CRIM 306 (ch 1-7)

Psychological egoism

presumes that we are, by nature, purely self interested, and therefore, to pursue our self interest is good.

Stopping a driver for a minor violation when the real purpose is to investigate suspected criminal activity is known as ________

pretext stop

Which term refers to the practice of police officers to use some minor traffic offense to stop the individual and in the course of the traffic stop, look for other evidence of wrongdoing?

pretext stop

Which concept holds that individuals forfeit their rights and well-being to the extent they take it away from others?

principle of forfeiture

Which type of investigation takes place when the police initiate investigations rather than simply respond to crimes?

proactive

Police who initiate an investigation rather than respond to a crime are engaging in __________

proactive investigations

Which type of measure requires that subject to actually reason through an ethical dilemma and provide some rationale.

production

Which element is most crucial to avoid errors in judgement

protocol

Which mechanism is not one of Carter's recommendations to control drug corruption

public oversight

Paper and pencil tests that measure an individual's ability to identify and/or agree with moral terms are referred to as __________ tests

recognition

Influencing one's behavior by responding with rewards is known as

reinforcement

The ethics of care depends largely _________

relationships and needs

Community members, rather than justice officials, decide what should happen after a crime has been committed using a __________

reparative board

Victim-offender mediation is an example of ________

restorative justice

The term restorative justice describes a number of programs that seek to move compensation, rather than _________, back to center stage in the justice system.

retribution

Lex Talionis describes which understanding of justice

retributive

The concept of reinforcement holds that moral behaviors are formed through ________ that can be either subjective or material.

rewards

Police officers have become more reluctant to lie for a fellow officer because of ___________

risk of civil litigation

Which term refers to the idea that organizational misconduct occurs because the wrong individuals were hired?

rotten apple argument

Which early warning system would be least effective in identifying officers who are prone to use excessive force?

sick days used per month

Which system acknowledges universal truths but also recognizes that different experiences call for different responses?

situational ethics

Towards a resolution: situational ethics

situational ethics provides a middle ground between absolutism and relativism with moral pluralism, in which a few absolute rules support different decisions under different circumstances. Interestingly, situational ethics appears to be consistent with the ethics of care.

Which term describes the idea that taking gratuities can lead to more serious deviance

slippery slope

Duty can be defined as the responsibilities attached to __________

specific role

Van Maanen's classic research discusses how police operate with ________ of the people with whom they come into contact.

stereotypes

The concept of just deserts or how one determines a fair punishment for a particular offense, is known as ____________

substantive justice

Regardless of formal ethical codes, police are influenced by the standards of behavior they observe in their_______

superiors

The officers involved in failing to help one of Jeffrey Dahmer's victims were

suspended, but then reinstated with back pay

Harris defines ethical systems as a _____

systematic ordering of moral principles

Kohlberg's primary research emphasized that moral development _________

takes place in stages

Conductive energy devices are more commonly known as ______

tasers

Explain the controversy between relativism and absolutism (or universalism).

Absolutist ethics allow no exceptions to moral rules for exceptional circumstances. Relativism seems to allow individuals to define anything as morally acceptable, even acts that would be considered wrong under universal moral rules. The compromise is situational ethics, which propose a very few absolute rules that will support different decisions in different circumstances.

Ethical Leadership

According to Sam Souryal and others, leaders should create an environment of dignity and respect; set realistic goals; increase ethical awareness through training and a formal written code; avoid deception; allow for openness and transparency; foster a sense of shared values; model honesty and fairness; expose corrupt behavior; and reward ethical behavior.

supererogatories

Actions that are commendable but not required in order for a person to be considered moral.

Under corrective justice, distinguish between substantive and procedural justice, including how procedural justice impacts wrongful convictions and perceptions of racial discrimination.

Substantive justice concerns the inherent fairness of a law or punishment. Substantive justice can be supported by either retribution or utilitarian rationales. Procedural justice is concerned with legal administration or the steps taken before punishment is administered. For instance, a substantive justice question would be "Is capital punishment just?" while a procedural justice question would be "What due process should apply before a decision of capital punishment is just?" Procedural justice research shows that when people are treated in conformance to justice concepts (voice, neutrality, equity, dignity), they feel the entire justice system is more legitimate. When procedural justice is not followed, wrongful convictions are more likely to occur and groups of citizens (especially minorities) feel that justice professionals treat them unfairly.

An act that goes above and beyond one's duty is known as__________.

Superogatory

civil disobedience

Voluntarily breaking established laws based on one's moral beliefs.

Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is a teleological ethical system, in which the consequences of an act determine its morality, what results in the greatest good for the greatest number is a good. In act utilitarianism, only the basic utility derived from one action is examined, whereas in rule utilitarianism, one looks at the precedent and long term utility of the rule set by that action.

Values

Values are elements of desirability, worth, or importance. They become clear when a choice must be made that influences behavior.

Which theory promotes freedom from government interference in social and economic spheres

libertarianism

Which characteristic is least associated with the frontal lobe damage?

loss of memory

the concept of _________ refers to a preference for one group over another

loyalty

Distributive justice is least concerned with ___________

mandatory sentencing

Which theory places needs above entitlement?

marxism

In order to study the relationship between beliefs and behavior, moral beliefs must be ________.

measured

Officers who participate in more deviant behavior such as a "shakedown" are engaging in __________

meat eating

Which characteristic is not part of Braswell and gold's peacemaking process.

merit

Which concept suggests that humans learn moral behavior from those with whom a person identifies

modeling

Which concept suggests that values and moral beliefs come from those whom one admires and aspired to identify with?

modeling

Which idea claims that there is an inherent universal set of rights and wrongs in the world?

natural law

To get the job done, tolerated lies considered ________

necessary evils

A major conflict in distributive justice is between _________

need and merit

Which term describes the utilitarian value of approving of illegal means to convict criminals?

noble cause corruption

The _______ paradigm claims that humans are naturally peaceful and altruistic, and that _______ is responsible for the evil in the world.

noble savage; civilization

The use unethical behavior to achieve a justifiable end is known as ______

noble-cause corruption

Some ethical theorists argue that all values are ______.

not equal, and that some values are more important than others.

impartiality

not favoring one party or interest more than another.

Discretion grants police officers the ability ___________ if the officer feels there are extenuating circumstances.

not to enforce the law

Enlightened egoism

notes that each persons objective is long term welfare and it may be in ones own interest to help others in the short term.

Which factor is least associated with the biology of moral development

nutritional patterns

Which psychological trait is least associated with police officers who are prone to the excessive use of force?

openness to learning

Black police officers are just as likely as white police officers to stop black motorists in disproportionate numbers. According to research, this is most likely sure to ________

organizational influences

Trautman's "Corruption Continuum" explains how ________

organizations can become corrupt

Normative ethics focuses on what people _______.

ought to do

Which factor is most associated with the extreme nature of the police subculture?

participating in a closed social system

The concept of the noble savage claims that humans are naturally _________

peaceful

The IACP code of ethics includes which theme

personal conduct

A _________ arises when an individual is forced to choose between two or more behaviors.

personal ethical dilemma

Development theories focus on _________ maturation

physical, cognitive, and emotional

When police are viewed as crime control agents, then people tend to presume that ______

police are an army that fights criminals

which statement is the least used argument for the acceptance of gratuities?

police officers are pressured to accept "freebies"

Policing that focuses on sophisticated data gathering and geographic analysis is called __________

predictive policing

Sapp's inventory of sexual misconduct includes __________

violent pornography

Which principle is not part of Krogstand and Robertson's principles of ethical decision making

virtue principle

Thoreau's concept of civil disobedience has influenced many anti-war demonstrators, based on the idea that_________ disobedience of established laws based on a persons beliefs serves a higher moral purpose.

voluntary

The Josephson Institute identifies all of the following as ethical principles growing public servants except_______

volunteer work

Jeremy Bentham's term "hedonistic calculus" focuses on __________.

weighing the benefits of a crime against the potential punishment

An imperfect duty is something that an individual should uphold, but it lacks a specific application as to ________ the duty should be preformed.

when and how

Those who bring organization ethical problems out in the open are known as _______

whistleblowers

Which aspect of work is least likely to be an ethical concern for police officers

working too much overtime

Community reparative boards are more commonly used with _____________ offenders

youthful

Which crime control approach instructs police to take an aggressive stance against minor criminals?

zero-tolerance policy

integrity testing

"Sting" operations to test whether or not police officers will make honest choices.

Opponents of racial profiling point to which case to show that profiling is not guaranteed to identify terrorists?

"jihad jane"

"Testilying" is one example of

"noble cause corruption"

Previous research on the extent of on duty drug use found that up to ___________% of officers in one city used marijuana and other drugs while on duty.

20

Biological Factors

3 key areas in which biological factors influence moral development include genetics, sex differences, and frontal lobe functioning. Genetics influence personality traits, sex differences may influence the brains ability to absorb or act on "moral messages" and the brain's frontal lobes appear to be linked to empathy, shame, and moral reasoning. With ongoing research in brain chemistry and the mapping of the human genome, our understanding of how biological processes affect human thought and behavior continues to develop.

Formal Ethics

A code of ethics can engender self respect, pride, and mutual respect among individual officers, and may develop an esprit de corps and common goals. Police officers generally pledge an oath upon graduation from an academy and many police agencies adopt a code of ethics.

Define deontological and teleological ethical systems and explain ethical formalism and utilitarianism.

A deontological ethical system is one that is concerned solely with the inherent nature of the act being judged. If an act or intent is inherently good (coming from a good will), it is still considered a good act even if it results in bad consequences. A teleological ethical system judges the consequences of an act. The saying "the end justifies the means" is a teleological statement. Kant's ethical formalism defines good as that which conforms to the categorical imperative, which includes the universalism principles, the idea that we shouldn't use people, and the stricture that we must do our duty through a free will in order to be considered moral. Utilitarianism, associated with Jeremy Bentham, defines good as that which contributes to the greatest utility for the greatest number.

lex salica

A form of justice that allows compensation; the harm can be repaired by payment or atonement.

community policing

A model of law enforcement that creates partnerships with the community and addresses underlying problems rather than simply enforcing the law.

Public Servant

A perception of police officers as public servants implies a much more restrictive view of the acceptable use of force and police power. The utilitarian ("the end justifies the means") approach is rejected in favor of one with due process and equal protection. The zero-tolerance policy implemented when William Bratton was police chief of New York City in the 1990's took the crime control approach is an example of a utilitarian approach that may not be consistent with a public servant model.

internal affairs model

A review procedure in which police investigators receive and investigate complaints and resolve the investigations internally.

ethical system

A structured set of principles that defines what is moral.

lex talionis

A vengeance-oriented justice concerned with equal retaliation ("an eye for an eye; a tooth for a tooth").

Which type of imperative commands action that is necessary without any reference to intended purposes or consequences?

categorical

History of Policing

Although the professional crime fighter role of the police officer has been well established for more than 70 years, the role of police as that of public servant was resurrected in the community policing movement, in which officers develop closer relationships with community leaders to help them to solve social problems associated with the development of disorder and crime. Observers note that the events of 9/11 led to a return of more traditional crime fighting elements.

Which organization has documented widespread mistreatment of women by police across the world?

Amnesty International

peacemaking justice

An ancient approach to justice that includes the concepts of compassion and care, connectedness, and mindfulness.

restorative justice

An approach to corrective justice that focuses on meeting the needs of all concerned.

teleological ethical system

An ethical system that is concerned with the consequences or ends of an action to determine goodness.

Innocence Project

An organization (www.innocenceproject.org) staffed by lawyers and law students who reexamine cases and provide legal assistance to convicts when there is a probability that serious errors occurred in their prosecution.

sanctuary

Ancient right based on church power; allowed a person respite from punishment as long as he or she was within the confines of church grounds.

blue curtain of secrecy

Another name for the code of silence.

Which item would not be considered the rightful possession of goods?

children

The concept of justice

Any discussion of justice includes the themes of fairness, equality, and impartiality. According to Plato, justice consists of maintaining the societal status quo. For Aristotle, the lack of freedom and opportunity for some people does not conflict with justice as long as the individual is in the role for which, by nature, he or she is best suited.

graft

Any exploitation of one's role, such as accepting bribes, protection money, or kickbacks.

Define Aristotle's two forms of justice described in the chapter.

Aristotle described two forms of justice: distributive justice (which concerns the fair distribution of goods and opportunities in society) and corrective justice (which concerns the fair resolution in controversies when unjust enrichment or unfair advantage occurs, either through civil or criminal wrongs).

principle of the Golden Mean

Aristotle's concept of moderation, in which one should not err toward excess or deficiency; this principle is associated with the ethics of virtue.

Which state passed a law requiring police officers to ask for proof of citizenship if they had reasonable suspicion that a person was an illegal immigrant?

Arizona

Explain the types of control that police have at their disposal.

Authority is the unquestionable entitlement to be obeyed that comes with certain roles, such as police officer. We do what they tell us because of their uniform. Power is also inherent in the role but implies that force will be used against resistance. Persuasion uses signs, symbols, words, and arguments (and possibly deception) to induce action. Force is the use of physical coercion to subdue the will of the individual.

Of the following, who is best known as an egoist

Ayn Rand

racial profiling

Basing a decision solely on the race/ethnicity of the other party (i.e., to stop and question).

Utilitarians who suggested the idea of proportionality in punishment include ___________

Becarria and Bentham

Describe what behaviors might be subject to moral/ethical judgments.

Behaviors that can be adjudged under moral criteria are those that are acts (not thought) committed by humans (not animals) of free will (not by those judged as incompetent), and that affect others.

Making moral judgements

Behaviors that can be judged as ethical or unethical involve acts that are human, of free will, and affect others. Most behaviors that might be judged as ethical or not for criminal justice professionals include acts that involve citizens, other employees, one's organization, and those that one supervises.

Which element is an important component of the six pillars of character?

citizenship

Voluntary, public, and nonviolent protest done with the aim of bringing about a change in the law is known as __________

civil disobedience

Police departments that make use of an outside agency that includes citizens and monitors misconduct complaints are using which approach to reducing police corruption?

civilian review/complaint model

informants

Civilians who are used to obtain information about criminal activity and/or participate in it so evidence can be obtained for an arrest.

moral identity

Composed of moral agency, which involves intent, anticipation of consequences, and self-regulation; and moral efficacy, which is the belief that one can successfully decide to act in moral ways.

substantive justice

Concerns just deserts—in other words, the appropriate amount of punishment for a crime.

due process

Constitutionally mandated procedural steps designed to eliminate error in any governmental deprivation of protected liberty, life, or property.

Explanations of Deviance

Corruption may be described as individual, institutional, or systemic.

Which statement reflects the effects of the zero-tolerance policy implemented in New York in the 1990's

Crime rates dropped but the number of complaints against police increased

Proactive Investigations

Deception is recognized as an integral part of proactive undercover investigations, and may include categories such as placebos and blue, accepted, tolerated, or deviant lies. Informants assist police by providing information about criminal activity or setting up a criminal act to help gather evidence, in return for a reward such as money or reduced/dropped charges. Undercover officers may pretend to be drug dealers, prostitutes, johns, crime bosses, friends, and even lovers in order to collect evidence. Entrapment occurs when an otherwise innocent person commits an illegal act because of police encouragement or enticement. Ethical issues involve whether informant testimony is reliable, how informants are compensated, how the targets of undercover investigations are chosen, and whether deceptive operations entrap individuals, violate privacy rights, or lead to more crime.

Research reveals that _________ the use of force and incidents of misconduct by officers.

close supervisioin

Which ethical system is concerned solely with the inherent nature of the act being judged?

Deontological

Moral Stage Theory

Developmental theories propose that individuals mature physically, cognitively, and emotionally. Kohlberg's moral stages consist of three levels of moral reasoning, with two stages in each level. At the pre-conventional level, people move beyond the norms and laws of society to determine what is universally good.

ethical issues

Difficult social or policy questions that include controversy over the "right" thing to do.

Legislators may find themselves in an ethical _________, in which it is difficult to make a decision, either not clear or the right course of action carries some negative consequences.

Dilemma

Give examples of how discretion permeates every phase of the criminal justice system and creates ethical dilemmas for criminal justice professionals.

Discretion can be defined as the power and authority to choose one of two or more alternative behaviors. At each stage of the criminal justice system, professionals have such discretion: legislators make decisions regarding the creation of laws, police make decisions on the street in their enforcement of those laws, prosecutors make decisions about which arrests to formally prosecute, judges make decisions about which evidence to allow, and correctional professionals make decisions that affect the lives of offenders.

Discretion and Duty

Discretion involves having the authority to choose between two or more courses of behavior, and duty can be defined as the responsibilities that are attached to a specific role. Discretion can be used to balance justice for the individual against justice for the group. Unbound discretion, however, may be subject to personal biases and prejudices. Police researchers have developed typologies of policing that incorporate different approaches to the use of discretion, including Wilson's types of legalistic, watchman, and caretaker.

Discretion and DIscrimination

Discretion may lead to discrimination, as any decision making can be influenced by an individual's or group's perceptions of another subgroup. Evidence indicates that minorities perceive that police treat them in a discriminatory manner, and there is some evidence to indicate that this is true in some locales. When this happens within the police force, a consent decree may be issued, a legal agreement between the justice department and a police department in which the police department agrees to perform specialized activities and submit to monitoring.

Actions that an individual must preform in order to be considered moral are called_____

Duties

Duties

Duties refer to those actions that an individual must preform to be considered moral. Other actions, considered supererogatories, are commendable but not required. Imperfect duties consist of general duties that one should uphold but do not have a specific application as to when or how.

Describe the types of police corruption (economic corruption and abuse of authority).

Economic corruption includes any activity wherein a police officer uses his or her position to acquire economic benefit illegally or against policy. Gratuities can be a minor form of economic corruption if they are against policy. Graft includes bribery, kickbacks, and "pads." The Knapp Commission identified grass eaters (police who passively take advantage of opportunities) and meat eaters (police who actively commit crimes). Abuse of authority is not for economic gain. It includes physical or psychological abuse of the citizenry or violations of policy and/or law in the performance of one's duties (e.g., excessive force, ignoring evidence, coercive interrogation).

Egoism

Egoism postulates that what is good for one's survival and personal happiness is moral. Many applied ethicists reject egoism because it is logically inconsistent in that self interests will inevitably conflict.

Which system is deontological and judges acts but not consequences?

Ethical Formalism

Which theory would not support operations that treat individuals as a "means"?

Ethical formalism

Ethical Formalism

Ethical formalism is a deontological ethical system, concerned solely with the inherent nature of the act being judged. It defines good as that which conforms to the categorical imperative, which includes the universalism principle, the principle to treat each person as an "end" and to choose moral acts from a free will.

Explain the difference between ethical issues and ethical dilemmas.

Ethical issues are broad social or policy questions, while ethical dilemmas are situations in which one person must make a decision that can be judged as right or wrong, and where what is right is difficult to decide or is hard to do for some other reason.

Present the ethical issues involved in proactive investigations.

Ethical issues concern how the targets of undercover investigations are chosen, whether informants are reliable, whether informants are protected from sanctions for their own criminal behavior, whether such operations create crime or entrap individuals, and whether undercover operations violate the privacy rights of individuals who are deceived.

Present the ethical issues involved in reactive investigations.

Ethical issues concern the tendency of police investigators to not remain objective in their interpretation and collection of evidence if they believe they know a suspect is guilty. Also, the use of physical coercion during interrogation is clearly illegal, but deception is not and is perhaps just as powerful. There is a possibility that such tactics may lead to false confessions.

Discretion and Criminal Investigations

Ethical issues in proactive investigations and reactive investigations differ in a number of ways.

Ethical Systems

Ethical systems provide guidelines and principles to make moral decisions and reflect fundamental truths or propositions. They explain why an act is right or wrong and provide a rationale for moral rules. These systems often are more complex to apply than to explain, but they form the basis for our moral judgements.

Officers who do not come forward when they are aware of the ethical transgressions of other officers are engaging in the _________

code of silence

wholesight

Exploring issues with one's heart as well as one's mind.

Explain why the study of ethics is important for criminal justice professionals.

First, we study ethics because criminal justice is uniquely involved in coercion, which means there are many and varied opportunities to abuse such power. Second, almost all criminal justice professionals are public servants and, thus, owe special duties to the public they serve. Finally, we study ethics to sensitize students to ethical issues and provide tools to help identify and resolve the ethical dilemmas they may face in their professional lives.

Aristotle did not believe that bad behavior __________.

comes from ignorance

Identify the differences between the formal ethics of law enforcement and the values of the police subculture.

Formal law enforcement ethics promote the principles of fairness, service, the importance of the law, and upstanding personal conduct. The police subculture, on the other hand, has been described as endorsing stereotyping, absolute loyalty to colleagues (blue curtain of secrecy), the use of force for those who don't respect police authority, and noble-cause corruption (testilying and other bad "means" to achieve the good "end" of convicting criminals).

Police Culture Today

Generally, police, like any occupational group, are socialized to and influenced by an informal value system that guides and provides a rationale for decision making. The nature and strength of the police subculture is affected by the size of the department and other variables and may be dissipating today due to increasing diversity, more formal means of addressing grievances such as police unions, and civil lawsuits.

Which researcher claims that women and men use different orientations to make moral decisions?

Gilligan

Graft

Graft is the exploitation fo one's role by accepting bribes or protection money, and also can occur when officers receive kickbacks from tow truck drivers, defense attorneys, or bail bond companies for recommending them.

Gratuities

Gratuities are items of value received by an individual because of his or her role or position rather than because of a personal relationship with the giver. They may demean the status of police as professionals, can promote a sense of entitlement, may lead to more serious forms of corruption, appear contrary to democratic ideals of the state's free services, and create a public perception that police are corrupt.

The word justice originated from which culture

Greek

Crime Fighter

How police perceive their role as crime fighters determines their definition of duties and their use of force, deception, and coercion. Typically, members of the public who favor utilitarian crime control accept certain justifications of behavior and show outrage only when police accidentally violate the rights of the "good" guys instead of the "bad" guys.

Who claimed that "an unjust law is no law at all"?

St. Augustine

"Rotten-Apple" Responses

Improved screening, including background checks, interviews, credit checks, polygraphs, drug tests, and other screening tools are used to eliminate inappropriate individuals from the pool of potential hires. Integrity testing occurs when a police officer is placed in a position where he or she might be tempted to break a rule or a law and monitored to see what he or she will do. Early warning systems look at number of complaints, use-of-force reports, use-of-weapon reports, reprimands, or other indicators to identify officers.

Religion

In a religious ethics system, the authority of the god figure is the root of all morality; basic conceptions of good and evil or right and wrong come from interpretations of the gods figures will. Three sources used to determine what is right are religious authorities, scripture or religious writings, and faith.

Describe recent research findings on the police subculture.

In a research study, two-thirds reported that a whistleblower would encounter sanctions, more than half agreed that it was not unusual for police to ignore improper conduct on the part of other officers, and 61 percent indicated that police officers do not always report even the most serious violations/crimes of other officers. About 60 percent of rookies support mild lies to achieve a conviction. However, substantial variation exists among officers in their cultural views, according to survey studies. Current researchers conclude that the police culture is not monolithic and is perhaps more fragmented today than in the past.

Become familiar with organizational influences on behavior.

In addition to small work groups, the organization itself can also affect ethical decision making of individuals. Reward structures, leadership, and training all can either incentivize or discourage unethical behavior. Research on organizational justice indicates that employees who perceive they are being treated fairly are more likely to engage in organizational citizenship behavior. Research on training and ethics programs indicate that they can be successful in affecting the level of unethical behavior in the workplace. According to Sam Souryal and other authors, leaders should create an environment that treats employees with dignity and respect, set realistic goals, increase ethical awareness through training and having a formal written code, avoid deception, allow for openness and transparency, foster a sense of shared values, present an example of honesty and fairness, expose corrupt behavior (and provide a whistle blowing mechanism) and reward ethical behavior.

Be able to describe biological influences on the ethical behavior of criminal justice professionals, including major research findings.

Individual explanations include biological theories, which propose that we commit good or bad acts because of biological predispositions, which may be inherited or not. Attention has focused on brain chemicals, such as oxytocin, that influence behavior. Genetic traits may also be a factor. Biological sex differences may be an influence on men's and women's predisposition to crime and, also, unethical behavior. Research indicates that both the rational and emotion centers of the brain are implicated in ethical choices.

Describe individual explanations of corruption and potential solutions.

Individual explanations target the individual officer, such as identifying personality characteristics that predict either misconduct or successful performance of the job. Suggestions to reduce corruption include improved screening and psychological testing, training, integrity testing, early warning systems, the use of body cameras, and databases of misconduct.

self-efficacy

Individuals' feelings of competence and confidence in their own abilities and power, developed by comparing self to others.

In the 1970's, a trend toward _________ was part of the larger movement of empowerment and development within neighborhoods.

community justice

Learning Theory

In modeling, values and moral beliefs are influenced by those we admire or identify with, whereas in reinforcement behaviors and beliefs that are materially or substantively rewarded become ingrained. Self efficacy refers to an individuals feelings of competence as compared to others. One's moral identity is composed of moral agency which involves intent and self regulation. and moral efficacy which is the belief that one can successfully decide to act in moral ways.

Beliefs and Behaviors

In order to study the relationship between beliefs and behavior, moral beliefs must be measured with such tools such as recognition tests, which require the subject to identify and agree with certain moral principles. Such texts are able to distinguish people who are more or less likely to commit bad acts, but there is still a gulf between what people recognize as wrong and their behavior. The concept of bounded ethicality refers to the influence of cognitive structuring on interpreting decisions. In some decision-making processes, ethical fading may occur, in which the ethical ramifications of decision choices are, overtime, removed.

Reactive Investigations

In reactive investigations, a crime has already occurred and the police sift through clues to determine the perpetrator. When police and other investigators develop an early prejudice concerning a potentially guilty party, they may be tempted to ignore or even manufacture evidence and testimony in order to convict. Ninety-two percent of police said they have lied about evidence to induce a confession. Interrogative techniques can be so effective that they result in false confessions.

"Rotten-barrel" Responses

In the internal affairs model of review, police investigators receive and investigate complaints and resolve the investigations internally. In the civilian review/complaint model, an independent civilian agency audits complaints and investigations. Other "rotten-barrel" approaches include subcultural change and ethical leadership.

hypothetical imperatives

Statements of contingent demand known as if-then statements (if I want something, then I must work for it); usually contrasted with categorical imperatives (statements of "must" with no "ifs").

Creating partnerships with the public in addition to enforcing the law is known as __________

community policing

The Cop Code

Informal codes taught through socialization may be different from a formal code of ethics or the formal principles set out by management. The police subculture may be no more than an extreme of the dominant U.S. culture.

Which element is not a key characteristic of an ethical system?

It is based on facts

Excessive Force

It is estimated that officers se excessive force in a minuscule portion of total encounters with the public-estimated at one-third of one percent. Evidence indicates that excessive force occurs in certain types of calls and with certain groups.

gratuities

Items of value received by an individual because of his or her role or position rather than because of a personal relationship with the giver.

hedonistic calculus

Jeremy Bentham's rationale for calculating the potential rewards of a crime so the amount of threatened pain could be set to deter people from committing that crime.

values

Judgments of desirability, worth, or importance.

distributive justice

Justice that concerns what measurement should be used to allocate society's resources.

corrective justice

Justice that concerns when unfair advantage or unjust enrichment occurs (either through contract disputes or criminal action) and what the appropriate remedy might be to right the wrong.

Which philosopher believed that moral worth comes from doing one's duty?

Kant

Restorative justice emphasizes _____________ instead of retribution

compensation

Power and Discretion

Klockars describes police control as consisting of authority, power, persuasion, and force. Cohen and Feldberg developed a careful analysis of, and justification for, police power and proposed that it stems from a social contract, in which each citizen gives up complete liberty in return for societal protection against others.

What commission was established in 1973 to look at the findings of police corruption in New York?

Knapp Commission

Which researcher suggested that there are six stages of moral growth?

Kohlberg

Critics of Kohlberg

Kohlberg has been criticized for ignoring emotional aspects of morality, and for having cultural and gender biases. Gilligan since has proposed sex differences in moral reasoning whereby women are more likely than men to determine morality based on relationships and needs.

Describe civil disobedience and when it may be appropriate.

Laws that may be subject to civil disobedience must be immoral and unjust. For instance, they could be degrading, discriminatory, enacted by unrepresentative authorities, or unjustly applied. Civil disobedience must be nonviolent, there should be no other alternative, one must accept the legal consequences, and there should be a major moral issue at stake. If people of good will disagree on the matter, then civil disobedience is not appropriate.

Morals and ethics

Morals and morality refer to what is judged as good conduct. The term ethics refers to the study of what constitutes good or bad conduct and includes several branches including meta ethics, normative ethics, applied ethics, and professional ethics.

Describe psychological theories that attempt to explain individual differences in behavior.

Learning theory argues that our behavior is based on the rewards we have received in our past. Albert Bandura's more sophisticated social learning theory presents the individual as an active participant in adapting and interpreting the rewards of his or her environment. Lawrence Kohlberg's moral stage theory explains that people's behavior is influenced by the intellectual and emotional stage of development and that one reaches or does not reach higher stages of development based on environmental factors. Kohlberg's theory proposes a hierarchy of moral stages, with the highest stage holding the most perfect moral principles, which are universal. Carol Gilligan found that women were more likely to have a Stage 3 relationship orientation to ethical judgments, while men were more likely to have a Stage 4 "law and order" orientation.

modeling

Learning theory concept that people learn behaviors, values, and attitudes through relationships; they identify with another person and want to be like that person and pattern themselves after the "model."

_________ have the power to define behavior as illegal and, therefore, punishable.

Legislators

The position of lawmakers are sometimes more influenced by _______ than by moral or ethical stances.

Lobbyists

Which philosopher is associated with the concept of the social contract?

Locke

Describe the three themes included in the definition of justice.

Most definitions of justice include the concepts of fairness (equal treatment), equality (equal shares), and impartiality (absence of bias). Justice acts to mediate our impulses of selfishness and fairness. Justice is distinguished from goodness.

Discretion can best be described as the authority to__________

Make a decision between two or more choices.

Provide any evidence that exists that law enforcement officers perform their role in a discriminatory manner.

Minorities express less satisfaction with police than do whites and report they experience more disrespect. Studies show that minorities are not more likely to experience disrespect per incident, but they are stopped 1.5 times as often as whites. Many racial profiling studies indicate that blacks are stopped disproportionately; however, the early studies suffer from methodological problems.

imperfect duties

Moral duties that are not fully explicated or detailed.

justice

The quality of being impartial, fair, and just; from the Latin justitia, concerning rules or law.

Discuss the argument as to whether egoism is an ethical system.

Most who write in the area of applied ethics reject egoism as an ethical system because it is self-serving and logically inconsistent. It doesn't make sense to have a universal rule that everyone should pursue self-interest, because our self-interests will inevitably conflict. Proponents of ethical egoism also believe in psychological egoism, the idea that we are, by nature, purely self-interested. Under this view, we are egoists and, therefore, to pursue our self-interest is good.

Organizational Explanations

Murphy and Caplan argue that situational elements in the system "breed corruption". Crank Caldero describe deviance with a "noble cause" explanation that includes the aspect of subcultural support. Trautman's "corruption continuum" proposes that organizations create unethical employees through an atmosphere of administrative indifference and hypocrisy. Wolfe and Piquero found that police officers beliefs about organizational justice were associated with their likelihood of ethical misconduct.

Natural Law

Natural Law holds that there is a universal set of rights and wrongs that is similar to many religious beliefs, but without reference to a specific supernatural figure. It presupposes that what is good is what is natural, and what is natural is good. The fundamental issue is how to determine whether a moral rule is based on a true natural law or on a mistaken human perception.

The process known as "circle sentencing" comes from which culture?

Navajo

The "Noble Cause"

Noble-cause corruption refers to the utilitarian concept that the "end" of crime fighting justifies "means" that might otherwise be illegal, unethical, and/or against rules or regulations. Officers may feel conflicted between their "protector" role and agent of the state.

If the reward structure and informal culture of an organization supports unethical behavior, then ____________

ethical training is a waste of time and effort

Morality and Behavior

One of the most difficult concepts to understand about human behavior is the disjunction between moral beliefs and behavior. An applied ethics approach presumes that individuals generally prefer to do what is right. When the "right" path is unclear, we can take certain steps to help make the decision easier.

morals

Principles of right and wrong.

Describe organizational explanations of corruption and potential solutions.

Organizational explanations look at factors that encourage or support misconduct, such as the police subculture or an ineffective discipline system. Proposed responses include improving internal affairs units, civilian review boards, changing the culture, and improving the leadership.

The crime control model was developed by which criminologist?

Packer

recognition tests

Paper-and-pencil tests that measure an individual's ability to recognize and/or agree with moral terms.

Theories of Moral Development

Pinker notes that 3 paradigms are prevalent, but incorrect, in behavioral research - the "blank state," the "noble savage" and "the ghost in the machine." These views take the stance that environment causes immoral behavior, without accounting for the impact of biological factors on moral development.

"Restorative justice" is most consistent with __________

ethics of care

Which ethical system emphasizes human relationships and needs

ethics of care

Which philosopher's writing were largely in the form of dialogues, with Socrates as the main character in many of them?

Plato

Who stated that the four civid virtues are justice, wisdom, temperance, and courage.

Plato

A worldwide problem

Police corruption occurs worldwide in a variety of forms. For example, baksheesh, or graft, is endemic in many developing countries where officials and law enforcement expect compensation before doing the job they are supposed to do, or they extort money in exchange for not doing their job.

Types of Corruption

Police crime involves situations where police officers violate criminal statutes. Police corruption involves offenses where the officer uses his or her position, by act or omission, to obtain improper financial benefit. Abuse of power involves actions where officers physically injure or offend a citizen's sense of dignity.

Discretion and the Use of Force

Police have an uncontested right to use force when necessary to apprehend and/or subdue a suspect of a crime. Excessive force that is associated with personal retaliation or coercion is unethical and illegal. Use-of-force policies have reduced improper incidents, but they allow for a great deal of discretion. The use of force seems to be present in only about 1.6% of all encounters with the public, with more taking place in certain cities and types of encounters.

Societal Explanations

Police hear mixed messages from the public with regard to certain types of crime. To a large degree, the community creates the police department by what it demands and what it is willing to overlook.

One of the most important elements of critical thinking is to separate ____ from concepts.

facts

Future of Policing

Problem-solving policing is a community policing approach that identifies and manages neighborhood issues, often in partnership with community members. Predictive policing focuses on sophisticated data gathering and geographic analysis to identify where criminal events are likely to occur. Intelligence-led policing is a managerial philosophy in which data analysis and intelligence are used for objective decision making in order to prevent crime.

public servants

Professionals who are paid by the public and whose jobs entail pursuing the public good.

Almost all criminal justice professionals are _______ and thus, have a duty to treat everyone with ______.

Public servants; objectivity

Racial Profiling

Racial profiling occurs when a police officer makes a stop based solely on race or ethnicity. Studies show that minorities are not more likely to experience disrespect per incident, but that they are stopped 1.5 times as often as whites.

veil of ignorance

Rawls' idea that people will develop fair principles of distribution only if they are ignorant of their position in society, so in order to get objective judgments, the decision maker must not know how the decision would affect him or her.

Philosophers widely believe that only humans can be moral or immoral because of our capacity to _________.

Reason

An ethical system based on religious beliefs of good and evil or what is God's will can be defined as __________

Religious ethics

What is an important characteristic of facts that distinguishes them from moral judgements?

facts are capable of scientific proof.

duty

Required behavior or action, that is, the responsibilities that are attached to a specific role.

duties

Required behaviors or actions, that is, the responsibilities that are attached to a specific role.

Describe research that addresses work group influences on behavior.

Research indicates that adults can be influenced by peers and, especially, small groups in ethical decision making. Bandura's moral disengagement theory explained that individuals behaved ethically through self-regulatory mechanisms (conscience) but that these mechanisms could be "turned off" through cognitive restructuring using the following: moral justification (appealing to higher principles), euphemistic labeling (downplaying the seriousness of the act), making comparisons (arguing it isn't as bad as something else), displacing responsibility (arguing someone else is at fault), diffusion of responsibility (by acting in a mob), disregarding the consequences (acting in such a way to ignore the effect of one's action), and dehumanization (pretending one's victims are less than human).

On Duty Use of Drugs and Alcohol

Research suggests that only 3% of all workers in a "protective services" category report drug use, and about 8% of those protective services occupations reported heavy alcohol use. Officers who are aware of another's on duty intoxication are faced with an ethical dilemma of whether to take official action.

Explain the concept of restorative justice and the programs associated with it.

Restorative justice puts the emphasis on making the victim whole and maintaining bonds between the community, the victim, and the offender. Types of restorative justice programs include victim-offender mediation (or victim-offender reconciliation programs), reparative boards, family group conferencing, and circle sentencing.

reinforcement

Rewards.

Sexual Misconduct

Sadly, a few police officers use their position of authority to extort sex. Sexual harassment of female police officers is also a problem in some departments. Officers also may engage in other types of sexual misconduct for which they may be sanctioned.

According to Bandura, self-efficacy is defined as an individual's

feelings of competence

Ethics teaching/training

Sherman proposes that criminal justice ethics courses could stimulate the "moral imagination" with difficult moral dilemmas; encourage the recognition of ethical issues; develop ethical analytical skills and tools; elicit a sense of moral obligation and personal responsibility; tolerate and resist disagreement and ambiguity; understand the morality of coercion; integrate technical and moral competence, recognizing the difference between what we are capable of doing and what we should do; and familiarize; students with the full range of moral issues in criminology and criminal justice.

ethical dilemmas

Situations in which it is difficult for an individual to make a decision, either because the right course of action is not clear or because the right course of action carries some negative consequences.

Describe societal explanations of corruption and potential solutions.

Societal explanations focus on what messages society sends to their police department that might encourage lawlessness. Proposed solutions include re-examining these messages to law enforcement and changing the emphasis to the elements that are important for policing in a democratic society.

Themes and Value systems

Some common themes running through police attributes and values of the police subculture include: loyalty to colleagues, viewing the public as the enemy, justification for the use of force, and support for ignoring "social work" calls for "real" police work. Six adventure/machismo, safety, competence, and morality.

Which type of police abuse is least likely to occur (barker and carter)

financial abuse

Persuasion is least likely to include ________ to induce compliance.

Symbols

Which theory claims that humans are born with no moral instincts?

Tabula rasa

Reducing police corruption

Tactics to reduce police misconduct and corruption often target administrative changes rather then identifying the individual officer as the problem.

eudaimonia

The Greek term denoting perfect happiness or flourishing, related to the way to live a "good life."

Code of Ethics

The IACP code or other codes of ethics for law enforcement focus on fairness, service, importance of law, and personal conduct. This emphasis is consistent with a public service mission. While the code promotes the ideal of the public servant, police are often socialized and rewarded for actions consistent with the crime fighter role.

Distributive Justice

focuses on how to allocate society's resources, while corrective justice looks at unfair advantage or undeserved harm between people.

discretion

The authority to make a decision between two or more choices.

force

The authority to use physical coercion to overcome the will of the individual.

The Blue Curtain of Secrecy

The code of silence, or the blue curtain of secrecy, frequently includes absolute loyalty to other officers, even if it means not coming forward to expose a wrongdoer. Individual police officers have been ostracized and the target of a wider variety of retaliatory gestures after "ratting" on another officer.

retributive justice

The component of justice that concerns the determination and methods of punishment.

procedural justice

The component of justice that concerns the steps taken to reach a determination of guilt, punishment, or other conclusion of law.

social contract

The concept developed by Hobbes, Rousseau, and Locke in which the state of nature is a "war of all against all" and, thus, individuals give up their liberty to aggress against others in return for safety.

imperative principle

The concept that all decisions should be made according to absolute rules.

enlightened egoism

The concept that egoism may appear to be altruistic because it is in one's long-term best interest to help others in order to receive help in return.

psychological egoism

The concept that humans naturally and inherently seek self-interest, and that we can do nothing else because it is our nature.

categorical imperative

The concept that some things just must be, with no need for further justification, explanation, or rationalization for why they exist (Kant's categorical imperative refers to the imperative that you should do your duty, act in a way you want everyone else to act, and don't use people).

moral pluralism

The concept that there are fundamental truths that may dictate different definitions of what is moral in different situations.

ethics

The discipline of determining good and evil and defining moral duties.

Why study ethics

The ethical choices of criminal justice professionals are especially sensitive because they affect peoples lives across a multitude of situations. Actors at every stage of the process, including legislators, law enforcement officials, prosecutors, defense attorneys, judges, and correctional professionals, have varying degrees of discretion, authority and power, and as public servants, must treat everyone equally with fairness and objectivity. The study of ethics and ethical behavior leads to the development of wholesight.

ethical formalism

The ethical system espoused by Kant that focuses on duty; holds that the only thing truly good is a good will, and that what is good is that which conforms to the categorical imperative.

ethics of virtue

The ethical system that bases ethics largely upon character and possession of virtues.

utilitarianism

The ethical system that claims that the greatest good is that which results in the greatest happiness for the greatest number; major proponents are Bentham and Mill.

ethics of care

The ethical system that defines good as meeting the needs of others and preserving and enriching relationships.

egoism

The ethical system that defines the pursuit of self-interest as a moral good.

religious ethics

The ethical system that is based on religious beliefs of good and evil; what is good is that which is God's will.

The ethics of care

The ethics of care is founded in the natural human response to care for those who are vulnerable. What is good is that which meets the needs of everyone. Peacemaking justice is an ancient process that includes the concepts of compassion and care, connectedness, and mindfulness. In both systems, decisions arise from compassion rather than attention to abstract rights or duties.

The claim "virtue is always the median between two extremes" is known as ___________

The golden mean

principle of forfeiture

The idea that one gives up one's right to be treated under the principles of respect for persons to the extent that one has abrogated someone else's rights; for instance, self-defense is acceptable according to the principle of forfeiture.

natural law

The idea that principles of morals and rights are inherent in nature and not human-made; such laws are discovered by reason but exist apart from humankind.

cultural relativism

The idea that values and behaviors differ from culture to culture and are functional in the culture that holds them.

consent decree

The legal agreement between the Justice Department and a police department whereby the police department agrees to perform specified activities and submit to monitoring to ensure that the department meets the terms of the agreement in order to avoid a lawsuit.

bounded ethicality developmental theories

This concept refers to the cognitive structuring whereby decisions are interpreted using variables that do not include ethics; for instance, companies evaluate decisions based only on economic factors rather than whether or not the action is moral.

Individual Explanations

The most common explanation of police officer corruption is the rotten-apple argument that the officer alone is deviant. This argument extends rotten bushels-groups of officers banding together to commit deviant acts. Most researchers of police misconduct believe that individual explanations present only part of the picture.

situational ethics

The philosophical position that although there are a few universal truths, different situations call for different responses; therefore, some action can be right or wrong depending on situational factors.

Police Subculture

The police organizational subculture may, at times, be at odds with the formal ethics and values of the police organization and that of the larger society. Factors that may lead to an extreme subculture are homogenous social groups, uniquely stressful work environments, and an essentially closed social system.

Professional Courtesy

The practice of not ticketing an officer for a motor violation simply because he or she is an officer is known as "professional courtesy" When other individuals would have received a ticket for the same offense, a violation of the code of ethics has occurred.

code of silence

The practice of officers to not come forward when they are aware of the ethical transgressions of other officers.

utilitarian principle

The principle that all decisions should be made according to what is best for the greatest number.

generalization principle

The principle that all decisions should be made assuming that the decision would be applied to everyone else in similar circumstances.

rotten-apple argument

The proposition that the officer alone is deviant and that it was simply a mistake to hire him or her.

Become familiar with cultural and societal influences on ethical behavior.

The public can affect the ethical climate of an organization in what messages organizational leaders and members receive as to what will be tolerated and what will not be. When the public places more value on winning than sportsmanship in sports, organizations are more likely to break rules; when the public reelects politicians convicted of criminal transgressions, the message is received that the rules don't matter; and, when juries acquit officers in clear cases of illegal uses of force, it seems obvious that no change will occur in that city's pattern of police behavior. The public exerts power in pressuring legislators to enact laws and regulations, but also in the normative pressure displayed in public opinion.

Which concept is not related to equal treatment?

judgement

power

The right inherent in a role to use any means to overcome resistance.

Provide the justification for police power and the basic ethical standards that derive from this justification.

The social contract is the basis of police power. We basically give up some rights in return for protection (by police). Part of that agreement is that they have the right to utilize power in order to protect the populace against aggressors. The social contract is also the basis of police ethics. Cohen and Feldberg (1991) propose five ethical standards that can be derived from the social contract: fair access, public trust, safety and security, teamwork, and objectivity.

deontological ethical system

The study of duty or moral obligation emphasizing the intent of the actor as the element of morality.

Use fo Tasers (CED's)

The taser is one type of CED (conducted energy device). CED's use electrical stimuli to interfere with the body's nervous system, impairing the muscular control of the target. The use of CED's is controversial because of its potential to harm.

Learn the definitions of the terms morals, ethics, duties, supererogatories, and values.

The terms morals and ethics come from Greek and Latin words referring to custom or behavioral practices. Morals refer to what is judged as good conduct. Ethics refers to the study and analysis of what constitutes good or bad conduct. Duties are obligatory acts (by law, practice, or morals). Supererogatories are those acts that go above and beyond duties. Values are statements of worth or importance.

Crime, Misconduct, and its Costs

The transgressions of officers may go beyond ethics and enter the realm of crime and criminal conspiracies in some states. Corruption can result in lost prosecutions, large judgements agains municipalities, and possible lawsuits, settlements, and increased scrutiny from the Justice Department for police departments.

Describe the two different missions of law enforcement in a democracy.

The two missions of law enforcement are crime fighting and public service. Under the crime fighting mission, criminals are the "enemy," and fundamentally different from "good" people. Police are the "army" that fights the enemy, and various means that might otherwise be illegal or against the rules are excused or justified because of the importance of the mission of crime fighting. Under the public service mission, police are seen as serving the needs of all the public. This role is more expansive than the crime fighter role and includes other types of public service. Furthermore, it involves the idea of public service to all people, not just law-abiding "good" citizens.

utilitarian justice

The type of justice that looks to the greatest good for all as the end.

act utilitarianism

The type of utilitarianism that determines the goodness of a particular act by measuring the utility (good) for all, but only for that specific act and without regard for future actions.

rule utilitarianism

The type of utilitarianism that determines the goodness of an action by measuring the utility of that action when it is made into a rule for behavior.

ethical fading

This concept refers to the situation whereby decision makers, who might have initially questioned whether an action was ethical or not, over time drop that element of the discussion and concentrate on other factors so that the decision is eventually made without taking into consideration whether it is ethical or not.

civilian review/complaint model

The use of an outside agency or board that includes citizens and monitors and/or investigates misconduct complaints against police.

Culture of Force

The use of force in response to perceived challenges to police authority is resistant to change. The "culture of force" is international in scope, possibly due to similarities experienced by all police officers.

Present information concerning the prevalence of and factors associated with the use of force by police officers.

The use of force seems to be present in only about 1.6 percent of all encounters with the public; however, it takes place more often in certain cities and during certain types of encounters. It is also true that some officers seem to be involved in uses of force more often than others. Correlates of uses of force have been identified including sex of officer and target (male), age of officer and target (20s-30s), presence of alcohol and/or mental illness, noncompliance, and officer personality traits.

persuasion

The use of signs, symbols, words, and arguments to induce compliance.

Kohlberg's moral stages

The view that moral development is hierarchical; each higher developmental stage is described as moving away from pure egoism toward altruism.

Enumerate predictors associated with the use of excessive force.

There seems to be evidence that excessive force occurs in certain types of calls (pursuits) and with certain groups (minorities). Female officers are less likely to use excessive force; however, any correlations should be viewed with caution since the sample size is so small. The legal standard for what is appropriate force is reasonableness, but it is somewhat problematic to review an officer's behavior after the fact and without knowing or perceiving the circumstances in the same way as the officer on the scene. Present the ethical issues involved in proactive investigation.

Which perspective focuses on notions of equality, rights, and universality

justice perspecitve

A survey of police chiefs found that training modules tend to

last for four hours or less

Using ethical systems to resolve dilemmas

To resolve ethical dilemmas, one should determine the facts, thenthe relevant concepts or values, then determine all of the various ethical dilemmas faced by all actors, then use the ethical systems to solve the most immediate dilemma.

International Measures of Corruption

Transparency International charts corruption worldwide. In their latest rankings, New Zealand was ranked first in the public's trust in the honesty of their officials, followed by Denmark, Finland, Sweden, and Singapore. At the bottom of the list were countries such as Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Myanmar, North Korea, and Somalia.

According to Reuss-Ianni, which precept is not part of the informal police code towards management?

Treat your bosses as mentors and ask them for advice

Corrective Justice

Two components of corrective justice may be differentiated.

Crime Fighter or Public Servant

Two missions for police officers-crime fighting and public service-are not necessarily contradictory or exclusive, but they may have different implications in terms of decision making. No other criminal justice professional comes under as much public scrutiny, and no other wields as much discretion in so many situations.

Identify what is good according to each of the ethical systems discussed in the chapter.

Under ethics of virtue, what is good is that which conforms to the Golden Mean. Under natural law, what is good is that which is natural. Under religion, what is good is that which conforms to God's will. Under ethical formalism, what is good is that which conforms to the categorical imperative. Under utilitarianism, what is good is that which results in the greatest utility for the greatest number. Under ethics of care, what is good is that which meets the needs of those concerned. Under egoism, what is good is that which benefits me.

Ethics of Virtue

Under the ethics of virtue, developed by Aristotle, what is good is that which conforms to the principle of the golden mean, which states that virtue is always the median between two extremes of character. Those who possess moral virtues will make the right decision when faced with a moral dilemma.

Describe how other ethical systems define what is moral—specifically, ethics of virtue, natural law, religion, and the ethics of care.

Under the ethics of virtue, goodness is determined by the virtues. Aristotle and others have identified what are considered to be moral virtues. Those who possess such virtues will make the right decision when faced with a moral dilemma. Under natural law, good is determined by what is natural. Moral rules are considered similar to other natural laws, such as gravity. Even if humans have not discovered these moral rules, or disagree about what they are, they still exist. Under Judeo-Christian religion, what is good is determined by God's will. One can know God's will through one's religious leaders or the Bible. Other religions also have statements of good and evil and sources to use to determine what is good. The ethics of care is based on the emotions of relationships. Caring is the basis of this morality.

Analyzing ethical dilemmas

Unlike ethical issues, which often concern government control over broad social mechanisms, ethical dilemmas involve situations in which one person must make a decision about what to do. Navigating ethical dilemmas involves identifying the facts, relevant values and concepts, and all possible moral dilemmas for each party involved, determining the most immediate moral or ethical issue facing the individual; and resolving the ethical or moral dilemma by using an ethical system or some other means of decision making.

authority

Unquestionable entitlement to be obeyed that comes from fulfilling a specific role.

Immoral Laws

What is the moral duty of individuals when laws and governmental edicts are themselves immoral, and deprive certain groups of rights or privileges but not others? The principles of civil disobedience allow for voluntary and legitimate disobedience of established laws based on one's moral beliefs.

entrapment

When an otherwise innocent person commits an illegal act because of police encouragement or enticement.

Deadly Force

Whether it be by lethal force, tasers, or physical blows, officers have discretion to employ force that, if performed by citizens, would be illegal. We expect them to use such power wisely. Although trained in the law and departmental policies, officers must apply individual discretion to determine what is reasonable and ethical in any given situation.

Which theory argues that moral development is based on reinforcing behaviors and beliefs?

learning theory

Officers who conduct unlawful searches or seizures are engaging in ______

legal abuse

A police department that emphasizes crime control as its primary goal will _______

view efficiency as a top priority

Carol Gilligan, one of Kohlberg's students, found a woman, opposed to me, approach morality from a _______ perspective

care

Which style of policing is most likely to treat citizens differently, depending on their relative power and position in society?

caretaker

The media typically becomes interested in police use of force when

a bystander videotapes the incident

According to Sykes, a "profession" is least likely to include ______

a college education

According to Gardner, what are some of the cognitive abilities are needed to achieve excellence through ethical practices?

a disciplined mind, a synthesizing mind, a creating mind.

It is difficult to analyze the success of civilian review boards because ________

a high level of complaints may mean that there is greater trust in the process

The Thurman v City of Torrington case personified police discretion when __________

a police officer watches as a woman was beaten, stomped, and stabbed by her ex-husband on the front steps of her mother's house

Discovering the perpetrator after a crime has occurred is known as

a reactive investigation

Which statement about the use of force is true?

a small percentage of officers are responsible for a disproportionately large number of "use of force" incidents

Who accounts for a disproportionate number of complaints about abuse and/or corruption?

a small percentage of police officers

The "blue curtain of secrecy" refers to _______

absolute loyalty to other officers even if it means not coming forward to expose a wrongdoer

Ethical formalism is considered to be an ________ system, meaning if something is wrong, it is wrong all the time.

absolutist

In most police shootings juries will most likely ______

acquit officers

According to Immanuel Kant, a person can control his or her _______

actions

A key aspect of a public service mission of policing is acknowledging that __________

all citizens have the right to due process

Souryal advises leaders who would like to advance ethical decision making to include

allow for the free flow of unclassified information

In terms of ethics, critical thinking is least likely to involve identifying ________

an alternate path to avoid a difficult decision

The frontal lobes of the brain are least associated with feelings of __________

anxiety

An important characteristic of an ethical system is that the system is _______

authoritative

Klockars uses which term to describe the unquestionable entitlement to be obeyed?

authority

The milgram experiments show how easily a person can command blind obedience to ________

authority

The generalization principle

based on the question, "what would happen if all similar persons acted this way under similar circumstances?"

Ethical formalism emphasizes that individuals must not _________

be used as a means to an end

Who was a major proponent of utilitarianism

bentham

Research shows that when comparing the discipline of black and white police officers, _________

black officers are more likely to be disciplined

Which demographic expresses more distrust of the police than the others?

blacks

Which term refers to using deception to control a person or make the job easier in a situation where force could be used?

blue lies

The concept of ________ involves decisions that are interpreted using variables that do not include ethics.

bounded ethicality

officers in the united states rate which one of the following as the second most serious form of corrution

bribery

In a teleological system, the ________ determines whether an act is ethical or not.

consequences of an action

At the _________ level of Kohlberg's moral stages, individuals understand that they are members of a society and that being a good person means living up to certain responsibilities.

conventional

Deviant lies are those used in the field to ________

cover up wrong doing by officers

Sherman listed the elements necessary for ethics courses that relate specifically to ________

criminal justice

Relativists believe that ________ determines what is right.

cultural values

Prosecutors have discretionary powers to _______.

decide whether to pursue charges

CED's seem to be associated with a

decrease in the number of deaths of suspects

Cultural Relativism

defines good as that which contributes to the health and survival of society.

The principle of forfeiture is what kind of system

deontological

Which ethical system is concerned solely with the inherent nature of acts being judged?

deontological

A police officer's discretionary powers include the power to________.

deprive people of their liberty.

Restorative justice

describes a number of programs that seek to move compensation rather than retribution, back to center stage. It is consistent with the ethics of care, utilitarianism, religious, and other ethical systems. While legal sanctions typically do not make the victim "whole" or transform the offender, restorative justice attempts both.

Utilitarian principle

determines the ethics of conduct by the good or bad consequences of an action.

One goal of utilitarian justice is to benefit society by ________

deterring crime

Braswell proposed five goals of ethics. What is one of these?

developing wholesight

Which theory holds that people's behavior by their cognitive and emotional stage of maturity?

developmental theory

Imperative principle

directs a decision maker to act according to a specific unbending rule.

Correctional officers have a great deal of _______ when interacting with those in the justice system.

discretion

The use of signs, symbols, words, and arguments to induce compliance is known as _______.

discretion

Research suggests that force incidents are _______

disproportionally the result of a small percentage of officers

Allocating society's resources is known as _________.

distributive justice

Loyalty to a superior is based on the idea of __________

divine right

The typical individual _________ ethical issues.

does not have control over

Courts generally uphold the right of law enforcement agencies to use what kind of test when balancing governmental interests and individual privacy?

drug

The "protection of public morality" is the rationale for a number of laws, including those involving_________.

drugs, gambling, proposition.

Careful inquiry and investigation before any punishment or forfeiture is called __________

due process

Which term refers to the responsibilities attached to a specific role?

duty

Aristotle's catalog of virtues includes all of the following characteristics except

education

Fyfe and Kane found that an officer's _________ correlates with the likelihood of termination for cause.

education

Which theory starts with the premise of equality for all?

egalitarian

Which system determines what is moral based on what is good for an individual's survival and personal happiness?

egoism

Ethical decision making is primarily composed of _______ and ________ components.

emotional; rational

Committing an illegal act because of police encouragement is known as ____

entrapment

The due process model operates, in part, on the principle that ________

errors are possible

What system is deontological?

ethical formalism

Which system is deontological and judges but not consequences?

ethical formalism

Substantive Justice

focuses on the concept of just deserts or how one determines a fair punishment for a particular offense. Retributive justice, an approach to determine the just amount of punishment, may be extreme, as with lex talionis, a vengeance oriented justice concerned with equal retaliation, or milder, as with lex salica, which allows for compensation through payment or atonement. Utilitarian justice provides a rationale for punishment only if it protects society from future crimes. Bentham's hedonistic calculus measures the potential rewards of the crime against the amount of threatened pain as a method of deterrence.

Which term refers to the right to use physical coercion to overcome the will of the individual?

force

An "imperfect duty" can best be described as a ________

general duty that one should uphold, but without specific applications.

The most common examples of immoral laws are those that __________

give some groups different rights and privileges than other groups

Officers who take bribes, gratuities, and unsolicited protection money are often called

grass eaters

Which term describes items of value received by an individual because of hi and her role or position rather than because of a personal relationship with the giver.

gratuities

The goal of community justice models is to repair the harm caused by a crime and promote the ________.

health of the community

Even absolutist moral systems have some exceptions; for instance the principle of forfeiture

holds that people who treat others as a means to an end forfeit the right to the protection of their own freedom and wellbeing.

According to Schafer, which factor emerged as the strongest in terms of effective leadership?

honesty and integrity

Law enforcement professionals are least likely to use discretion when determining how _______

how much bail to set

Gratuity policies are often considered to be _________ by rank and file officers because of the way administration often handles gratuities from vendors

hypocritical

According to Kant, _______ imperatives are commands that designate certain actions to attain certain ends.

hypothetical

Rawls' Theory of Justice is criticized because it would

ignore desert in the distribution of goods.

One human tendency is to _________ that doesn't fit with their conclusions of who the guilty party is.

ignore evidence

Police corruption typically occurs when a police officer uses her or his position to obtain _________

improper financial benefits

Barry stated that people can know god's will through ________.

individual conscience, religious authorities, and the holy scriptures.

Individuals who are not police officers, but assist police by providing information about criminal activity, are called _______

informants

A police officer who is placed in a position where he or she might be tempted to break a rule or a law and then is monitored to see what he or she will do is experiencing ________

integrity testing

Operations set to test whether a police officer commits a corrupt act are called

integrity tests

Which term refers to a review procedure in which police investigators receive and investigate complaints and resolve the investigators internally?

internal affairs model

Which of the following is not a recognized branch of ethics?

internalized ethics

The two forms of corrective justice

involve either vicil disputes or violations of criminal laws, which balance unfair advantage by restitution or punishment. Rawls' heuristic device, the veil of ignorance, proposes that people will develop fair principles of distribution only if they are not aware of their position in society as "have-nots" or "haves"

Relativism

is a position that there are no absolute truths about morality

Procedural justice

is concerned with the steps we must take before administering punishment. While justice conceptualized fairness, law is a system of rules. In our system of justice, due process is carried out by the state through a sequence of steps designed to eliminate or at least minimize error.

Meta-ethics investigates whether an ethical system ______

is relative or universal

Universalism

is similar to absolutism in that what is considered wrong is wrong for all people for all time and if one wants to preform a certain act, one must agree it is acceptable for all.

Questions that concern the government's social control mechanisms and the impact of those mechanisms on the governed are called ethical __________.

issues

An officer who lies to get a warrant or conviction is engaging in _________

testilying

Which element is not a requirement for determining if an act can be judged as moral/ethical?

the act must be intentional

According to the concept of ethical formalism, the key factor in determining whether an act is moral is _______

the actors motive or intent

fairness

the condition of being impartial, the allocation of equal shares or equal opportunities.

Which characteristic is least applicable to the ethical issues that criminal justice professionals face?

the issues are avoidable

Gilmartin and Harris identify all of the following factors as leading to an officers vulnerability to corruption except

the lack of a clear self-identity

The idea that an officer alone is responsible for deviant behavior is called

the rotten apple argument

equality

the same value, rights, or treatment between all in a specific group.

Which factor has been shown to deter police misconduct?

the threat of legal sanctions

Justice is cherished because it mediates between people's generosity and ___________

their selfishness

It is difficult to "weed out" bad candidates for officer positions because ____________

there is no consensus on what makes a good police officer

Gardner argues that ethics are necessary to ________

to be an excellent person

Which organization is best known for charting corruption worldwide

transparency international

Officers who play the role of drug dealers, prostitutes, and crime bosses in order to collect evidence of a crime are engaging in ________

undercover operations

Boss describes laws that are degrading to humans as ____________

unjust

Which doctrine claims that a person's actions should maximize happiness for the greatest number of people?

utilitarianism

Which ethical system evaluates undercover operations by considering whether the benefit of the operation outweighs the harm being done by the deception?

utilitarianism

Which ethical system would be most accepting of entrapment?

utilitariansim

Elements of desirability, worth, and importance can best be defined as ________.

values

Which theory claims that people will develop fair principles of distribution only if they are ignorant of their position in society?

veil of ignorance