Cognitive Psychology, Goldstein, Ch. 12, Problem Solving

Mental Set

A preconceived notion about how to approach a problem, which is determined by a person's experience or what has worked in the past.

Acrobat Problem

A problem involving acrobats that is similar to the Tower of Hanoi problem. Used to illustrate the way a problem is stated can influence its difficulty (reverse acrobat problem).

Tower of Hanoi Problem

A problem involving moving discs from one set of pegs to another. It is used to illustrate the process involved in means-end analysis.

Source Problem (Story)

A problem or story that is analogous to the target problem and which therefore provides information that can lead to a solution to the target problem.

Radiation Problem

A problem posed by Duncker that involves finding a way to destroy a tumor by radiation without damaging other organs in the body. Used to study the role of analogy in problem solving. (Fortress story analogy)

Target Problem

A problem to be solved. In analogical problem solving, solution of this problem can become easier when the problem solver is exposed to an analogous source problem or story.

Means-End Analysis

A problem-solving strategy that seeks to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states. The achieved by creating subgoals, intermediate states that are closer to the goal.

Think-Aloud Protocol

A procedure in which participants are asked to say out lod what they are thinking while doing a problem. This procedure is used to help determine people's thought processes as they are solving a problem.

Analogical Encoding

A technique in which people compare two problems that illustrate a principle. This technique is designed to help people discover similar structural features of cases or problems.

Third Step of Analogical Problem Solving

Applying the mapping to generate a parallel solution to the target problem.

Two String Problem

Attach two strings together that are too far apart to be reached at the same time: use the pliers as a weight to swing the string.

Chain Problem

Four pieces of chain and only has 15 cents to loop them together: unchain one whole link and use it to connect the other three small chains. Demonstrates insight.

Analogy

Making a comparison in order to show a similarity between two different things (mutilated checkerboard problem and Russian marriage problem)

Second Step of Analogical Problem Solving

Mapping the correspondence between the source story and the target problem.

The Candle Problem

Mount a candle on the corkboard so it will burn without dripping wax on the floor: use the box holding the matches and thumbtack it onto the board. Demonstrates functional fixedness.

Triangle Problem

Move only 3 dots to turn the triangle upside down: move the corner dots. Demonstrates insight.

First Step of Analogical Problem Solving

Noticing that there is an analogous relationship between the source story and the target problem.

Ill-Defined Problems

Occur frequently in everyday life; do not necessarily have one "correct" answer, and the path to their solution is often unclear.

Problem

Occurs when there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal, and the solution to get around the obstacle is not immediately obvious.

Fixation

People's tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution.

Operators

Permissible moves that can be made toward a problem's solution in problem solving.

Information-Processing Approach to Problem Solving

Problem solving as a search that occurs between the posing of the problem and its solution.

Functional Fixedness

Restricting the use of an object to its familiar functions.

Surface Features

Specific elements that make up a problem. In the radiation problem, the rays and the tumor are an example of this.

Goal State

The condition that occurs when a problem has been solved in problem solving.

Initial State

The conditions at the beginning of a problem in problem solving.

Problem Space

The initial state, goal state, and all the possible intermediate states for a particular problem.

Restructuring

The process of changing a problem's representation. According to the Gestalt psychologist, restructuring is the key mechanism of problem solving.

Insight

The sudden realization of a problem's solution. An "Aha!" experience. No idea when you are close to figuring out the solution.

Structural Features

The underlying principle of a problem. For example, in the radiation problem, needing high intensity to fix something surrounded by material that could be damaged by high intensity. Contrast with surface features.

Analogical Problem Solving

The use of analogies as an aid to solving problems. Typically, a solution to one problem, the source problem, is presented that is analogous to the solution to anther problem, the target problem.

Intermediate States

The various conditions that exist along the pathways between the initial and goal states in problem solving.

Gestalt Psychologists and Problem Solving

These researchers saw problem solving as 1. how people represent a problem in their mind and 2. how solving a problem involves a reorganization or restructuring of this representation.

Mutilated Checkerboard Problem

Two red corner squares removed from checkerboard: can't cover the remaining squares with 31 dominoes. Demonstrates how the way a problem is stated can influence its difficulty (red/black, bread/butter, russian match maker)

Water Jug Problem

Use jugs to measure out a specific quantity of water: do not use faster way to calculate because the previous more complicated way has worked in the past. Demonstrates mental set.

Analogical Transfer

Using problem solving strategies found to be successful in solving one problem to the solution of another, similar problem. (Russian marriage problem and mutilated checkerboard problem)

Well-Defined Problems

Usually has a correct answer; certain procedures, when applied correctly, will lead to a solution.