influenced by _________ that people make based on their experiences and knowledge

inferences

Perky (1910) studied the interaction of imagery & perception: -Ss asked to imagine concrete objects and describe (ie: imagine a banana. describe it) -Unbeknownst to Ss dim images were projected on the screen as they imagined -Ss described projected image *mistook actual picture for a mental image SUGGESTS: Perception & Imagery can ______________

interact

Flashbulb memory is best represented by which of the following statements? 1-it it vivid memory for emotional events 2-it is vivid highly accurate memory for the circumstances surrounding how a person heard about an emotional event 3-it is memory for the circumstances surrounding how a person heard about an emotional event that remains especially vivid but not necessarily accurate over time 4-it is vivid highly accurate memory for emotional events

it is memory for the circumstances surrounding how a person heard about an emotional event that remains especially vivid but not necessarily accurate over time

emotion tends to improve

item memory

what did Pylyshyn argue about spatial representation?

its a epiphenomenon and that representations and processes between perception and imagery are different

information in our minds

knowledge

__________ imagery is experiencing a sensory impression in your mind in the absence of external sensory input.

mental

Shepard and Metzler measured the time it took for participants to decide whether two objects were the same (2 different views of the same object) or different (2 different objects). These researchers inferred cognitive processes by using

mental chronometry

3 cognitive methods for studying visual imagery

mental rotation scanning acuity (sharpness)

The General 3-stage ________ Procedure is... 1. "Witness" an event >slides, pictures, live event 2. Exposure to misleading postevent information (MPI) >text narratives, questions about original event 3. "Testify" >test memory for original "witnessed" event

misinformation

Research on eyewitness testimony suggests that there is a ____________ correlation between confidence and accuracy (sometimes confidence predicts accuracy but not under all conditions)

modest

Collins & Loftus (1975) _________________ -shorter links to connect closely related concepts -longer links for less related concepts -no hierarchical structure Structures Based on Person's Experience

modifications

which of the following is a superordinate level concept -motor vehicle -car -ford fiesta -all are at the same level

motor vehicle

According to Paivio's dual-coding theory, Systems ARE concerned with the ______________ of the info (ie: verbal-based, image-based)

nature

In ___________ there is a relationship between viewing distance/size and ability to perceive details. The closer we are the bigger the image the more detail we can see

perception

Kosslyn's transcranial magnetic stimulation experiment on brain activation that occurs in response to imagery found that the brain activity in the visual cortex

plays a causal role in both perception and imagery

What is another name for categories?

pointers to knowledge

Inferences based on knowledge gained through experience

pragmatic inferences

Pylyshyn proposed that imagery is ____

propositional

Rosch (1975) did a priming study in which concept labels (ie, green) led to faster response times to indicate that two circles showing "good" examples of the color (ie, primary color green) were the same than response times when the two circles were "less good" examples of that color (ie light green). The result of this experiment was interpreted as supporting the _______ approach to categorization

prototype

The ____________ approach to categorization involves forming a single representation based on an average of category members that a person has encountered in the past

prototype

The degree to which a particular member of a category matches the prototype for that category

prototypicality

How is mental imagery useful?

provides a way of thinking that adds another dimension besides purely verbal

Source test does not always completely eliminate the misinformation effect but does ___________ it

reduce it

The text argues that the proper procedure for measuring the accuracy of flashbulb memories is

repeated testing

a person's knowledge about some aspect of the environment ie: what a post office looks like from the outside, inside, and service it provides through our own experience

schema

some patient data suggests Perception and imagery ______ brain mechanisms

share

The study by Sulin and Dooling (!1974) where they had people read stories and changed the names between groups (ie Carol Harris vs Helen Keller) showed that

some memories are shaped by our prior knowledge expectations and stereotypes

Which of the following members would most likely be ranked highest in prototypicality -raven -duck -hummingbird -sparrow

sparrow

Which of the following members would most likely be ranked highest in prototypicality in the "birds" category? -raven -duck -hummingbird -sparrow

sparrow

__________________ activation: When a node is activated activity spreads out along all connected links

spreading

tacit knowledge explanation

subjects unconsciously use knowledge about the world in making their judgements

People playing "20 questions"often use hierarchical organization strategies. One player asks up to 20 yes/no questions to determine the identity of an object another player has selected. Initial questions asked by a player are often one of three questions: "is it an animal?" "Is it a vegetable?" and "is it a mineral?" Each of these three questions describes which level of categorization?

superordinate

How are categories structured in the mind?

superordinate (Global)- ie: furniture, vehicle basic- ie: table, truck subordinate (specific)- ie: kitchen, pickup

In their imagery study, Finke and Pinker presented a four dot display briefly to participants. After a two second delay participants then saw an arrow and their task was to indicate whether the arrow would have pointed to any of the dots in the previous display. The significance of their results was they called into question the _____________ explanation of imagery.

tacit-knowledge

Which level of categories did Rosch argue is psychologically privileged because it is the one pp typically think of and communicate

the basic level

Why are categories useful?

they help us to understand individual cases not previously encountered

Has consequences for cognition

typicality

________ imagery is "seeing" with the mind's eye -in the absence of a visual stimulus

visual