Criminal Justice Module 3

theory

a set of interrelated propositions that attempts to desribe, explain, predict, and ultimately control some class of events. A theory is strengthened by its logical consistency and is "tested" by how well it understands (explains) and predicts.

(III) biosocial criminology

a theoretical perspective that sees the interaction between human beings and the physical and social environment is key to understanding human behavor, including criminality.

deviance

a violation of social norms defining approp / proper behavior in given particular context. Deviance also includes criminal acts. Deviant behavior is a broad category that includes crime, but not all deviance is criminal.

basic traits:

psych theories: "Big Five" 1) openness to experience 2) extraversion 3)conscientiousness 4) neuroticism 5) agreeableness Many believe they are strongly influenced by genetics--universally shared across peoples

1944, David Abrahamsen

psych theories: "When we seek to explain the riddle of human conduct in general and of antisocial behavior in particular, the solution must be sought in the personality." Is criminal behavior a symptom of a more fundamental psychiatric disorder?

Merton

soc approach, structure/org of society: Believed that tho same goals and means are held out by society as desirable for all, they are not available to all. Some people turn to illegitimate means to achieve goals, or reject goals and legitimate means.

CPTED

soc approach, structure/organization of society: modern perspective of social ecology theory: Crime Prevention thru Environment Design, first formatted durings 60s and 70s

sociological theories, give more or less weight to

soc approach: 1) class of norms and values among various socialized groups 2) socialization and process of association b/w individuals 3) existence of subcultures and varying types of opportunities

genes

part of biosocial approach: distrinct portions of a cell's DNA that carry coded instructuions of making everything the body needs

problems w/assessing dangerousness

"dangerousness is not an objective quality like obesity or bown eyes; rather it is an ascribed quality like trustworthiness". It isn't a personality trait that is stable or easily identifiable. Also, involvement in crime decreases with age.

Earnest A. Hooton

1939, early biological school: spent 12 years constructing anthropomorphic profiles of 13,873 male profiles--found some basis for Lombroso's eliefs, but never recognized that the prisoners he studied were a subgroup. They were the lead successful offenders (they'd been captured.)

routine activities theory (RAT)

A neoclassial perspective that suggests that lifestyles contribute significantly to both amount and type of crime in any society. Theorists include Cohen & Felson. "Risk of criminal victimization varies . . . [with] circumstances and locations in which people place themselves. . . ." Absence of capable guardians.

behavioral conditioning

A psychological princples that holds that the frequency of any behavior can be increased or decreased through reward, punishment, and associations with other stimuli. Asociated with Pavlov.

free will theories

Classical theory: Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794) argued criminal laws should be more "humanitarian"--punishment should be just sufficient to deter criminal behavior but never be excessive. Founder of Classical School of criminology.

(V) sociological theories

American contribution in 1920s and 1930s--criminality is caused by society's impact on individual

(I) classical school

An 18th century approach to crime causation, criminal responsibility. Grew out of Enlightenment; emphasized role of free will and reasonable punishments. Classical thinkers believed that punishment, if it is to be an effective deterrent, has to outweigh the potential pleasure derived from criminal behavior. Much of practice of criminal justice in U.S. is based on concepts of Classical School.

interdisciplinary theory

An approach that integrates a variety of theoretical viewpoints in an attempt to explain something, such as crime and violence.

Social Policy & Psychlogical Theories

Crime-control policies based on psychological perspectives are INDIVIDUALISTIC--oriented to individualized treatment, characteristically exposing the individual offender to various forms of therapy intended to overcome propensity for criminality.

Social Policy & Biological or Biosocial Theories

Ellis & Walsh say that "in the case of behavior, nearly all of the effects of genes are quite indirect b/c they are mediated thru complex chains of events occuring in the brain. This means that there are almost certainly no genes for something as complex as criminal behavior. But "many genes may affect brain functioning in ways that either increase or reduce the chances of individuals learning various complex behavior patterns, including behavior patterns that happen to be so offensive to others that criinal sanctions have been instituted to minimize their recurrence."

FBI, 19980s

FBI led movement toward psychological profiling, ofcused on violent sex offenders and arson. Described "lust murderers" and serial arsonists. Loners w/aversion to casual social contact, lust murderers rarely aroused suspicions in neighbors or employees. Now profiling used for hostage and terrorism.

rational choice theory

Neoclassical school: Rational choice theory predicts individuals will choose to commit crime when benefits of doing so outweigh costs of breaking the law. Influenced by Beccaria. Bentham (1748-1832) talked about "hedonistic calculus": exercise of free will can cause an individual to avoid committing a crime if punishment was greater than benefit. Cohen & Felson agree crime is result of rational choices that people make.

other eating habits, nutrition

Part of biosocial approach: Also allergies, food additives, etc. May reduce amount of learning that occurs during childhood. Abram Hoffer: disruptive children have less B3 and B6 vitamins.

coffee, sugar, nutrition

Part of biosocial approach: Coffee and sugar consumed by inmates is higher than outside population. But habitual coffee drinkers not in prison aren't linked to crime; sugar not linked in Gross study to hyperactivity.

Social policy & sociological theories

Sociological theories point to social action as solution. Intervention. E.g., Targeted Outreach, program operated by Boys and Girls Clubs of America. Based on U-CO studies that showed that at-risk youths could be diverted from juv justice system if given positive alternatives.

psychological profiling

The attempt to categorize, understand, and predict the behavior of certain types of offenders based on behavioral clues they provide.

research

The use of standardized, systematic procedures in the search for knowledge.

neo-classical criminology

a contemporary version of classical criminology that holds the criminology is the result of conscious choice.

(IV) pyschological theories

a perspective on criminological thought that views offense and deviant behavior as the product of dysfunctional personality. Psychological thinkers identify the conscious, and especially the subonscious, contents of the human psyche as a major determinant of behavior.

positivist school

an approach that stresses the applications of scientific techniques to the study of crime and criminals

hypothesis

an explanation that accounts for a set of facts and that can be tested by further investigation. Aso, something that is taken is to be true for the purpose of argument or investigation.

Anthony Walsh

biosocial school: "In virtually every study ever conducted, males are much more likely than females to engage in violence, aggression, and sreious crimes. As the seriousness of the offense /behavior increases, the gnder gap also tends to increase, such that the most violent criminal acts are almost exclusively a male phenomenon."

Adrian Raine

biosocial school: stresses importance of intersection b/w a cluster of biological markers (brain dysfunction, glucose metabolism, poor nutrition, psychologicl reactivity (such as skin resistance and heart rate), w/social environment in producing deviance/criminality. Argues measurement of biological indicators and observation of social environment can be used to accurately predict which people turn to crime later in life.

chromosome theory

part of biosocial approach, 2013: CT Chief Examiner H. Wayne Carver ordered testing of Lanza DNA. Biosocial theories today draw on latest medical advances.

Charles Goring & Karl Pearson

early biological school-->tests: Conducted tests of atavism, studying 3,000 prisoners--no significant differences--Lobroso's ideas fell into disrepute.

Richard Dugdale, criminal families

early biological school: 1877, biological school: used family tree method to study af family tree--most were "social degenerates." Only a few were socially productive. But it could be environment.

Arthur A. Estabrook, criminal famililes

early biological school: 1915, biological school: continued Dugdale's study, extended line, found just as few conformists. But it could be environment.

Henry Goddard, criminal families

early biological school: In 1912, examined Kallikak family--illegitimate group was crmiinal, while legitimate group was not. But these studies ignore any effect of socialization and life circumstances.

atavism

early biological school: a condition characterized by existence of features believed to be common in earlier states of human evolution. Proponent was Cesar Lombroso (1835-1909). Identified atavistic traits (long arms, large lips, crooked noses, body hair, prominent cheekbones, etc.) Implies some people are born criminals. "Criminaloids." Founder of positivist school, because he used observation.

somatyping

early biological school: the classification of human beings into types according to body build and other characteristics

phrenology

early biological school: the study of the shape of the head to determine anatomical correlates of human behavior. Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) wrote during time when it was believed organs throughout the body determined one's mental state and behavior ("hard-hearted" or ""bad spleen"). Very deterministic--little room for choice.

William Sheldon (1893-1977), body types

early biological school: three types of body types: mesomorphic (relative predominance of muscle, bone, connective tissue); endomorphic (soft roundness through various regions of body; short tapering limbs; small bones; smooth, soft, velvety skin); ectomorphs (thinness, ragility, delicacy of body). Mesomorphic individuals most prone to agression, violence, and delinquency.

WW II William Langer (1896-1977)

govt psychiatrist in Office of Strategic Services, charged w/predicting Hitler's actions. Based on idea that criminality (b/c it is a form of behavior) can be viewed as symptom of personality.

age

involvement with crime decreases with age.

clock gene

part of biosocial approach: 2007: mice w/mutations in clock gene exhibted manic behaviors, such as recklssness and hyperactivity, and preference for addictive substances, such as cocaine.

testosterone, hormones

part of biosocial approach: Direct relationship b/w amount of testosterone and aggressiveness, and degree of violence by sex offenders. Steroid abuse among bodybuilders linked to destructive urges and psychosis. Studies show more enjoyment at provoking anger in others.

Klinefeler syndrome

part of biosocial approach: XXY chromosomes--have less testosterone.

heritability

part of biosocial approach: a statistical concept that estimates the amount of variation in the rate of a population that is attributable to genetic actors

chromosomes

part of biosocial approach: bundles of genes

eating habits, 1943, Lancet, nutrition

paprt of biosocial approach: linked murder to hypoglycemia (too much insulin, or near-starvation diets), may reduce mind's capacity to reason effectively or judge long-term consequences of behavior.

supermale (Patricia Jacobs, 1965)

part of biological approach: Male w/XYY chromosome structure. More common in prisons than in general population. Taller, thin, acne, homosexuality, succession of apparently motiveless property crimes. Criminologists largely disregard this last part today, but recognize XYY may lead to more testosterone.

neurobiologists

part of biosocial approach: have found 17 genes (CREB benes) that are switched on and off in response to environmental influences. Form basis of memory; act of learning turns CREB genes on and off. CREB genes respond to experience, they don't determine experience.

Natalie Fontaine, 2011

part of biosocial approach: heritability leads to persistently high levels of such behavior among twin boys (UK's ongoing Twin Early Development Study)

James Q. Wilson & Richard Hernstein, Crime and Human Nature (1985)

part of biosocial approach: inherited traits, such as maleness, aggressiveness, mesomorphic body type, low intelligence, combined w/environmental influences, including poor schools and strained families, to produce crime.

testosterone & low socioeconomic status

part of biosocial approach: interaction produces antisocial personalities, resulting in deviance and criminality.

serotonin, hormones

part of biosocial approach: low levels of serotonin may limit ability to handle aggressive inpulses. Serotonin buffers irritating experiences that might result in anger, aggression. Low serotonin may result from ingestion of toxic pollutants (lead and manganese). Men with extra Y chromosome may have less serotonin

malfunctioning endocrine system, hormones

part of biosocial approach: may cause of physical abuse, antisocial behavior, psychopathology. Two thyroid hormones: triodothryonine (T3) and thyroxine (FT4). Elevated T3 levels related to alcoholism and criminality; FT4 is negatively related to such behavior.

gender ratio problem (Kevin Beaver & Anthony Walsh)

part of biosocial approach: need for explanation why # of crimes committed by men routinely far exceeds the # of crimes committed by women in almost all categories. Walsh points out this is a problem if one ignores biological explanations for criminality (i.e., testosterone).

Ap Zallberg, nutrition

part of biosocial approach: nutritional supplements in 14 prisons; healthy diets; no added sugar; reduction in rule-breaking. C .Bernard Gesch also found dietary supplements decreased violent incidents.

MAOA, hormones

part of biosocial approach: overabundance of enzyme monoamine oxidise A in brain may overstimulate nervous system and lead to defect in DRD2 A1 allele, or pleasure-seeking gene. May encourage dangerous behaviors,

double males:

part of biosocial aproach: xxyy chromosomes

Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828)

part of early biological school: Believed that brain is the organ of the mind; the brain consists of localized faculties or functions; the shape of the skull reveals degree of development or areas; personality can be revealed by a study of the skull.

Johann Gaspar Spurzheim (1776-1853)

part of early biological school: brought phrenology to America.

(II) (early) biological school

perspective that holds that criminal behavior has a genetic basis. Some human behavior is the result of biolgical propensities inherited from more primitive developmental stages in the evolutionary process.

trait theory

psych theories: 1964: Hans J. Eysenck argued crime is result of fundamental personality traits he saw as inherited. Pointed to twin studies. Argued psych conditioning occurs more rapidly in some people b/c of biological differences; antisocial individuals are difficult to condition (to socialize). 2/3 of behavioral variance due to genetics. Traits, combined with intelligence and natural abilities, determines behavior in a given situation.

Eysenck's three traits

psych theories: 1) introversion / extroversion 2) neuroticism / emotional stability (neurotics are irrational, shy, moody, and emotional) 3) psychoticism (lack of empathy, creativeness, tough-mindedness, and antisociability, also frequently has hallucinations and delusions).

Eysenck's 3 traits & criminality

psych theories: Psychoticism--thought to be particularly correlated w/criminality Combine emotionalism w/extroversion. Also, Extroverts somewhat associated--carefree, dominant, venturesome, energetic

antisocial personality disorder

psych theories: both psychopaths & sociopaths 1) regularly break / flout law 2) constantly lie, decieve others 3) are impulsive, don't plan ahead 4) can be prone to fighting and aggressiveness 5) little regard for safety of others 6) irresponsible, can't meet financial obligations 7) don't feel remorse or guilt

psychosis (1941, Hervey Cleckly, Mask of Sanity)

psych theories: A form of mental illness in which sufferers are said to be out of touch with reality; inability to empathize with others. Psychopath doesn't have a conscience; sociopath does have a weak conscience. Both lack empathy, particularly psychopaths. Psychopaths may be more likely to be "born"--sociopathy may be result of environment.

schizophrenic

psych theories: A mentally ill individual who suffers from disjointed thinking (disordered thinking)--logical associations are atypical of other people. Possibly from delusions and hallucinations. Paranoid schizophrenics suffer from delusions and hallucinations. Some vets from Vietname War.

dangerousness

psych theories: The likelihood that a given individual will later harm society or others. Dangerousness is often measured in terms of recidivism, or the likelihood that an individual will commit another crime within five years following arrest or release from confinement. Most crime-control strategies based on psych theories emphasize assessing personal dangerous thru testing and other efforts.

somatogenic causes

psych theories: based on physiological aspects of human organism--present for psychopaths -- 1) malfunctioning cns characterized by a low state of arousal, pushes someone to seek excitement 2) brain abnormalities

organic versus functional

psych theories: organic causes of psychosis: physical damage to or abnormalities in brain functional: no knownphysical cause of psychosis.

trait

psych theories: subtle personality patterson that tend ot endure throughout the lifie course and across social and culture context

psychogenic causes

psych theories: those rooted in early interpersonal experiences; include inability to form attachment to parents early in life; sudden separation from mother during first six months in life; other forms of insecurity during first few yeras of life. Often posited as a major psychogenic factor contributing to psychopathic development.

Psychoanalysis & conditions of crime

psychological school: 1) weak superego--can't responsibly control drive from id. Sex crimes, crimes of passion, murder, violent crimes. Psychopaths and sociopaths--cannot see beyond their own interests.

Thanatos

psychological school: Freud: Thanatos: we all have death instinct--unrecognized desire of animate to return to inanimate--smoking, speeding, skydiving, bad diets, picking fights, criminals who get caught

sublimation

psychological school: Freud: sublimation: necessary when direct pursuit of one's desires is not possible. Frustration (over disliking one's mother, though she controls rewards) might show itself symbolically later in life, in crimes against women

psychopath

psychological school: a person with a personality disorder, especially one manifested in aggressively antisocial behavior, which is often said to be the result of a poorly developed superego

id, ego, superego

psychological school: id: source of drives, which are seen as primarily sexual ego: rational mental entity, outlines paths thru which desire of the id can be fulfilled superego: guiding principle, like conscience; judges quality of alternatives presented by ego, according to standards of right and wrong acquired by personality

psychological school

psychological school: individual is primary unit of analysis; personality is major motivational element within individuals, the source of drives and motives; crimes result from inappropriately conditioned behavior or from abnormal, dysfunctional, or inappropriate mental processes within the personality; defective or abnormal mental processes may have a variety of causes, icluding a diseased mind and inappropriate learning or improper conditioning often occuring in early childhood.

psychopathology

psychological school: the study of psychological mental conditions--that is, mental illness

Psychoanalysis

psychological school: a theory of human behavior, based on the writings of Sigmund Freud, that sees personality as a complex composition of interacting mental entities.

Pavlov (1849-1936)

psychological school: associated with conditioning

personality

psychological school: the relatively stable set of psychological attributes that distinguish one person from another

Chicago school

soc approach, structure/org of society: A sociological approach that emphasizes demographics and geographics and that sees the social disorganization that characterizes delinquency areas as a major cause of criminality and victimization.

subculture of violence

soc approach, group dynamics & org: A cultural setting in which violence is a traditional and often accepted method of dispute resolution. Marvin Wolfgang & Franco Ferracuti (1950s)--wholesale and retail price for murder (who was killed, who did the killing). Killings that occurred w/in violent subgroups were more likely to be partially excused than those that happened elsewhere.

subcultural theory

soc approach, group dynamics & org: Group values may support criminal behavior. Enclaves formed by immigrants during early 20th century--soe immigrant groups had low crime rates, others had high crime rates.

illegitimate opportunity structure

soc approach, group dynamics & org: Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin--permits delinquent youths to achieve in ways that are outside of legitimate avenues to success

critiques of subcultural theory

soc approach, group dynamics & org: Self-reports of crime commission show that much of violence and crime occur outside of "criminal subcultures". Middle & upper-class criminals can avoid justice system, and don't enter official statistics. Criminal subcultures may be more visible than they are prevalent.

subculture

soc approach, group dynamics & org: group of people that participtae in a shared system of values and norms that are at variance with those of larger culture

reaction formation

soc approach, group dynamics & org: t he process whereby a person openly rejects that which he or she wants or aspires to but cannot obtain or achieve. Albert Cohen (b. 1918). Walter Miller described "focal concns" of subcultural participants: "trouble," "toughness," "excitement," "smartness," "fate," and "autonomy."

zone of transition

soc approach, structure, org of society: Zone two, once removed from center, had highest crime rate over time. "Zone of transition"--new immigrants groups moved into it as earlier ones became integrated into American culture and moved out. Crime depended on aspects of social structure of city--poverty, illiteracy, lack of schooling, unemployment, illigitmacy. All led to social disorganization.

Merton's categories

soc approach, structure/org of society: 1) conformists accept both goals and means society holds out as legitimate 2) innovators accept goals, but not the means--use illegal means to gain money, power, and success 3) ritualists reject reject success goals but still perform daily tasks iin conformity with social xpectations 4) retreatists reject both goals and means, drop out of soiety. 5) rebels desire to replace existing system--revolutionaries But other researchers believe that a criminal has to have normlessness, but also feel empowered

CPTED technique

soc approach, structure/org of society: 1) housing design or block layout--reduce availability of crime targets, remove barriers that prevent easy detection of offenders, increase physical obstacles to crime 2) land use--reduce routine exposure of offender to crime targets (walkways, paths, streets, etc.) 3)territorial features--use of territorial markers to foster conditions that show area is occupied by vigilant residents--cleanup,beautification 4) physical maintenance--control deterioration

social ecology theory

soc approach, structure/org of society: 1920s, Chicago--Robert Park & Ernest Burgess, Clifford Shaw & Henry McKay. Park & Shaw recognized that Chicago could be mapped according to social characteristics. Shaw & McKay adapted concentric zones to study of crime--center of city had highest crime rates. Link b/w physical location and crime.

defensible space theory

soc approach, structure/org of society: 2nd generation theory, developed ~ 1980. The belief that an area's physical features may be modified and structured so as to reduce crime rates in that area and to lower the fear of victimization that residents experience. Physsical features impact fear and victimization.

social disorganization

soc approach, structure/org of society: A condition said to exist when a group is faced with social change, uneven development of culture, maladaptiveness, disharmony, conflict, and lack of consensus.

broken windows theory

soc approach, structure/org of society: A perspective on crime causation that holds that the physical deterioration of an area leads to higher crime rates and an increased concern for personal safety among residents. Research shows CPTED is effective.

anomie

soc approach, structure/org of society: A socially pervasive condition of normlessness. Also, a disjunction between approved goals and means. Durkheim (1858-1917) and Robert Merton (1910-2003). Disjunction b/w socially acceptable goals and means in Amreican society.

sociological perspectives: fundamental assumptions

soc approach: 1) social groups, social inst'ns, arrangements of society, social roles all provide proper focus for criminological study 2) group dynamics, group organizations, subgroup relationships form causal nexus out of which crime develops 3) structure of society, relative degree of social dis/organization are important factors of criminal behavior