Comm 307 study guide

Operational levels

-operational def occurs at different levels of measurement -levels of measurement are hierarchal and progressive -each level builds on the next in terms of what info it provides

research is designed to address real world problems. The focus is geared towards a specific issue.

applied

Operational definition

goal: translating verbal definition into a set of observable operations -think abstract -> concrete

basic v applied research

basic: designed to test/refine theory applied: to solve a practical "real world" problem (ideally the two are intertwined)

6 distinguishing features of science

creative, systemic, self-reflective, replicable, self-correcting, and cyclical

Hypothesis

expected relationship 2 or more variables independent variable IV : cause (also explanatory/predict) it's a value that doesn't depend on any other variable dependent variable DV : (criterion/outcome) it's value depends on the cause

In COMM 307, we rely on everyday ways of knowing- like intuition- to make claims.

false

conceptual fit

how closely your operational definition matches your conceptual definition

Conceptual definition

"dictionary definitions" -describe that a construct/concept means by relating it to other constructs -meaningfully verbalize the abstract ex: love

All things being equal, which type of research setting facilitates experimental researchers exercising the highest level of control?

laboratory experiments

scales

measures used to quantify variables -scaling is the process of assigning scores to measure a construct and thus making it a variable types of scales: 1.graphic: bipolar descriptions along a line or other visual 2.itemized: select one of several specific categories/ numbers (multiple item: more than one question, response options -> # of choices provided, typically odd # so we have a midpoint (t/f exams, my exams) -Likert: statement provided, respondents report agreement -Semantic differential: subject/topic provided, polarized adjectives (ex: 4 items 7 response options honest dishonest) 3.comparative: compare object to some external standard -not mutually exclusive, can overlap

assumptions of science: objects are....

observable orderly and explainable

A 400 m race time would be considered an example of which level of measurement?

ratio

ways to measure

self-report sources of data -other's report -behavioral sources of data (observable) -physiological sources of data

variable definition

something that can take different values and can be observed and measured (tangible)

The relationship or bridge between a conceptual and operational definition is:

the degree of conceptual fit

Scientific perspective

things differ -differences (variability) sparks questions -research process allows for scientific examination of phenomenon -science defined: the systematic investigation of variability (describe, explain (predict), control)

resources

what as a researcher do i need to do this study what is available: time, $, sample, expertise

factors in determining method

-question (primary) -sample -resources question first method second

degree of difficulty

-constructs differ in degree of complexity -variance in terms of how multi-faceted construct can be -multiple indicators required= even long list of characteristics may not fully capture construct

content validity and ecological validity

-content validity: evidence that the assessment corresponds to the dimensions of the construct it was designed to cover -ecological validity: evidence that the results of a study can be applied/ allow inferences to real world conditions

Explication

-fancy word for description -the process of telling people what you are talking about -the abstract and concrete world of science -scientists operate at two levels; think in concepts but often test their thoughts in a world of numbers -importance of explication: definitions focus everyone's attention upon the same thing for the purpose of common understanding

Theory and Hypothesis

-general relationships among constructs (theory) something you create when you have a lot of info on the topic -specific predicted relationship among variables (hypothesis) educated guess/ prediction you make when you have little info

operational and conceptual connection

-relationship between what is being measured and the numbers that represent what is being measured

Explain

-theory generation -theory definition: a hypothesized general principle or set of principles that explain known findings about a topic -from theory we develop hypothesis -think broad to specific

5 step process

1. conceptualization= forming an idea about what needs to be an area of interest (worth studying) -identify "problem" -review existing data base -phrasing topic as research question -theory + hypothesis generation -identify variables and relationships *Located in intro + lit review 2. Planning and design research (Located NOT in manuscript) -translate concepts into observable indicators -need systemic plan -transform abstract concepts into operational terms -each ? has a preferred method 3. methodologies for conducting research -employ strategy to collect data -like a recipe (how it's conducted) -data collection to test predictions -describe operational def, levels of measurement, scale development (validity= accuracy) (reliability= consistency) (Located/ found in methods section) 4.Analyzing + interpreting data -making sense of data -identify correct test statistic, graph data, assess fit of model (significance testing) -"make sense of data" * Found in results section 5. Reconceptualization -formally connect data with previous studies on a specific topic (support or revise?) -discuss how findings relate to existing research occurs -set the stage for future research -situate with existing research -data support to doesn't revise theory accordingly -repeat process, continue to build *Found in discussion section in manuscript

sampling

1.define the population (who you are interested in) 2.specify the sampling elements (clarify the things you want to study) 3.secure an adequate sampling frame (make sure the frame represents the population) 4.select the sampling method 5.consider sample size Common sampling method: 1. random: each subject in population has equal opportunity to the joking (ideal) 2.convenience: access to a group 3.volunteer: reward for those who sign up, or group that is motivated 4.snowball technique: use respondents to indicate others to participate that fit criteria

The ____________ stage of research involves identifying a topic/issue worth studying.

Conceptualization

The systematic approach to ruling out of alternative causes is referred to as:

Control

The Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (or the PRCA) instrument or scale is best described as:

An operational definition of Communication Apprehension

Christy loves the 49ers. She just moved to Long Beach and is interested in finding the hydration station that is supportive of her team. One way to assess attitudes toward a particular sports team would be a content analysis of sports apparel worn. Christy goes to a hydration station of interest and tallies the number of 49er jerseys. What best describes the type of data collection is Christy conducting?

Behavioral

Levels of measurement

Categorical 1. Nominal: labels for classification (binary: only 2 nominal labels/ categories (ex: yes or no) least amount of info 2. Ordinal: same as nominal but categories have logical order/ progression (ex: ranking system) continuous (entities get a distinct score) 3. Interval: equal intervals between points on a scale 4. Ratio: same as interval but scale contains the zero that captures the absence of attribute (highest level of measurement)

___________ definitions are how researchers define constructs whereas ________ definitions are how they observe and measure what was defined.

Conceptual/operational

If a researcher defines the communication variable "argument quality" as "the degree to which a message's arguments are logically related and robust", which one of the following processes has the researcher engaged in here?

Conceptualization

A research team is attempting to ascertain what influence, if any, listening to Keeping up with the Kardashians has on intelligence in college students. "Intelligence" is best defined here as a/an:

Dependent variable

Describe, Explain, Control

Describe -explicate phenomenon under consideration -must describe before predict -research questions -formal questions posed to guide research (who what when where?) -pose questions to categorize construct -construct- label for something abstract that is not directly perceivable -more vague, and exploratory in nature -begin to transform construct to variables

In scholarly journals, we should expect the reconceptualization stage where author's offer recommendation for additional evaluation to be explained in the:

Discussion

Science operates at two levels: the abstract and concrete. Researchers think conceptually (abstract) and test their thoughts in a world of numbers. In an effort to translate ideas, researcher must first clearly define what it is they are interested in investigating. This process is called:

Explication

The process of focusing everybody's attention upon the same thing for the purpose of common understanding is referred to as:

Explication

True or False: Levels of measurement refer to the process of assigning scores to measure a construct.

False

True or False: More than research question or hypotheses, resources available drive methodology used.

False

Validity is the degree to which a scale produces stable, consistent measurements.

False

method #4: naturalistic inquiry

How people behave (communicate) when they are absorbed in genuine life experiences in natural settings • Observer Role: o Range from observer to participant Ethnography • Use of direct observation and extended field research to produce rich description of people/culture/behavior/communication strengths: heightened ecological validity (genuine) -in depth information (richer understanding) limitations: more challenging for control -challenging to control outside influences -researcher bias (accuracy limited) -time consuming

From generalized theory, researchers derive _________ or specific predicted relationships among variables.

Hypotheses

Which of the following is an advantage of face-to-face interviews?

Increased opportunity for follow-up probes

In the above example, "listening to Keeping up with the Kardashians" is best defined here as a/an:

Independent variable

Please identify the correct level of measurement for the following variable: "Communication Apprehension": measured using 12, 5-point Likert-type scale items.

Interval

Research proceeds in a step-by-step process. This 5-step process is which characteristic of science?

It is systematic

We cannot measure the presence of God from a social scientific perspective as it violates which of the following assumptions:

Its objects are orderly Its objects are observable Its objects are measurable *All of the above

method #5: textual analysis

Messages already exist o Method aimed to describe/interpret characteristics of message • Rhetorical Criticism (COMM 301) • Content Analysis Content Analysis o Identify, enumerate, and analyze occurrences of specific messages and message characteristics embedded in texts • Primary method in Mass Communication research Content Analysis: Steps 1. Unitizing: • Indicate unit of measurement • Break-down message into meaningful segments o 1 unit- page, sentence, thought or topic • Thematic unit- topic contained in message 2. Codebook • Construct category system 3. Coders: • 2 independently trained researchers (minimum) classify units into established category system • Reliability analysis 4. Draw conclusions Look at frequencies in each category Content: Data Analysis o Coding units into nominal categories yields qualitative data o The counting of the units in each category yields quantitative data • Types of categories inform what is being communicated; # in each inform how often these messages are conveyed strengths: quantitative and qualitative approach -few resources required -only method for messages that already exist limitations: really biased (reliance on interpretation) -intercoder reliability can be a challenge

In a quantitative research article, we should expect the operationalizations of the variables studied to appear in the _______ section. This is also called the ________ stage of the research.

Methods

method 2:survey research

Most prevalent method published in communication research • Used to describe communication characteristics of a population and to assess relationships between communication and other behaviors o Great for large samples Correlation not Causation o Instead of manipulating IV → DV, measure all variables at same time and then assess existing relationships • Violates rule for cause and effect o Instead, variables mutually influence o Thus, correlation (association) vs. causation Survey vs. Experimental Design o Strength: • Can assess greater # of variables o Larger population • Ease • Resources required Survey Creation • Overconfidence? o Really easy to create bad surveys (items) • Items with poor conceptual fit • Skill • Clarity on objective Survey Design Considerations • What is the objective? o Explicate goals o Question Selection o Question Phrasing • Question Format o Open-ended, closed o Itemized (e.g., Likert, Semantic), comparative, graphic Best Practices • Straight-forward • Readability, Flesch-Kincaid • Avoid double-barreled questions • "I am uncomfortable giving a public speech, having an interpersonal conversation, or interacting in small groups." • Why problematic? • Think 1:1 ratio for questions to issues • No loaded or leading questions "Don't you think that..." • Avoid using emotionally charged, inflammatory terms • Regime/government; Elitist/expert; Pro-life/pro-death • Avoid double negatives • "One should never not..." "She is never going nowhere" "You shouldn't do nothing to the house." Audience Analysis o Keep sample/population in mind to ensure that content is targeted effectively o Demographics o Disposition (attitudes, expectations, motivation) o Knowledge o Literacy strengths:-assesses greater number of variables -larger population -ease -resources required limitations:less control -causation affords greater info

Please identify the correct level of measurement for the following variable: What countries have you visited outside the United States?

Nominal

There are three levels/aims of science. At the ______ level, researchers take descriptions and explications and begin generating theories to explain why things occur the way they do.

Predict

method 1: experiments

Purpose: to discover causal relationships between variables • Assess causal effects of IV on DV through systematic investigation in tightly controlled conditions o To assess causality: exposure to IV, the effects of the IV on DV are observed Requirements for "True Experiment" 1. Random assignment (randomization) • to create equivalent groups 2. Manipulation of the independent variable Requirements for Causality (3) • To assess causality 1. IV must precede DV in time 2. IV and DV must covary (in meaningful way) Covary- to change together Justification for why change in one variable would cause change in other Spurious (statistical, but meaningless occurrence) • Professors and bars 3. Observed change in DV is caused by IV, and nothing else Control o Control lets us study the effect of an Independent Variable on a Dependent Variable Focus on Independent Variable that can be manipulated Create different levels or conditions of the independent variable Control o Systematic approach of ruling out alternate causes (other variables) • Exist on continuum • Loosely Controlled Design—-Tightly Controlled Design Natural Experiment • Also known as Field Experiment • Effects of IV on DV can be observed in naturalistic environment o Overcomes limitation of ecological validity o Cannot eliminate extraneous variables, thus limits "control" o Examples: o Self-fulfilling prophecy, teacher expectations Experiment Recap • Only method that affords causality • Greatest ability to "control" or rule out alternative causes o Experiments are limited in ecological validity • Trade-off= o With naturalistic experiments gain ecological validity, but limits "control" strengths: -only method that affords causality -greatest ability to control and rule out alternative causes limitations:limited in ecological validity (findings in lab environment might be different) -assess less variables (2)

Testing blood pressure from a group of individuals on multiple occasions to see if the results were sufficiently similar is getting at the measures:

Reliability

Having findings accessible to other researchers affords the potential for duplication. Which important feature of science does this process aid?

Replication

A scale that presents a topic and then requests participants to indicate their reaction along a continuum anchored by bipolar adjectives is an example of a:

Semantic differential scale

Semantic differential scales are best described as:

Single response, itemized, and interval level data

measurement error

The discrepancy between the actual value we're trying to measure, and the number we use to represent that value.

Three purposes of science include:

To describe, predict, control

True or False: A strong conceptual fit is an indicator of validity.

True

True or False: Likert scales prompt respondents to indicate their agreement with a statement with response options often ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree.

True

method #3: in depth interview

Unstructured format (loosely structured) o Open-ended questions • Allows for follow-up/probes • Exploratory • Focus on "key informants" • Individuals that exemplify population investigating, highly networked, role-players strengths: open ended questions afford flexibility with information -ability for interviewee to ask questions or ask for clarification limitations:time consuming -small sample -face threat with face to face (masking/ over or under representation)

All of the following are appropriate for naturalistic communication research except studying:

a. listening patterns of young teens and focusing on the influence of Miley Cyrus lyrics b. gossip among reporters covering an imminent press conference c. conversations between two close friends about to become lovers d. all of the above are appropriate***

construct

abstract ex: height by lbs