Critical Thinking & Analysis Final Exam Practice (study.com)

How many premises are required in a categorical argument?

2 Explanation: A categorical argument involves two premises and a conclusion. The information from the two premises prove the conclusion, but too many or too few premises invalidate the argument.

What is utilitarianism? 1) A theory that the ends justify the means 2) A way of decision making that focuses on the consequences of actions and how they affect the greater good 3) A moral school of thought that seeks to maximize utility of actions 4) All of these answers are correct.

4) All of these answers are correct. Explanation: Both forms of utilitarianism desire to maximize utility by judging the results or consequences of actions based on the impact those actions have on humankind.

Law of Non-Contradiction

A statement cannot be both true and false.

Angles in a triangle adds up to 180 degrees. Triangle LMN has two angles that add up to 135 degrees. Prove that the other angle is 45 degrees. Which of the following could we use to show our proof? Algebra only Deductive reasoning only Algebra or deductive reasoning Geometry only

Algebra or deductive reasoning

Critical thinking comes naturally to the master thinker, but they regularly do what to determine whether or not they are incorrect? Self-evaluate Consider other perspectives Alter their process All of these are correct.

All of these are correct. Explanation: The master thinker has an acute awareness that they could be wrong or self-deceptive, which is why they regularly self-evaluate, consider differing perspectives, and change their critical thinking processes.

Which of the following is an example of modern propaganda? Anti-smoking advertisements Newspapers Popular music Television commercials

Anti-smoking advertisements

Marcus Quintilian felt that to achieve true rhetoric, a speaker must have which of the following attributes above all else? Be ethical Be a good speaker Be brave Be loud Have something worthwhile to say

Be ethical

Causal reasoning uses logic and facts to determine _____ relationships. Cause and Effect Necessary and Dependent Positive and Negative Past and Future

Cause and Effect

Which of the stages of development involves an individual recognizing that there is some flaw in their thinking? Master thinker Challenged thinker Advanced thinker None of these is correct.

Challenged Thinker Explanation: The challenged thinker has just begun to recognize that they could be wrong or that their logic is flawed.

Which of the following is an example of vague writing?

Electronics are sometimes hard to use.

The idea that the Earth is at the center of the universe is most related to: None of these answers are correct Lunarcentrism Occam's razor Heliocentrism Geocentrism

Geocentrism

Valid inductive reasoning has three elements, which are: I) Premise, supporting information, and validity II) Premise, validity, and viability III) Premise, supporting information, and conclusion IV) Premise, deduction, and conclusion

III) Premise, supporting information, and conclusion

What is the first step in evaluating reasoning in an essay or article? Identify the conclusion. Identify the premise. Evaluate the information. Reject or accept the conclusion. Begin with a counter argument.

Identify the conclusion.

Law of Identity

If a statement is true, then it is true.

Joint Method of Agreement and Difference

If two or more instances of an event have only one thing in common, while the instances in which it does not occur all share the absence of that thing, then the item is a likely cause

Why is this a fallacy? A car salesman emphasizes only the top-selling car to customers at a car dealership. It's not a fallacy. It is trying to convince the customer to buy based solely on the popularity of the vehicle, whether or not it actually fits their real needs. It is focused on what is logical, not on what is most persuasive. You might be wrong about which car is the most popular.

It is trying to convince the customer to buy based solely on the popularity of the vehicle, whether or not it actually fits their real needs.

Who were the leading scholars responsible for modern utilitarianism? Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill Simon Pegg Socrates and Plato Jeremy Mill and John Bentham

Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill

What measures the amount of uncertainty about the generalization of the results in a survey? Probability Margin of error Control Anecdotal evidence

Margin of error Explanation: The margin of error describes the likely range (within a particular confidence interval) of the survey as to what range of results might be found studying the general population.

What is another name for the principle of parsimony? The cosmological argument Pascal's wager Occam's Razor Ad hominem

Occam's Razor Explanation: The argument, developed by Willam of Ockham, an English scholar, argued that 'plurality should not be posited without necessity' advocating simplicity as a basis for establishing the burden of proof.

Which of the following words might indicate a premise: Since Therefore Thus All of the answers are correct.

Since Explanation: One possible clue that a premise is being provided is the word 'since,' although other words may be used.

Which of the following is a strong claim for a short essay? My favorite color is blue. The government ought to do more to prevent crime. The weather lately has been horrible. Strong crime prevention programs in elementary schools are necessary to decrease criminal activity in the long term. None of these

Strong crime prevention programs in elementary schools are necessary to decrease criminal activity in the long term.

Why is it important to read the abstract of a scholarly journal article first?

The abstract is the summary of the article and it helps you decide if it's relevant to what you're researching and tells you what the article will be focused on.

What is deontological ethics concerned with? The expected consequences of an action. The character of the person acting. The intentions of the action. The adherence to scripture.

The intentions of the action. Explanation: Deontological ethics focus on intention and whether the motivation for acting is ethical.

Allyne is writing an argumentative essay in favor of expanded women's rights in the workplace. Where should she include background information about the topic of women's rights in general? The introduction The body of the essay The conclusion In the supporting evidence

The introduction Explanation: In the introduction, which is the first paragraph of the essay, the author will explain the issue and state her position. In some essays, the introduction should also include background information. The introduction is where Allyne should include background information about women's rights.

What is the negation of 'Triangles are not squares'? Triangles are three sided. Triangles don't have four sides. Triangles are squares. Triangles are not circles.

Triangles are squares. Explanation: The negation of 'Triangles are not squares' removes the not from the statement Negation = opposite

When does self-interested thinking become a problem? When it blocks you from thinking objectively and treating others fairly When you balance taking care of your own needs with having empathy for others Any thinking that focuses on oneself is problematic When you put others' interests above your own

When it blocks you from thinking objectively and treating others fairly

Why is it a problem to affirm the consequent? You can miss out on other explanations for the consequent. You are ignoring proper sentence structure. Your argument will always lead to a conclusion that will turn out to be false. None of the answers are correct.

You can miss out on other explanations for the consequent.

What is an example of a categorical imperative? You can try to be nice to people. You should not lie. Do what produces the greatest good It is ok to steal if you're hungry.

You should not lie. Explanation: The categorical imperative is a universal rule and will take the form of ''should'' in formulation.

Logos

an appeal based on logic or reason

Guilt by Association

calls someone's character into question by examining the character of that person's associates

Method of Agreement

compares cases that "agree" in regard to the phenomenon to be explained

Method of Difference

compares cases that "disagree" in regard to the outcome to be explained

Propaganda is _____ specific types of communication. 1) used only for 2) limited to 3) only used in 4) not limited to

not limited to

Which of the following uses of tu quoque is used in the following dialog? Person 1: 'Canada has much better health care than the United States.' Person 2: 'If you like Canada so much, why don't you move there.'

tu quoque in response to support

Which of the following is an example of bias by labeling? 1) A congressman attends the Muslim wedding of a close friend. A newspaper reports on his attendance, calling the congressman an 'Iraqi sympathizer.' 2) A president attends the Muslim wedding of a close friend. He was wearing casual attire and this became front-page news. 3) A congressman attends the Muslim wedding of a close friend. A newspaper reports on his attendance, while not mentioning that the Muslim was a veteran of the war in Iraq. 4) A congressman attends the Muslim wedding of a close friend. A newspaper reports on his attendance as well as the fact that he was present at the ceremonial opening of construction of a mosque in Chicago.

1) A congressman attends the Muslim wedding of a close friend. A newspaper reports on his attendance, calling the congressman an 'Iraqi sympathizer.' Explanation: Bias by labeling occurs when a news outlet uses critical labels to identify politicians or groups. It can also occur when a news outlet fails to label biased points of view.

In the context of philosophy, which of the following best describes an argument? A loud fight between two or more people A set of beliefs that provide meaning in a person's life A discussion about preferences and opinions A series of assertions meant to demonstrate that a certain claim is valid

A series of assertions meant to demonstrate that a certain claim is valid Explanation: An argument, in the philosophical sense, involves a series of assertions meant to demonstrate that a certain claim is true.

In order, what are the common elements found in a scholarly journal article?

Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, Summary and Conclusions, Acknowledgments, References

Why should we be suspicious of someone using ad hominem arguments to knock down someone else's argument? They may not have facts to support their argument They may be trying to distract us by being funny or clever They may be trying to get us to agree with them so that we can feel like we are on the correct side of the argument All of the answers are correct

All of the answers are correct

How does Anne Frank's writing style impact the reader?

Anne's writing style is often friendly and conversational and she uses 'you' so it feels more as if she's talking to a person, which creates a closeness with the reader. She also shows her dry humor, has an advanced vocabulary, and is often reflective and expressive, so the reader can get a clear picture of who she is.

Law of Excluded Middle

Any statement is either true or false.

Pathos

Appeal to emotion

How can we identify who the author's audience is when reading a news article?

By examining the author's choice of words, vocabulary, and any assumptions he or she may make about what his/her audience already knows about the topic, we can identify whether the audience is educated about the situation or first learning about the basics based on how advanced the writing style is.

Ethos

Character, credibility, and moral values

Which school of moral reasoning is often contrasted with deontology? Consequentialism Virtue Ethics Duty Ethics Particularism

Consequentialism

Which of the following sets of qualities are seen as important to critical thinking? Curiosity and creativity Creativity and condemnation Curiosity and chastisement Condemnation and cunning

Curiosity and creativity

Which of the following involve the tendency to focus exclusively on our own needs and the needs of our own group? Egocentrism and sociocentrism Critical thinking and logical reasoning Having empathy and questioning assumptions None of the answers are correct

Egocentrism and sociocentrism Explanation: Egocentrism is the tendency to focus solely on your own needs, like tunnel vision that does not consider the thoughts, feelings and needs of others. Sociocentrism is when a group of people is focused only on their group's perspective.

Which of the following is NOT an example of a claim? A healthy breakfast is necessary for memory retention. Online video streaming has made video rental stores obsolete. Women should be paid the same as men for similar work. Facebook has users all over the world.

Facebook has users all over the world. Explanation: An argument's statement of its position about an issue is its claim.

What is a type of imperative? Hypothetical. Optional. Reversible. Reductionist.

Hypothetical. Explanation: Imperatives can be hypothetical (if you desire X, then do Y) or categorical (do X) or (do not do Y).

Take the following premise and conclusion and identify the unstated premise: I) Cats are better than dogs II) Dogs and parrots are the same III) Cuddlier animals are better IV) Dogs don't cuddle.

III) Cuddlier animals are better

Which of the following is a justified claim? I) People worry too much about distracted driving. II) I'm more capable than other people in how I text and drive. III) I've never had an accident while texting, so it's not going to happen to me. IV) None of the answers are correct.

IV) None of the answers are correct. Explanation: Justified claims are conclusions that are valid and sound based on evidence. None of these are.

What is the lead in a news article? It is the opening paragraph and it includes an explanation about why something is happening. It is the opening paragraph and it includes who, what, when, where, how and why. It is the concluding paragraph and it restates the author's position on a topic. This section can draw parallels between this issue or event with similar cases or it references similar historical incidents. It provides other important facts or details to inform readers and to anticipate and answer any questions readers might ask. Direct quotes from witnesses or people involved on both sides are also included here.

It is the opening paragraph and it includes who, what, when, where, how and why.

Which of the following is an example of an appeal to popularity fallacy? Most people believe that parking tickets add points to your driver's license. Yet you cannot believe everything you hear. Parking tickets involve a fine. Therefore it's best to avoid getting a parking ticket. Most people say that the police use radar in unfair ways. Therefore, the use of radar should be banned. Parking tickets and radar are ways that vehicular laws are enforced. They make use of fines and consequences to compel people to obey the law.

Most people say that the police use radar in unfair ways. Therefore, the use of radar should be banned.

Take the following premise and conclusion and identify the unstated premise: Premise: All x are y Conclusion: Therefore, no x are z all y are z No z are y Some y are not x No y are z

No y are z Explanation: The conclusion tells us that no x are y and we know that all x are y. We reason that the arguer is not stating that no y are z which supports the conclusion.

Beth had to work late and does not have time to go to the gym and run errands before picking up her daughter from daycare. Beth decides to run a couple of errands on the way to the daycare center since she needs to pick up her dry cleaning and prescriptions before going out of town on business later in the week. The process that Beth went through to reach her decision is known as which of the following? Propositional Logic Deductive reasoning Reasoning Valid Argument

Reasoning Explanation: Reasoning is the action of constructing thoughts into a valid argument. This is something you probably do every day. When you make a decision, you are using reasoning, taking different thoughts and making those thoughts into reasons why you should go with one option over the other options available.

Conjunction in a Venn Diagram

The overlapping parts of the venn diagram

Why is it important for the conclusion of a persuasive speech to include a call to action? I) It shows that the speaker has considered what the opposing side would argue. II) It proves that the speaker has already anticipated what the opposing side would argue and counters it with what people should do to support his or her position. III) It persuades undecided members of the audience to join the speaker's side. IV) It encourages the audience to do something to fix a problem. V) It motivates the audience to take a specific action such as vote for or against something, sign a petition, buy a product, etc.

V) It motivates the audience to take a specific action such as vote for or against something, sign a petition, buy a product, etc.

Which series of actions best characterizes the movement of a media message?

Author - purpose - audience Explanation: Authors construct purposeful messages and send them to the audience. Authors identify an intended audience, but cannot ensure that the audience interprets their message exactly the way they intended it.

Why is it a problem to use fallacies in your arguments? I) You may come to incorrect conclusions. II) You may mislead a person who is listening to your argument. III) Others may recognize your error and this will weaken your argument. IV) All of the answers are correct.

IV) All of the answers are correct.

Which of the following laws states that a statement such as 'The book is red' cannot be both true and false? Law of non-contradiction Law of the excluded middle Law of identity Law of particularities

Law of non-contradiction Explanation: The law of non-contradiction states that it is not possible for a statement to be true and false at the same time in the exact same manner.

How many propositions are there in the statement below? I will buy you a huge bacon cheeseburger and she will wash your car if and only if you give me your big screen television. 1 2 3 4

3

Which of the following is recommended during the critical thinking process? Considering the consequences of your conclusion Judging all points of view as equally valid and acceptable Avoiding focusing on statistical evidence since most people care more about personal stories Avoiding discussing the origins of your point of view

Considering the consequences of your conclusion Explanation: The critical thinking process helps us to arrive at a conclusion, and then consider the consequences of what we have decided.

Which of the following appeals, when combined with pathos, increases persuasiveness? Ethos and logos Logical fallacies Pathos isn't used with other appeals Slippery slope

Ethos and logos Explanation: It's important to keep ethos, logos and pathos in balance for effective persuasive writing

How does a logical fallacy weaken an argument? I) It distracts from the main issue or it creates connections and predictions that cannot be supported. II) It changes the argument from a presentation of facts to an ad hominem attack against an opponent. III) It does not present all the necessary information to support one's argument. IV) It uses feelings instead of facts to draw a conclusion.

I) It distracts from the main issue or it creates connections and predictions that cannot be supported.

What is inductive reasoning? I) A type of intuitive reasoning II) When specific evidence is used to draw general conclusions III) When general conclusions are used to draw conclusions about something specific IV) All answers are correct

II) When specific evidence is used to draw general conclusions

What is a question that won't help you reason through a morally complex situation? How do I know that this action is right or wrong? Why might someone else see this situation differently from me? Will actions to act or retaliate actually make this situation better? Is there such thing as moral truth?

Is there such thing as moral truth? Explanation: Practical oral skepticism asks us to be open to other moral viewpoints and ideas, but asking whether or not there is moral truth won't be helpful in making a complex moral choice.

Which method of causal reasoning seeks to only establish factors present in one outcome that are absent in the opposite result? Method of Difference Method of Agreement Joint Method of Agreement and Difference Method of Concomitant Variation

Method of Difference Explanation: The method of difference looks for factors present in one outcome that are absent in another outcome to establish the causal difference between the two results.

Which of the following is a statistical (inductive) argument? If I just ate a peanut, then I just ate a legume. I just ate a peanut. So, I just ate a legume. I really feel quite strongly that I must be right. All people are mortal. Socrates is a person. So, Socrates is mortal. Everyone I have asked in my neighborhood gets the daily paper. So probably everyone in my neighborhood gets the daily paper.

Everyone I have asked in my neighborhood gets the daily paper. So probably everyone in my neighborhood gets the daily paper. Explanation: The first answer is modus ponens, a logical form. Appeals to emotion are neither logical nor statistical arguments.

What would have been a better approach for Karina to convince her friends that continuing to hike is safe? I) Citing guidelines she had been provided by a park ranger for how to tell when it is safe to continue II) Telling them about how none of her friends was ever hit by lightning III) Giving them the precise number of times that she herself had hiked up the mountain without a problem IV) All of the answers are correct.

I) Citing guidelines she had been provided by a park ranger for how to tell when it is safe to continue

What factor in utilitarian analysis would seek to mitigate or reduce suffering? Act Utilitarianism Greatest Good Rule Least Harm Rule Rule Utilitarianism

Least Harm Rule Explanation: The least harm rule says that actions should not be evaluated on whether they promote the greater good, but whether they reduce or result in less suffering.

Which of the following best describes a reason self-awareness is important to critical thinking? 1) A person must be able to acknowledge their own ways of thinking and believing in order to compare them to other ways of thinking and believing 2) A person must be willing to convince others that their way of thinking is the only right way 3) A person must be skilled at making themselves look knowledgeable and important even if they do not have evidence to make their case 4) A person must stay focused on their own point of view so that others don't change their views

1) A person must be able to acknowledge their own ways of thinking and believing in order to compare them to other ways of thinking and believing

Which of the following is considered most effective by those who value critical thinking when making arguments? Evidence Opinion Intuition Emotion

Evidence Explanation: For a critical thinker, balancing intuition with external evidence is important. This helps avoid coming to a conclusion such as the one Zoey made when she believed intuitively that she was not at risk by texting and driving.

Read the following passage and determine what kind of argument is used: Whenever someone knocks at my door, the dog starts to bark about it and whenever I knock on the table, he barks about it. The sound of knocking must cause the barking Analogical Argument Generalization Causal Argument Deductive Argument

Generalization Explanation: This argument examines what causes the dog's barking and, by looking at different scenarios, reasons it is caused by the knocking as the common factor in the barking.

In philosophy, what method is typically used to reach a conclusion? I) Establish premises that connect and lead to the conclusion II) Assert conclusions with forceful gestures and voice tone III) Avoid discussing other viewpoints since it weakens your own argument IV) A conclusion always comes at the end of a text

I) Establish premises that connect and lead to the conclusion Explanation: A conclusion is the result of linking together each premise in an argument to lead to a specific claim.

How do philosophers view the naturalistic fallacy? I) Everyone agrees it is a clear-cut error. II) No one believes this fallacy exists anymore. III) Some philosophers believe this form of argument is a fallacy while others do not believe it is always a fallacy to argue this way. IV) The issue of naturalistic fallacies is only a topic among scientists and not philosophers.

III) Some philosophers believe this form of argument is a fallacy while others do not believe it is always a fallacy to argue this way.

What role does a premise serve in your argument? I) As a way for those listening to your argument to understand your thought process II) A method of establishing a rationale for your conclusion III) As an idea that will likely be accepted by those listening to your argument IV) All of the answers are correct.

IV) All of the answers are correct.

What does the poisoning the well fallacy attempt to do? It attempts to turn the audience against the opponent's argument by turning them against the opponent based on unrelated information. It attempts to discredit an opponent's argument by implying that a demonized group has already made the same argument before. It attempts to discredit an opponent's argument by making unsupportable predictions of the outcome if the opponent wins. It attempts to appeal to an authority figure without presenting facts and drawing logical conclusions.

It attempts to turn the audience against the opponent's argument by turning them against the opponent based on unrelated information. Explanation: The poisoning the well fallacy attempts to discredit an opponent's argument by attacking the opponent's character and motives prior to hearing their case.

What type of argument is this argument? All peanuts are legumes. I just ate a peanut. Thus. I just ate a legume. Logical/deductive Statistical Ingenious Strong

Logical/deductive Explanation: Given the premises, there is no way for what I ate to not be legume. Strong refers to the success of an argument, not the type of argument. In a sense, deductive arguments are the strongest possible arguments.

Why is it a fallacy to say that all well-dressed customers will have credit problems? Not all customers will match this stereotype. Well-dressed customers will always have the best credit. Poorly dressed customers will be the ones with credit problems. Rich customers wear shabby clothing when shopping for a car to try to get a better deal.

Not all customers will match this stereotype.

The ability to consider information or subjects outside of biases or personal beliefs is referred to as what? Objectivity Genius Criticism None of these is correct.

Objectivity Explanation: Objectivity is the foundation of critical thinking and it is also what makes it difficult.

Why is it always important to anticipate and refute possible opposing views in your argumentative paper? Otherwise, your reader will not be aware that there are any views in opposition to your own Otherwise, your reader will be more likely to accept the position that you're arguing Otherwise, your reader may not let go of the opposing views that he or she may have about your essay topic Otherwise, you will be more likely to encourage a consensus among your audience on your topic

Otherwise, your reader may not let go of the opposing views that he or she may have about your essay topic Explanation: Because the success of this type of essay is so tied up with your audience - with convincing your readers that your position on the subject is the right one - you have to really pay special attention to your audience. What views and opinions do they already hold before they read your essay? Are they open and receptive to your point of view? Or are they more skeptical of your position?

What is the convergence of evidence? 1) The way that all the evidence supports a conclusion. 2) The way that there is no evidence for a false conclusion. 3) The way that most of the evidence supports a conclusion. 4) The way in which evidence splits evenly in debate.

3) The way that most of the evidence supports a conclusion. Explanation: The convergence of evidence refers to the way that most of the evidence supports one conclusion.

assumption

A belief with no proof to back up your claim

Metaphor

A comparison without using like or as

argument based on mathematics

A deductive argument in which the conclusion depends on some purely arithmetic or geometric computation or measurement

argument from definition

A deductive argument in which the conclusion is claimed to depend merely on the definition of some word or phrase used in the premise or conclusion

What is a logical fallacy?

A fault in an argument involving irrelevant information, false conclusions, or distractions

Personification

A figure of speech in which an object or animal is given human feelings, thoughts, or attitudes

Anecdote

A story told from a person's experience

Syllogism

A syllogism is the structure of a categorical argument in which there are two premises and a conclusion. The first premise is the major premise, while the second premise is the minor premise.

How might a person thinking critically best respond to other points of view?

Acknowledge and consider the other points of view

Why is act deontology sometimes called particularist deontology?

Act deontology relies on the particular situation to determine what is moral.

Which of the following is an example of a point of view? A universal helmet law is the most effective way for states to save lives related to motorcycle accidents. Helmet laws interfere with personal freedoms. Partial helmet laws can play a role in saving lives if properly enforced.

All of the answers are correct

In order to really pick apart and analyze a speech, we need to:

All of the answers listed.

Look at the following passage and identify the type of argument used: When John's back hurt, he did some stretches and it got better. Mary hurt her back and John reasons that the stretches he did would also help her.

Analogical Argument

When you are critically thinking about a problem, which of the following should you do first?

Analyze and asses your information

Identify a main feature of the fallacy known as appeal to popularity.

Arguing that the majority opinion determines what is true.

Which of the following statements about assumptions in written work is FALSE?

Assumptions are facts that can be proven with evidence.

In the context of critical writing, which of the following is a persuasive statement?

Because Martin Luther King, Jr.'s work was incomplete at his death, modern movements should finish what he started.

Types of Persuasion

Big names: use experts or famous people to support your argument Logos: uses facts to support their claim Pathos: Appealing to audience's emotions Kairos: Building a sense of urgency

Utilitarianism is what type of ethical theory?

Consequentialist Explanation: Utilitarianism is a type of consequentialist ethics that looks to the results of an action to determine its moral worth.

A study tracks people who drink coffee developing stomach ulcers over the course of 5 years. What is a good question to ask about this study?

Could the ulcers have other causes?

Which of these helps you judge the authority of an article?

Credibility of the author and the source

What type of skepticism denies the possibility of moral knowledge?

Dogmatic moral skepticism Explanation: Dogmatic moral skepticism denies that we can know anything about morality including whether actions like murder or theft are actually wrong.

The following sentence uses which of the three persuasive methods? I have interviewed over 100 doctors on this topic, and all of my research helps to prove my point.

Ethos Explanation: the speaker seeks to justify his/her argument by way of justifying his/her knowledge on the topic.

What kind of conditional statement is used here? ''If you put the oven up too high, you'll burn the cake.''

Factual conditional statement.

The major dimensions of critical thinking include all EXCEPT which of the following?

Free association

Look at the following passage and identify the type of reasoning: In a survey of 400 adults, it was found that 60% preferred chocolate ice cream and 40% preferred vanilla. This means that vanilla is less popular than chocolate.

Generalization

Read the following passage and identify the type of reasoning used: Melissa takes the taxi in Boston 4 times while she is on vacation and every taxi driver is rude to her. Melissa reasons that taxi drivers in Boston are rude.

Generalization

Thirty-three days after my departure from Cadiz I reached the Indian sea, where I discovered many islands, thickly peopled, of which I took possession without resistance in the name of our most illustrious Monarch, by public proclamation and with unfurled banners. What are a couple of suggestive words or phrases that Columbus uses in this letter excerpt to communicate his message that he is in control?

He says he took possession without resistance, which makes it sound as if the native people were fine with him claiming their land, or that he took the land easily.

What do you need to avoid when stating your claim in an argument?

Hedges: avoid using hedges, such as 'I think' when making your claim in an argument

Which of the following is an objective open-ended question that could be asked during critical reasoning?

How did America's entrance into World War II affect international human rights?

Which of the following is a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration?

Hyperbole

Choose the answer that best reflects the type of argument in the following statement: If I eat all of the cookies, there will be no more cookies left. If there are no more cookies left, then my roommate is going to be furious. Therefore, if I eat all the cookies, my roommate is going to be furious

Hypothetical syllogism

Which portion of the argument affirms the consequent, if the argument is: If I have caffeine, I'll have extra energy. I have extra energy, so I must have had caffeine.

I have extra energy, so I must have had caffeine.

What is another way to describe intuition? I) A sense of knowing something without being sure what your logical reasons are for feeling that way II) Using evidence to argue your case and make a justified claim III) A critical thinking skill that is greatly valued in all philosophical traditions IV) An aspect of human experience that is not valued in any philosophical tradition

I) A sense of knowing something without being sure what your logical reasons are for feeling that way Explanation: Most people do experience a sense of intuition about certain situations in life, coming to a conclusion without a rational explanation or an internal sense of knowing something to be true without knowing why.

Several reporters approach the governor as he exits a meeting. They shout questions, asking about his plan to deal with prison overcrowding. He replies, 'I don't have time for this.' One reporter prints that the governor isn't concerned about prison overcrowding and won't make the time to correct the issue. Why is this an example of bias by spin? I) Because the reporter interpreted an objective fact in a subjective manner II) Because the reporter asked a question about a controversial issue III) Because if the governor didn't have time he should have said, 'No comment.' IV) Because this question should only be asked if it is the topic of the meeting the governor left

I) Because the reporter interpreted an objective fact in a subjective manner Explanation: Bias by spin occurs when a media outlet interprets a story in one way to the exclusion of other interpretations.

Which of the following is the best description of deductive arguments? I) If the premises are valid, the conclusion of a deductive argument is viewed as guaranteed and not simply the likely case. II) The conclusion of a deductive is viewed as the likely case but not guaranteed. III) Deductive arguments tend to start with specific details that lead to more generalized conclusions. IV) None of the answers are correct.

I) If the premises are valid, the conclusion of a deductive argument is viewed as guaranteed and not simply the likely case. Explanation: As long as the premises of a deductive argument are accurate and valid, the conclusion will be valid. This is the nature of this type of reasoning.

Choose the best way to explain the problem used in naturalistic fallacies? I) The argument jumps from facts to value judgments. II) The argument jumps from morality to religiosity. III) The argument jumps from talking about what is good to talking about what is bad. IV) The argument involves attacking another person's character.

I) The argument jumps from facts to value judgments.

Why is it a problem to affirm the consequent? I) You can miss out on other explanations for the consequent. II) You are ignoring proper sentence structure. III) Your argument will always lead to a conclusion that will turn out to be false. IV) None of the answers are correct.

I) You can miss out on other explanations for the consequent.

Critical thinking assists with clarity in writing by: I) building a strong outline of main points. II) forming a long thesis that includes all possible information. III) preventing excessively persuasive writing. IV) summarizing the necessary facts.

I) building a strong outline of main points. Explanation: Critical thinking assists with clarity in writing by building a strong outline as each open-ended question and its answer can be transformed into a main point. A thesis doesn't need to be long or include all possible information. Critical reasoning actually supports persuasive writing and prevents simple summaries of facts.

Consider the following argument: Everyone I have asked in my neighborhood gets the daily paper. So probably everyone in my neighborhood gets the daily paper. What is one potential problem with this argument? I) It is a simple observation and not really an argument all. II) If there's a reason why I don't speak to my neighbors who don't get the daily paper, then my sample is not representative. III) It is not written in appropriate language. IV) None of the answers are correct; it is a logical or deductive argument and there is nothing wrong with it.

II) If there's a reason why I don't speak to my neighbors who don't get the daily paper, then my sample is not representative.

Which of the following is the best example of a subjective opinion, based on the information provided in the lesson? I) Distracted driving greatly increases the likelihood of having an accident. II) People worry too much about the impact of distracted driving. III) Both dialing and texting on a phone increase the likelihood of a crash. IV) Hand-held phones and other portable devices play a role in distracted driving.

II) People worry too much about the impact of distracted driving. Explanation: Subjective opinions are based on our interpretation of very limited information where judgments calls are made before weighing the evidence.

A letter is a written, typed, or printed form of communication that can be considered a _____. I) secondary source because it is not necessarily reliable II) primary source because it is a document written or created during the time being studied III) secondary source because it provides information that has been passed on from one person to another person IV) historical document that provides reliable historical information and can be analyzed to better understand the author and that time period V) an unreliable source that can contain facts but often includes biased information that is not always historically accurate

II) primary source because it is a document written or created during the time being studied

When it comes to expressing opinions in editorials... I) this is considered unprofessional since all content inside a newspaper must refrain from showing any biases or stating any particular views on current issues. II) the writer must take a clear stance and be persuasive since editorials are meant to influence readers. III) all sides of the issue must be covered so that the editorial serves as an informative, unbiased piece of news. IV) they must be clearly stated about an issue that has already been discussed at length and is no longer controversial. V) the opinions must reflect the views of the majority.

II) the writer must take a clear stance and be persuasive since editorials are meant to influence readers.

When analyzing a book review, what are two questions we should be asking ourselves? I) Do we agree with the reviewer, and does he/she carefully describe every plot point in the novel being reviewed? II) Is the introductory paragraph engaging and informative? Does the reviewer have a clear style that includes literary devices and descriptive phrases? Does it have a clear and concise thesis? Does the reviewer successfully persuade us to read the book? III) Is the thesis well-supported with specific examples and details from the book? Does the review persuade readers to read or not read the book based on the reviewer's thesis, support, and critical analysis of the book? IV) Does the review persuade readers to read or not read the book based on the reviewer's thesis, support, and critical analysis of the book? Does the review provide enough biographical information about the author?

III) Is the thesis well-supported with specific examples and details from the book? Does the review persuade readers to read or not read the book based on the reviewer's thesis, support, and critical analysis of the book?

What do you need to make a reasonable generalization in a survey? I) Personal experience as a member of the group II) A statistically biased sample. III) A group that does not represent the population. IV) A random sample of significant size

IV) A random sample of significant size Explanation: It is important that you gather a random sample that is statistically significant from a representative group to make a valid generalization. It is not necessary to have personal experience as a member of the group.

In the context of critical writing, which of the following is a persuasive statement? I) I think that Martin Luther King, Jr. was an activist whom we should strive to emulate, including his commitment to non-violence. II) Martin Luther King, Jr. strived to inspire positive social change and justice. III) The legacy of Martin Luther King, Jr. includes the passage of the Civil Rights Act. IV) Because Martin Luther King, Jr.'s work was incomplete at his death, modern movements should finish what he started.

IV) Because Martin Luther King, Jr.'s work was incomplete at his death, modern movements should finish what he started. Explanation: The last statement is persuasive because it objectively demonstrates how historical facts and principles should be applied today. The first option is subjective because it's merely based on personal opinion. The second and third sentences are basic summaries of facts with no calls to action.

A strong editorial states the opposition's point of view and then... I) specifically points the finger at a particular person who represents that group. II) provides facts, examples, and/or quotations to further support the opposing side. III) Editorials never state the opposition's point of view. IV) it refutes it by providing facts, examples, and/or quotations that serve to further support the writer's position. V) provides a hook.

IV) it refutes it by providing facts, examples, and/or quotations that serve to further support the writer's position.

What is the first step a viewer should take toward identifying a media message?

Identify author and purpose

Inductive Validity

If the premises are true, the conclusion is likely to be true

Take the following premise and conclusion and identify the unstated premise: We did not win the lottery, so we can't go to Italy.

If we win the lottery, we can go to Italy.

Which philosopher proposed deontology? Immanuel Kant John Stuart Mills Rene Descartes Socrates

Immanuel Kant Explanation: Immanuel Kant was the philosopher that proposed deontology, a school of thought that says that an action is moral regardless of its outcome and that taking a moral action is only a moral choice if it is only done because it is right to do so and not for personal gain.

What is an example of an assumption you might make if you are arguing that universal helmet laws should be created and enforced in all states?

In certain circumstances, the protection of public safety must outweigh individual freedoms.

Skepticism: Involves having a healthy questioning attitude about new information that you are exposed to and not blindly believing everything everyone tells you Is the desire to learn more information and seek evidence as well as being open to new ideas Is the ability to admit that your opinions and ideas are wrong when faced with new convincing evidence that states otherwise Involves resolutely rejecting or harshly criticizing everything in an opinionated manner

Involves having a healthy questioning attitude about new information that you are exposed to and not blindly believing everything everyone tells you

What is deductive validity?

It is impossible for the conclusion to be true if the premise is false

Why is it important for the conclusion of a persuasive speech to include a call to action?

It motivates the audience to take a specific action such as vote for or against something, sign a petition, buy a product, etc.

Why is it important for a professional book review to have a thesis in the introductory paragraph?

It provides the reader with a clear opinion-based statement that shows what the reviewer thought of the book. The reader then knows that the details provided in the body paragraphs should support the reviewer's thesis.

What can we use to provide the context of a given study or paper in academics?

Meta-studies

How do we know whether an explanation is true?

Most of the evidence supports the explanation

Which of the following is the best example of a generalization?

Most of the millennials I know prefer streaming movies rather than buying them, so that is probably true of most of that generation.

Which of the following is the best example of a deductive argument from definition? My next door neighbor is always grouchy. Therefore, he is never in a good mood. Horse-related activities are risky. Skiing is risky. Skiing is a horse-related activity. Listening to music at high volumes can cause hearing loss. Hearing loss can create challenges. I should avoid listening to music at high volumes. Speaking in public can be anxiety-inducing. I don't want to feel anxious. Therefore, I'll avoid speaking in public.

My next door neighbor is always grouchy. Therefore, he is never in a good mood. Explanation: Since grouchy is essentially another word for a bad mood, this is an argument from definition (grouchy equals a bad mood). The horse/skiing answer does not use logical reasoning, even though at first glance it may look similar to syllogisms. The other answers may involve solid reasoning, but do not represent argument by definition.

Which of the following is an example of ambiguous writing?

People with disabilities can talk to others by making signs with their hands. Explanation: This sentence is ambiguous because 'people with disabilities' is open-ended and unspecific. The sentence on 'speaking with your hands' is quite vague and very unclear. The other two sentences are well-defined and communicated.

Ethan is trying to convince Serena to go to a movie with him instead of studying for her mid-terms. This situation is an example of:

Persuasion

Which of the development stages involves actively using critical thinking in order to improve one's skills?

Practicing

What type of conditional statement is this? ''If we don't rise to the occasion, we will be left behind. ''

Predictive inverse conditional statement.

Critical thinking standards include all EXCEPT which of the following?

Prejudice

_____ is the branch of logic that studies ways of joining and/or modifying entire propositions, statements or sentences to form more complicated propositions, statements or sentences.

Propositional Logic

Why is it important for readers to identify stereotypes, biases, and assumptions in written work?

Recognizing these factors helps readers think critically to avoid being influenced about how they feel about people or things.

Alliteration

Repetition of initial consonant sounds

Asking whether or not the testimony of those who claim to have been abducted by U.F.O.'s is sufficient proof that aliens exist is an example of what kind of inquiry?

Skepticism

Core skills in critical thinking

Skepticism, curiosity, and humility

Predictive inverse conditional statement

Statement uses negative terms like "Don't" and can't be stated as the predictive "If not p, then not q"

What is deductive reasoning?

Taking information regarding a large set and applying it to a member of that set

If the premise is untrue, what does that mean for the conclusion?

The conclusion must be rejected.

The name for the appeal to ignorance fallacy comes from what aspect of it?

The lack of information used to come to a conclusion

The primary problem with the false dilemma fallacy is:

The options provided in the argument are too limited

Which of the following best defines logos?

The use of logic to persuade the reader

A study shows that increases in GDP occur when corporate tax rates increase. What does this mean?

There is a correlation between GDP and corporate tax rates.

Which of the following words often indicates a conclusion:

Therefore

Why do rule utilitarians believe that all actions should be weighed against a set of moral codes instead of judged based on each individual outcome?

They do not believe that humans are good at making judgement calls in every scenario and believe that it is best overall to have a moral code by which to evaluate actions.

Which of the following is an argument from analogy?

This teddy bear is about the same size as the other one. They will likely fit the same in my child's arms.

Stages of Development

Unreflective: No awareness of flawed thinking Challenged: Limited Awareness Beginning: Recognizes need for critical thinking Practicing: Regularly uses skills Master: Critical thinking is second nature

Deontology, the 18th century philosophy of Immanuel Kant, is based on the idea that:

We are morally obligated, at times, to act in a certain way even though the outcome of our actions might not be good for everyone.

Using inductive validity, which is the most likely answer to the following questions? Shelly always seems happy. Shelly will seem what today?

We can reasonably conclude that Shelly will be happy.

Which principle states that two similar cases must be treated the same for the action to be considered moral?

Which principle states that two similar cases must be treated the same for the action to be considered moral?

What are a few of the questions that we should ask ourselves when analyzing a news article?

Who is the audience for this article? Is the way it is written (vocabulary, amount of detail) appropriate for that audience? What main points or arguments are being made, how are they supported, and are those sources reliable?

Important questions when analyzing a news article

Who is the audience for this article? Is the way it is written appropriate for that audience? What main points or arguments are being made, how are they supported, and are those sources reliable? Is the writing style engaging through interesting and varied word choice? Is this article an example of unbiased reporting by presenting different points of view? Is there any evidence of propaganda?

Using deductive reasoning, which of these statements supports the conclusion? All mammals are four-legged. Prove that a dolphin is a mammal. A dolphin provides milk for its young. A dolphin provides milk for its young and is warm-blooded. A dolphin is warm-blooded. You cannot support a false premise. All mammals are not four-legged.

You cannot support a false premise. All mammals are not four-legged. Explanation: The premise is not factual: A dolphin is a mammal but not four-legged. In this case, we would not be building off a factual premise. Therefore, we could never start with that premise, although dolphins are mammals.

Which of these might indicate a claim on social media that bears the burden of proof?

You will not believe this simple trick to cure cancer!

valid argument

a deductive argument that does in fact provide logically conclusive support for its conclusion

Argument by Elimination

a deductive argument that rules out different possibilities until only one remains

Instead of complaining about an issue, a strong editorial provides...

a proactive approach to making the situation better

Generalization

applies to a group of people or things, based on some examples.

Critical thinking includes asking open-ended questions about a concept's _____.

connections with other ideas Explanation: Critical thinking involves asking open-ended questions about a concept's links to other ideas. While conclusions, persuasive elements, and unsupported claims may be analyzed as a result of the critical reasoning process, they aren't part of the main focus.

Jared believes that the minimum wage should be higher. In his argumentative essay he addresses the view of opponents who claim that a higher wage will cause companies to hire fewer workers with this statement: Though some think that a higher minimum wage will cut down on company hiring, a 2016 study of retail stores in Canada has shown otherwise, demonstrating hiring levels that remained the same in the wake of rising wages. In this instance, Jared is using what is known as a/an _____. counter evidence position reason

counter Explanation: The best essays include counterarguments, sometimes shortened to counters, which are reasons why the other side's arguments are not correct. Jared's counter is based on a 2016 study of retail stores in Canada in which hiring levels remained the same even though wages rose.

A speech can be written to...

entertain, persuade or inform a person or a group of people.

Factual Conditional

essentially states that if one fact holds, then so does another.

Hypothetical Syllogism

if p then q if q then r therefore if p then r

p: The pond is not frozen over. q: The fish are not jumping. For the combination p AND (NOT q), for which truth values of p and q is the combination true?

p: T q: F Explanation: For the statement p AND (NOT q) to be true, p must be true and q must be false so that (NOT Q) is true.

An analogy is evaluated by looking at all these criteria EXCEPT _____.

popularity Explanation: An analogy is considered strong if the comparison is relevant, has many points of similarity, and few points of difference in determining how strong or weak it is.

Occam's Razor (Parsimony)

simplest explanation for a given set of data is the best one

What is the basic belief of utilitarianism?

something is moral when it produces the greatest amount of good for the greatest number of people

Critical thinking

taking apart claims and examining their parts and relationships

Predictive Conditional

the relationship between the two clauses is promised or possible but not certain. Use a present-tense verb in the dependent or subordinate clause, and in the independent clause use modal auxiliaries "will," "can," "may," "should," or "might" with the base form of the verb.

First Principle of Moral Reasoning

two similar cases must be treated the same for the action to be moral.

Second Principle of Moral Reasoning

two similar person cases are not treated the same, burden of the person acting in both cases to prove the situations are different, and thus that the actor hasn't violated moral principles

It's particularly important to consider your audience when you write an argumentative paper because _____.

you need to be mindful of the views that members of your audience might have in order to effectively persuade them.