COM 209 TECEP

five principles of ethical speaking

1. Trustworthiness: a speaker must be seen or believed to be trustworthy in order for ethical speaking to take place 2. Integrity in the subject matter: the contents of a speech must be true and backed by various facts and evidence 3. Respect for others: a person's speech must also avoid personal attacks and rhetoric, such as hate speech, defamation, and bias/stereotypes 4. Dignity in conduct: the speaker's tone, body language, and behaviors should reflect the integrity of the speech itself and be conveyed in a meaningful and helpful way 5. Truthfulness in the message: overall, the most important aspect of ethical public speaking is the speaker's message, insofar as it's true and researched

Making Information Clear and Interesting for the Audience

A clear and interesting speech can make use of description, causal analysis, or categories. With description, you use words to create a picture in the minds of your audience. You can describe physical realities, social realities, emotional experiences, sequences, consequences, or contexts. You can also use causal analysis, which focuses on the connections between causes and consequences. You can also use categories to group things together.

What is a fallacy?

A fallacy is a flaw in the logic of an argument. There are many types of fallacies, including either/or, generalization, and non sequitur.

Psychological

A further way to organize your main ideas within a speech is through a psychological speech pattern in which "a" leads to "b" and "b" leads to "c." This speech format is designed to follow a logical argument, so this format lends itself to persuasive speeches very easily.

What makes a good informative speech?

A good informative speech conveys accurate information to the audience in a way that is clear and that keeps the listener interested in the topic. Achieving all three of these goals—accuracy, clarity, and interest—is the key to your effectiveness as a speaker.

What makes good support?

A good piece of support should be accurate, authoritative, current, and unbiased.

specific purpose

A specific purpose starts with one of the three general purposes and then specifies the actual topic you have chosen and the basic objective you hope to accomplish with your speech. Basically, the specific purpose answers the who, what, when, where, and why questions for your speech.

entertaining speech

A speech designed to captivate an audience's attention and regale or amuse them while delivering a message. Like more traditional informative or persuasive speeches, entertaining speeches should communicate a clear message, but the manner of speaking used in an entertaining speech is typically different. Entertaining speeches are often delivered on special occasions (e.g., a toast at a wedding, an acceptance speech at an awards banquet, a motivational speech at a conference), which is why they are sometimes referred to as special-occasion speeches.

syllogism

A syllogism is an example of deductive reasoning that is commonly used when teaching logic. A syllogism is an example of deductive reasoning in which a conclusion is supported by major and minor premises. The conclusion of a valid argument can be deduced from the major and minor premises.

transition

A transition is a phrase or sentence that indicates that a speaker is moving from one main point to another main point in a speech. Basically, a transition is a sentence where the speaker summarizes what was said in one point and previews what is going to be discussed in the next point.

accidental plagiarism

Accidental plagiarism, also known as unintentional plagiarism, is when a writer presents unoriginal work without meaning to. This can happen through mistakes such as using quotes without quotation marks, improperly citing sources, or not adequately paraphrasing another's idea.

rules and guidelines for ethical content

All information used in the speech should be researched and verified to ensure the content is factually accurate and up-to-date Avoid plagiarism at all costs; always use newly sourced information, paraphrase, and use quotations when citing someone else's work When using someone else's work or sources, ensure they are cited correctly to avoid plagiarism and give credit to the original thinker/writer/researcher

What is an audience-centered approach?

An audience-centered approach encompasses the way a speaker views the audience. Some features and characteristics of this type of approach include gaining an understanding of one's audience, finding the speech's purpose, communicating with the audience, and getting feedback from the audience.

What is an audience-centered approach to public speaking?

An audience-centered approach to public speaking is all about how the speaker approaches the speech. The speaker should take into account the demographics, psychographics, and perspectives of the audience members in order to tailor the speech to that audience.

Either/Or

An either/or fallacy is essentially a false choice. In other words, if a person is making an argument and pretends that a scenario only includes two options when there are, in fact, many potential options, this is an either/or fallacy.

What is an example of fallacious reasoning?

An example of fallacious reasoning would be saying, "My French aunt loves cooking; therefore, all French people love to cook." This is a specific type of fallacious reasoning referred to as a generalization, in which a conclusion is reached based on insufficient evidence. In other words, something that is true of one member of a group is illogically applied to the entire group.

internal preview

An internal preview is a phrase or sentence that gives an audience an idea of what is to come within a section of a speech. An internal preview works similarly to the preview that a speaker gives at the end of a speech introduction, quickly outlining what he or she is going to talk about (i.e., the speech's three main body points). In an internal preview, the speaker highlights what he or she is going to discuss within a specific main point during a speech.

How can analogies help audiences?

Analogies, both figurative and literal, can help audiences understand unfamiliar concepts. Figurative analogies compare two ideas or objects from two different classes. Conversely, literal analogies compare two objects or ideas that clearly belong to the same class. Speakers using analogies need to make sure that the audience will be able to see the similarity between the objects or ideas being compared.

Problem-Cause-Solution

Another format for organizing distinct main points in a clear manner is the problem-cause-solution speech pattern. In this format you describe a problem, identify what you believe is causing the problem, and then recommend a solution to correct the problem.

Comparison/Contrast

Another method for organizing main points is the comparison/contrast speech pattern. While this pattern clearly lends itself easily to two main points, you can also create a third point by giving basic information about what is being compared and what is being contrasted.

causal or cause-and-effect pattern

Another way of organizing a speech on a particular topic is to look at the subject in terms of cause and effect. For example, a speech about providing foreign aid to victims of a natural disaster in another country would discuss the disaster itself (the cause) and the impact the disaster had on the nation's people (the effect). In this particular example, a further effect would be found in discussing the details of how foreign aid can help the victims.

Identifying Logical Fallacies

Are there other possible options that the argument ignores? If so, this is an either/or fallacy. Is there sufficient evidence to prove that this conclusion is true? If not, this is a generalization. Is there a clear connection between the statements, or the premises and conclusion, in the argument? If not, this is a non sequitur.

pillars of persuasive speaking

Aristotle, the famed philosopher, uncovered the mysteries of being a really believable public speaker. He believed that there were three important things that need to work together to really get people to do what you want them to do. These are the pillars of persuasive speaking and include: Ethos Logos Pathos

Biographical

As you might guess, the biographical speech pattern is generally used when a speaker wants to describe a person's life—either a speaker's own life, the life of someone they know personally, or the life of a famous person. By the nature of this speech organizational pattern, these speeches tend to be informative or entertaining; they are usually not persuasive.

Why should you conduct audience analysis?

Audience analysis should be conducted so you can acknowledge your audience and their beliefs, knowledge, and attitudes.

rules and guidelines for ethical presentation

Avoid biases and stereotypes Believe in your own claims Show respect for the audience Be prepared

How can you be a more ethical speaker?

Being an ethical speaker is easy when you follow the five principles: trustworthiness, integrity, respect for others, dignity in conduct, and truthfulness in the message. It's also important to ensure you cite sources if you take information from a website, book, film, or any other form of media.

Bias

Bias refers to a predisposition or preconception of a topic that prevents impartiality. Although there is a certain logic to the view that every one of us is innately biased, as a credible speaker, you want to avoid just passing along someone's unfounded bias in your speech.

Bonnie, a Public Speaking student, needs to select a topic for a 5 minute speech. Her friend Mike says, "You like music. Why don't you give a speech about music?" "Great idea!" says Bonnie. "I'll give my speech on 'Music.'" How would you respond to this topic selection? Explain your suggestions for why this is an effective or ineffective topic selection.

Bonnie's decision to give a 5 minute speech about music is not specific enough for this assignment. In order to have an effective presentation, her speech should have a specified topic related to music, and she should also consider the purpose of her speech. For example, if her speech is informative, she might decide to present about the history of dub music from Jamaica, or she might give a presentation on how Miles Davis' music helped shape other new forms of jazz and rock music in the 1970s. If Bonnie's presentation is persuasive, she might decide to present about how listening to instrumental music during studying can help students focus, or how popular music should be considered literature and included in school curricula. The important information to convey to Bonnie is that her topic is too broad or general, and that she needs to consider her purpose first, and then once her purpose is decided, she should select a more specific focus for her topic related to music.

Categorical/Topical

By far the most common pattern for organizing a speech is by categories or topics. The categories function as a way to help the speaker organize the message in a consistent fashion. The goal of a categorical/topical speech pattern is to create categories (or chunks) of information that go together to help support your original specific purpose.

Causal reasoning

Causal reasoning argues to establish a relationship between a cause and an effect. When speakers attempt to argue for a particular course of action based on potential positive or negative consequences that may result, they are using causal reasoning.

Here are the main points for an informative speech: In 1827, the Cherokee tribe of Georgia declared themselves an independent state. From 1828 to 1834, the Georgia legislature passed laws that destroyed the Cherokee political structure. During the winter of 1838, the Cherokee were driven out of Georgia in a tragic march along a route that became known as the Trail of Tears. These main points are arranged in ____________ order. Spatial Chronological Topical Anecdotal

Chronological

What is a speaker's ultimate goal?

Control over the audience is a speaker's ultimate goal. The physical setting has much to do with the degree of control a speaker has. If the audience is facing the speaker, he can gain more attention.

Deductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning derives specifics from what is already known. It was the preferred form of reasoning used by ancient rhetoricians like Aristotle to make logical arguments

How do you measure audience engagement?

Ensuring that the speech is audience-centered means that the speaker needs to incorporate and understand the nuances of cues. Verbal and non-verbal cues are important in understanding if the audience is feeling engaged or not. If the audience is looking around or talking to one another in the middle of the speech, the speaker needs to understand how to refocus the attention and readjust their speech. The speaker can also go to the venue early and talk to audience members, asking about themselves and the reason they are attending.

how to be effective in delivering entertaining speeches

Entertaining speeches should include four key considerations: preparation, adaptation to the occasion, adaptation to the audience, and mindfulness of the time. As with all speeches, speakers need to prepare the speech. Second, speakers need to think about the specific occasion. Third, speakers need to adapt their speeches to the specific audience. Lastly, speakers need to think about how long they should speak.

Ethos

Ethos, in short, means having credibility. You see, the belief was that if a person were trustworthy, people would be more apt to follow. Keep in mind, there was no Internet back then. So having a steadfast reputation for being right was a very important thing. It meant that people respected the speaker. It even meant that the speaker was an authority.

How do you use examples in speaking?

Examples—positive, negative, non, and best—help the audience grasp a concept. Positive examples are used to clarify or clearly illustrate a principle, method, or phenomenon. Negative examples show how not to behave in a specific situation. Nonexamples are used to express what something is not. Best examples show the best way someone should behave in a situation.

What type of supporting material would you be using if you quoted Yale physicist Daniel Timbie on the compatibility of the big bang theory with religious philosophies? Expert testimony Scientific testimony Instrumental testimony Formal testimony

Expert testimony

What is expert testimony?

Expert testimony is an account given by someone who is a recognized expert on a given topic. Eyewitness testimony is an account given by an individual who has had firsthand experience with a specific phenomenon or idea. Explaining the context of the testimony is important so your audience can evaluate the likelihood that the testimony is accurate, current, and unbiased.

How does one identify fallacious reasoning?

Fallacious reasoning can be identified by asking specific questions about the argument. For example, errors in reasoning may be found by questioning whether the argument is ignoring other possible options, making overly broad statements, or failing to explain connections between ideas.

So how do we evaluate inductive reasoning?

First, the examples should be sufficient, meaning that enough are cited to support the conclusion. If not, you risk committing the hasty generalization fallacy. Second, the examples should be typical, meaning they weren't cherry-picked to match the point being argued. Show that the examples are a fair sample, meaning they are representative of the larger whole.

How does one find flawed logic?

Flawed logic can be identified by examining and questioning each element of an argument, including the premise and conclusion. To find errors in logic, look for problems in the connections between ideas, illogical conclusions, overly broad statements, and false choices.

Review of Fallacies

Hasty generalization. Inductive reasoning fallacy that occurs when too few examples are cited to warrant a conclusion. False analogy. Inductive reasoning fallacy that occurs when situations or circumstances being compared are not similar enough. False cause. Causal reasoning fallacy that occurs when a speaker argues with insufficient evidence that one thing caused/causes another. False authority. Fallacy that occurs when a person making an argument doesn't have the knowledge or qualifications to be credible but is perceived as credible because they are respected or admired. Bandwagon. Fallacy that relies on arguing for a course of action or belief because it is commonly done or held. False dilemma. Fallacy that occurs when a speaker presents an audience only two options and argues they must choose one or the other. Ad hominem. Fallacy that occurs when a speaker attacks another person rather than his or her argument. Slippery slope. Fallacy that occurs when a person argues that one action will inevitably lead to a series of other actions. Red herring. Fallacy that occurs when a speaker poses an argument that is meant to distract from the argument at hand. Appeal to tradition. Fallacy that results when a speaker argues that something should continue because "it's the way things have been done before."

In order to determine if the use of content falls under the fair use provision, there are four factors to consider:

How will this be used? What is to be used? How much will be used? What effect does this have?

logical or topical pattern

If you are giving a speech or presentation that contains several ideas that are interrelated in such a way that one flows naturally to the next, the logical pattern of organization can be used. As the name implies, you'll be organizing the information in a logical manner according to topic. This organizational pattern can also be used in a speech that discusses several sub-topics under the banner of a primary topic - just attack them all in a logical sequence.

spatial or geographical pattern

If you wish to evoke an image of something that has various parts, and those parts are distinguished by geography, then organize your speech using a spatial pattern. Spatial patterns are suited for speeches about a country or city, or even a building or organization, provided that the organization occupies a specific geographical location, such as a hospital or university.

How can you help an audience stay focused on the information in a speech?

In addition to major transitions between the main points of a speech, speakers can utilize internal previews, internal summaries, and signposts to help focus audience members on the information contained within a speech.

incremental plagiarism

Incremental plagiarism is a type of plagiarism that involves using quotes, passages, or excerpts from other works without properly citing the original source. It can be intentional or unintentional, and it can affect the quality and credibility of the writing. Incremental plagiarism can be avoided by using quotation marks, citations, and references when incorporating other works into one's own.

How to Avoid Incremental Plagiarism

Incremental plagiarism primarily uses new information within a speech but also uses quotes and other information without citing the sources. Avoiding plagiarism is easy. For direct quotes, put quotation marks around the borrowed information and ensure those quotes are said out loud in a public speech. When paraphrasing information, that information should be introduced within the speech. For example, introduce the poll, website, or source where data was directly used, and cite all of the sources on the works cited page. So long as a person is citing all of their sources and informing the audience of which information isn't theirs, they will avoid plagiarism.

Inductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning reaches conclusions through the citation of examples and is the most frequently used form of logical reasoning

Types of Reasoning

Inductive. Arguing from examples to support a conclusion; includes reasoning by analogy. Examples should be sufficient, typical, and representative to warrant a strong argument. Deductive. Deriving specifics from what is already known; includes syllogisms. Premises that lead to a conclusion must be true, relevant, and related for the argument to be valid. Causal. Argues to establish a relationship between a cause and an effect. Usually involves a correlation rather than a true causal relationship.

Why We Speak to Inform

Informative speaking is a means for the delivery of knowledge. In informative speaking, we avoid expressing opinion. This doesn't mean you may not speak about controversial topics. However, if you do so, you must deliver a fair statement of each side of the issue in debate.

In the 1st century AD, Quintilian created the five canons of rhetoric. They are:

Invention: compiling and creating the content of the speech Disposition: arranging and organizing the content in an effective and logical order Style: the wording (diction and syntax) of the presentation Memorization: having a deep knowledge of the presentation and its content to show expertise and authority Delivery: the way in which the content is presented

Identify the flaw in the following specific purpose statement: "To persuade my audience that Congress should ban smoking in public places and increase spending for education." It is too political. It expresses the speaker's opinion. It contains two unrelated ideas. It is too specific.

It contains two unrelated ideas.

What is ethnocentrism? Why do public speakers need to avoid ethnocentrism when addressing audiences with diverse cultural, racial, or ethnic backgrounds?

It is the notion that one's cultural values and traditions are superior to those of other people. Ethnocentrism, in its broadest sense, refers to ethnic arrogance and self-importance. This mindset could cause someone to think that their culture or way of life is the best way to live. It might also lead to prejudice against people from various cultures. Speakers in public should avoid ethnocentrism since it might encourage prejudice and hate toward everyone, and they should remember that everyone has unique ideas and practices. A public speaker should respect the customs of the people they are speaking to. A speaker should assume that the audience as whole shares their ideals and should embrace all groups' and civilizations' beliefs. A speaker should show sensitivity and respect for distinctions among individuals from various cultures and those who are different from the speaker. Public speakers must put aside their ethnocentric prejudices and interact with their listeners in an open, tolerant, sensitive, and polite way when speaking to a global audience. When a speaker avoids ethnocentrism, it is more likely that the audience will take an interest in what the speaker wants to convey.

Pathos

It means to evoke emotion from the audience. It may be love, sympathy or even hate. But it is meant to make the audience feel something in a profound way.

Dr. Linda Kurtz is preparing an informative talk about the genetic relationship between twins for a group of expectant parents. The most important factor Dr. Kurtz should consider when analyzing her audience is probably its ___________. Knowledge of the topic Disposition toward the speaker Cultural background Size

Knowledge of the topic

How are narratives used?

Narratives can be used in all three general purposes of speaking: informative, persuasive, and entertaining. Informative narratives provide information or explanations about a speaker's topic. Persuasive narratives are stories a speaker can use to get his or her audience to accept or reject a specific attitude, value, belief, or behavior. Entertaining narratives are stories that are designed purely to delight an audience. Speakers have an ethical obligation to let the audience know whether a narrative is true or hypothetical.

Accuracy

One of the quickest ways to lose credibility in the eyes of your audience is to use support that is inaccurate or even questionably accurate. Admittedly, determining the accuracy of support can be difficult if you are not an expert in a given area, but here are some questions to ask yourself to help assess a source's accuracy: Does the information within one piece of supporting evidence completely contradict other supporting evidence you've seen? If the support is using a statistic, does the supporting evidence explain where that statistic came from and how it was determined? Does the logic behind the support make sense?

patchwork plagiarism

Patchwork plagiarism is also called patchworking plagiarism, mosaic plagiarism, and quilted plagiarism. Patchwork plagiarism involves using multiple sources, rearranging phrases from them, and passing it off as your own work.

Psychographics

Psychographics can also be used. By learning about a group's beliefs, values and lifestyle, the speaker will have a better understanding of the kinds of things these people hold dear to them. Now that the speaker figured out the traits, characteristics and belief systems of his audience, there is one last thing to consider - the overall speaking environment.

Public speaking

Public speaking is the act of making a speech in public.

Reasoning by analogy

Reasoning by analogy is a type of inductive reasoning that argues that what is true in one set of circumstances will be true in another

Signposts

Signposts within a speech function the same way. A signpost is a guide a speaker gives her or his audience to help the audience keep up with the content of a speech.

What are the elements of audience-centered public speaking?

Some elements of audience-centered public speaking include participation from the audience, gaining insight into one's audience, and understanding the purpose of the speech. These elements help keep the audience engaged during the speech.

Arguing an Assertion of Value

Sometimes it all comes down to what is good and right. A speaker may want to influence his audience by asserting a value. This is using beliefs and values as a basis for an argument.

What Is an Audience Analysis?

Sometimes, a public speaker has to be like a detective because he has to uncover clues about his audience in order to put the puzzle pieces together and create a good speech. The puzzle pieces, in this case, are all part of an audience analysis, which is the process of determining through verbal and non-verbal cues whether the audience is actually interested in what you have to say.

What are the different organizational patterns for speeches?

Speakers can use a variety of different organizational patterns, including categorical/topical, comparison/contrast, spatial, chronological, biographical, causal, problem-cause-solution, and psychological. Ultimately, speakers must really think about which organizational pattern best suits a specific speech topic.

Why do speakers use facts and statistics?

Speakers often use facts and statistics to reinforce or demonstrate information. Unfortunately, many speakers and audience members do not have a strong mathematical background, so it is important to understand the statistics used and communicate this information to the audience.

How are definitions used in a speech?

Speakers use definitions—which may be lexical, persuasive, stipulative, or theoretical—to clarify their messages. Lexical definitions state how a word is used within a given language. Persuasive definitions are devised to express a word or term in a specific persuasive manner. Stipulative definitions are created when a word or term is coined. Theoretical definitions attempt to describe all parts related to a particular type of idea or object.

Why We Use Support

Speakers use support to help provide a foundation for their message. You can think of support as the legs on a table. Without the legs, the table becomes a slab of wood or glass lying on the ground; as such, it cannot fully serve the purpose of a table. In the same way, without support, a speech is nothing more than fluff. Audience members may ignore the speech's message, dismissing it as just so much hot air. In addition to being the foundation that a speech stands on, support also helps us clarify content, increase speaker credibility, and make the speech more vivid.

What should be assessed in an audience analysis?

Specifically, the public speaker should assess the demographics (age, gender, and income) and the psychographics (values and beliefs) of the audience. If a speaker is unfamiliar with the area that the speech is going to be given in, the speaker can reach out to the organizers and ask about the audience.

Statistics

Statistics is the mathematical subfield that gathers, analyzes, and makes inferences about collected data. Statistics are probably the most used—and misused—form of support in any type of speaking. People like numbers. People are impressed by numbers. However, most people do not know how to correctly interpret numbers.

Strategies to make information clear and interesting to an audience

Strategies to make information clear and interesting to an audience include adjusting the complexity of your information to the audience, avoiding jargon, creating concrete images, limiting information only to what is most relevant, linking information to what the audience already knows, and making information memorable through language or personalization.

How does a speaker keep the audience engaged?

Talk about things that the audience can identify with. Incorporate audience engagement into your speech and have additional engagement activities at the ready if needed. Use diversity in how information is presented, such as visuals, audio, and visual media. Recap the information at different intervals to clear up any befuddling statements. Visuals and demonstrations can help with this. Involve the audience in some way to keep their attention front and center. Tell a joke if you have to. Everyone likes to laugh. A good jest will surely perk up pooped-out spectators. After the speech, you may want to determine audience response, too. This can be done in a few ways. Ask the audience questions at the end of the speech. If they are asking, that means they were listening.

Aristotle's three types of knowledge:

Techne: the knowledge that is acquired through a person's experiences; somewhat unreliable as the experiences are subjective Episteme: universal knowledge that is acquired from education and exploration; commons truths throughout the world Intermediate knowledge: intuitive knowledge that sits in between one's personal experiences and the experiences of the collective (critical thought)

Technical Plagiarism

Technical plagiarism occurs when the writer is not trying to cheat or deceive but fails to follow accepted methods of using and revealing sources.

Causal

The causal speech pattern is used to explain cause-and-effect relationships. When you use a causal speech pattern, your speech will have two basic main points: cause and effect. In the first main point, typically you will talk about the causes of a phenomenon, and in the second main point you will then show how the causes lead to either a specific effect or a small set of effects.

What are the characteristics of an ethical speaker?

The characteristics of an ethical speaker are creating a sense of trust with the audience by acting and speaking with integrity. Ethical speakers also respect others by removing bias and prejudice from speeches and ensure all information in a speech is true and cited. The ethical speaker believes in the words they are saying and the message they are sending.

Chronological

The chronological speech pattern places the main idea in the time order in which items appear—whether backward or forward.

Logos

The facts must make sense to the audience. That's where logos comes into play. This is the logical argument. You might ask yourself, 'does the argument make any sense?' In other words, after acting on the speaker's information, will what he said will happen, actually happen?

problem-solution pattern

The problem-solution organizational pattern is similar to the cause-and-effect pattern, but is typically used when the speaker is trying to persuade the audience to take a particular viewpoint. In essence, the speaker introduces a problem, and then outlines how this problem can be solved. For example, a speech on leaving a smaller carbon footprint could begin by detailing the problems associated with climate change. These points could then be followed by information on how these problems have been or are being addressed, with a summation indicating a plan of action the audience can take.

rhetorical situation

The rhetorical situation is the set of circumstances surrounding your speech (e.g., speaker, audience, text, and context). When thinking about your specific purpose, you want to ensure that all these components go together. You want to make sure that you are the appropriate speaker for a topic, the topic is appropriate for your audience, the text of your speech is appropriate, and the speech is appropriate for the context. For example, speeches that you give in a classroom may not be appropriate in a religious context and vice versa.

Authority

The second way to use support in building your credibility is to cite authoritative sources—those who are experts on the topic.

Spatial

The spatial speech pattern organizes information according to how things fit together in physical space. This pattern is best used when your main points are oriented to different locations that can exist independently. The basic reason to choose this format is to show that the main points have clear locations.

What is support in a speech?

The strategies a public speaker can use to provide corroborating evidence for the speech's central idea and specific purpose are called support.

Non Sequitur

The term non sequitur is Latin and translates to "it does not follow." It was adopted into the English language in the 1500s to describe a situation in which a conclusion does not logically follow a conclusion. Since then, it has evolved to encompass a broader range of statements. In modern usage, a non sequitur is any situation in which a response to another person's statement seems completely irrelevant or unrelated to the original topic.

Currency

The third consideration in using support to build your credibility is how current the information is. Some ideas stay fairly consistent over time, like the date of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor or the mathematical formula for finding the area of a circle, but other ideas change wildly in a short period of time, including ideas about technology, health treatments, and laws.

What is one type of negative nonverbal feedback you may get from an audience? Explain with specific details and or examples how you would deal with this negative nonverbal feedback in your presentation.

There are several non-verbal cues the audience may send: Lack of eye contact Confused or sour facial expressions Fidgety actions Absence of physical agreement, like nodding No response to questions or statements Being distracted by other things, such as cell phones Take moments to engage your audience with opportunities to respond, either electronically with devices, raising cards, hands, or anything that allows participation with choice or guessing to occur. Engage them with a story that is entertaining and has a surprise that connects to where you are going next. Ask audience members to get up and move by conducting a relevant exercise, such as mingle and stop (move, stop, ask each other a question or share an answer). It is important to be aware of an audience's response to a speech. One of the ways that speakers can gauge their audience's attentiveness is to look for nonverbal cues or feedback. Sometimes the nonverbal feedback can be negative. For example, sometimes audience members might tilt their heads to the side or slouch in their seats, indicating boredom. Another sign of negative audience engagement is when audience members avert their gaze from the speaker; this usually means that either the speaker is disinterested, or is unconvinced of the speech's thesis. Other nonverbal feedback from an audience might include if members are looking around, playing with other things like phones or laptops, or are talking to one another during the speech or presentation. Body position can also indicate if an audience is interested in the topic. For example, if an audience begins to shift their body positions towards the side or away from the speaker, this can indicate disinterest and disengagement. One way to make sure that you are receiving the feedback from your audience is to maintain eye contact throughout your speech or presentation. This can not only make you aware of your audience's response, but also engage them. Another way to help engage your audience involves the planning stage of your presentation. You can learn more about your audience's interests and experiences, and work to incorporate these into the audience. Having interests and experiences that are relevant to your audience will make them mor

Why use support in a speech?

There are three primary reasons to use support: to clarify content, to increase speaker credibility, and to make the speech more vivid.

Situation

This is the situation and involves the number of attendees, the venue, the stage or speaking setup and any other physical attributes that may affect the speech. The occasion is important as well. A ceremonial speech, like a toast on a special occasion, will take on a jovial tenor. On the other hand, if the speech makes you the bringer of bad news, it will require a more serious quality.

Arguing an Assertion of Fact

This means the speaker is using facts as evidence for his argument. For this, the speaker is partial towards his own point. Facts can be: Statistics Charts Graphs Images Expert testimony Compelling evidence is hard to refute. There are times when the speaker wants to sway the audience in his direction based on something more esoteric.

Which organizational pattern should Sally use for her informative speech explaining how to make a piñata? Time Order Topic Order Logical Reasons Order Causal Reasoning Order

Time order

Demographics

To better understand the audience, demographics, which are common traits the audience possesses, like age, income, education or even stage in a life cycle, can be used. For example, when speaking to a group of people who care about a cleaner planet, the speaker can use demographics to determine if there is a specific age group who find this important.

What is Fallacious Reasoning?

To define a fallacy, first note that when someone is making an argument, it is important for that argument to be based on logic. When the logic of an argument is flawed, it is referred to as fallacious reasoning. Specific types of errors that can occur in logic are referred to as logical fallacies. Although fallacious reasoning may initially seem sound, examining it more closely reveals that there is a problem with either an underlying premise or a conclusion that has been reached. When an argument is logical, the premise, or underlying idea, leads naturally to the conclusion, or result, of that premise. Although an argument based on a logical fallacy may be convincing, it might mislead or confuse the reader and can undermine the writer's credibility. There are many types of logical fallacies but three of the most common are either/or, generalization, and non sequitur.

State your specific purpose in a sentence that includes the general purpose, a description of the intended audience, and a prepositional phrase summarizing the topic. My Specific Purpose Is...

To inform --> my audience --> about the usefulness of scrapbooking to save a family's memories To persuade --> a group of kindergarten teachers --> to adopt a new disciplinary method for their classrooms To entertain --> a group of executives -->by describing the lighter side of life in "cubicle-ville." To inform --> community members --> about the newly proposed swimming pool plans that have been adopted To persuade --> my peers in class --> to vote for me for class president To entertain --> the guests attending my mother's birthday party --> by telling a humorous story followed by a toast.

What are the benefits of an audience-centered speech?

To the audience at a public speaking event, they might be attending to learn some new information, gain insight into a cause, or want to see what the speaker has to say regarding an issue. The audience-centered approach is likely to benefit the speaker, as it allows the audience to retain information and makes them more inclined to participate in the call to action of the speaker. The audience members are more likely to learn new information and gain insight into a new perspective when an audience-centered approach to public speaking is used.

Why are transitions important within a speech?

Transitions are very important because they help an audience stay on top of the information that is being presented to them. Without transitions, audiences are often left lost and the ultimate goal of the speech is not accomplished.

Generalization

Unfortunately, generalizations are commonly used and often accepted within arguments, but they are nevertheless problematic. A generalization occurs when a conclusion is based on insufficient evidence. In research, this can occur if a study uses a sample size that is too small. In day-to-day life, people frequently resort to generalizations, assuming that what is true of one particular member of a group must be true of the entire group. While the origin of the argument may be based on a grain of truth, when it is unfairly applied based on limited evidence, it becomes an overly broad generalization. Someone could easily refute or disprove it by illuminating the lacking evidence and other possible conclusions.

Vividness

Vividness refers to a speaker's ability to present information in a striking, exciting manner. The goal of vividness is to make your speech more memorable.

chronological or time-sequence pattern

When information in a speech follows a chronological sequence, then the information should likewise be organized chronologically. For example, a speech on the development of a new technology should begin with its origin, then continue along the same time-line as events occurred. This organizational pattern is typically used in any speech addressing a subject from an historical perspective.

Why is it important to be an ethical speaker?

When public speaking, it is important to ensure the rules of ethics are followed because misinformation, lies, and manipulations can deeply impact society. Lies can undermine the truth, causing issues of mistrust, and hateful words or thoughts can lead to violence and civil unrest.

Internal Summaries

Whereas an internal preview helps an audience know what you are going to talk about within a main point at the beginning, an internal summary is delivered to remind an audience of what they just heard within the speech. In general, internal summaries are best used when the information within a specific main point of a speech was complicated.

Why is Ethics Important in Public Speaking?

While words cannot physically harm a person, things like hate speech, lies, misinformation, and projected anger can cause severe emotional damage. Words can also cause various forms of lasting consequences within society. From accusations about a person's character to denouncing a group of people, the consequences can be deadly when it comes to unethical public speaking. Therefore, it's important to consider ways to use language ethically in presentations or when speaking to large groups.

Ways to Perform Research

You can use existing research, or research performed by others, like a conference center brochure that shows the room dimensions and typical seating set-ups. You can also ask the host questions to better understand the purpose of the speech. You can use experts, who have done a similar speech, to get advice and help to avoid common pitfalls. A survey, or an instrument that asks questions, will provide constructive criticism that you can use in future speeches. Observation of the audience for things like eye contact, an audience that is leaned in and subtle signs of agreement will show whether the audience is interested.

How can you use your audience analysis?

You can use your audience analysis to provide you further information about what types of content would be appropriate and meaningful for your specific audience. You can use your audience analysis to help you make adjustments to your speech in terms of both how you present the speech within a given environment and also how you adapt your content and delivery based on audience feedback during the speech.

Arguing an Assertion of Policy

an assertion of policy is closely related to what we witness politicians do during election time. They use a problem and then solution, like laws, rules or regulations, to move the audience to act.

During her speech on how to brush your dog's teeth, Rosa shared her _____ by explaining her experiences as a veterinary technician that qualifies her to speak with authority on the subject. statistics knowledge primary research credentials

credentials

The tendency of people to be concerned above all with their own values, beliefs, and well-being is called _____________. egocentrism audience-centeredness individualism pragmatism

egocentrism

Because speechmaking is a form of power, it carries with it heavy ____________ responsibilities. ethical psychological sociological pedagogical

ethical

Even if your speech as a whole is ethical, you can still be guilty of ____________ if you fail to give credit for quotations, paraphrases, and other specific parts of the speech that are borrowed from other people. accidental plagiarism incremental plagiarism technical plagiarism patchwork plagiarism

incremental plagiarism

Speaking extemporaneously (from notes) should include all of the following EXCEPT __________. hard-to-remember statistics delivery cues to trigger memory information from presentation aids long quotations

information from presentation aids

expertise

knowledge in or about a particular field someone needs to have considerable knowledge on a topic or considerable skill in accomplishing something.

What Are the Five Organizational Patterns for Public Speaking?

logical or topical pattern chronological or time-sequence pattern spatial or geographical pattern causal or cause-and-effect pattern problem-solution pattern

Examples of Unethical Speeches

use information that is hyperbolic to capture the audience's attention make promises that they know they cannot or will not fulfill outright lie to capture the audience's attention or match the group's belief system ostracize another community or group of people in a stereotypical, racist, sexist, or biased way take information from wherever they can find it copying a speech or parts of a speech from someone else without citing sources Calling an idea their own and not vetting their information