Critical Thinking and Logic

Analyzing one's own thinking- breaking it down into its component parts.

3 Critical thinking dimensions

Evaluating one's own thinking- identifying its weaknesses while recognizing its strengths.

3 Critical thinking dimensions

Improving one's own thinking- reconstructing it to make it better.

3 Critical thinking dimensions

Thinking, feeling, and wanting

3 functions of the mind

Gathers information that supports his/her presuppositions when thinking through a problem

A critical thinker

is able to reason from assumptions that are not his/her own.

A critical thinker

-Seek trustworthy information sources -Be vigilant about information sources we use -Be alert to the use we make of our own experience, which could be biased, distorted, or self-deluded

A critical thinker must

represent an application of the standards of critical thinking? Choose two answers.

A person clarifies the question at issue.

represent an application of the standards of critical thinking? Choose two answers.

A person follows the reasoning to determine significant implications.

Identifying relevant information

A standard

Distinctions between the elements of reasoning are relative not _____

Absolute

It is impossible to interpret the significance of a percentage without knowing the ________ on which it is based.

Absolute numbers

The total or aggregate of something, expressed as a number without relationship to other numbers

Absolute numbers

Being near to the true value or meaning of something

Accuracy

Actively using information that is false, although we mistakenly think it is true, is an example of ________.

Activated ignorance

False information that is mistakenly believed to be true and acted upon.

Activated ignorance

Mentally taking in and actively using false information

Activated ignorance

We mislearn or partially learn information or accept illogical beliefs and then act on them.

Activated ignorance

Truthful information that is employed to pursue more knowledge and/or is acted upon.

Activated knowledge

We bring significant ideas and knowledge into the mind and are able to apply them systematically to new situations.

Activated knowledge

Dismissing an argument by attacking the person who offers it rather than by refuting its reasoning.

Ad hominem

Dismissing an argument by attacking the person who offers it rather than by refuting its reasoning is an example of ________.

Ad hominem fallacy

Which elements of reasoning are operative when we think through a problem?

All 8 elements

Which of the following is not a drawback to using appeal to authority as a source of evidence?

An authority will often support the rival cause.

Drawing a comparison between two things in order to show a meaningful resemblance between them, implying that if two things are alike in one respect, they will be alike in other respects

Analogy

Hinges its quality on two factors: -The degree to which the two things being compared are similar and different -The relevance of the similarities and differences

Analogy

look for concomitant variation, a pattern of variation between a possible cause and a possible effect.

Analyze causation

Looking at the way your behavior is shaped by others

Analyze group influences

Looking at the way your behavior is shaped by others is part of which tactic to improve critical thinking?

Analyze group influences on your life

it is a good idea to try to rule out non-causal factors until one correct causal factor remains.

Analyzing causation

Critical thinking involves _______ one's own thinking.

Analyzing, evaluating, and improving

How did an oral culture pass on its history to is succeeding generations

Anthropology

Can be valuable evidence when the authority has relevant expertise, is not biased, and has a reputation of dependability.

Appeal to authority

Justifying a position by citing an expert or authority who supports it

Appeal to authority

Justifying support for a position by citing an esteemed or well-known figure who supports it. _____ does not address the merit of the position.

Appeal to authority

- can be mistaken - often has a bias or agenda - may lack the expertise to make an informed judgment on an issue

Appeal to authority drawbacks

Claiming to speak with the "voice of experience" in support of an argument (even when that experience may not be relevant).

Appeal to experience

Citing a threat or possibility of a frightening outcome as the reason for supporting an argument. This threat can be physical or emotional: the idea is to invoke fear. This is sometimes termed "scare tactics."

Appeal to fear

Citing majority sentiment or popular opinion as the reason for supporting a claim is an example of ________.

Appeal to popularity

Citing majority sentiment or popular opinion as the reason for supporting a claim. It assumes that any position favored by the larger crowd must be true or worthy.

Appeal to popularity

-Questioning fairness in someones thinking -Checking for logic in inferences

Application of standards of critical thinking

Are always present in any form of reasoning. They lie at the heart of arguments. Being able to identify this standard is essential to critical thinking

Assumptions

People routinely use their beliefs as ______ and make inferences based on those _____. We rely on _____ and inferences because we cannot make sense of our world—we cannot judge, interpret, or conclude

Assumptions

The implicit beliefs that support our explicit reasoning about something are ________.

Assumptions

To begin solving a problem, we should avoid unwarranted ______ about the solution or the cause of the problem

Assumptions

We make inferences based on _____

Assumptions

Which of the following is something we take for granted as true in our reasoning?

Assumptions

the unstated or hidden beliefs that support our explicit reasoning about something. What we take for granted as being true when we formulate or accept an argument.

Assumptions

The ____ we make affect the ____ that follow from our thinking.

Assumptions/Implications

Discrediting the underlying evidence for an argument and thereby questioning its validity.

Attacking evidence

If a sample is too small or not random enough, the critical thinker must:

Be skeptical of outcome

When is the optimal time for a learner to apply the Elements of Reasoning to the logic of a subject?

Before the learner has begun the course

Asserting a conclusion that is assumed in the reasoning. The reason given to support the conclusion restates the conclusion.

Begging the question

Uncritical preferences for some particular point of view

Bias

"The union has a number of legitimate grievances which have never been addressed by management. If you talk to any of the workers involved in these disputes, it's clear that their testimony has been ignored."Is this information fairly gathered and reported or biased?

Biased

Failure to duly consider points of view pertinent to an issue is to think narrow-mindedly

Breadth

Our reasoning is broad when it considers the issue at hand from every relevant viewpoint. ___ directs us to look around us, at alternative or opposing perspectives

Breadth

What is the best way to increase productivity yet maintain job satisfaction

Business management

A detailed account of a person or event; a striking or dramatic anecdote

Case example

Personalizes an issue through colorful examples and dramatic anecdotes but is suspect as evidence.

Case example

-Limited reliability because it is untypical or represents the exception to the norm -Can distract attention from other relevant evidence by appealing to emotions

Case example drawbacks

Is a science and can be used as strong evidence in determining the correct order of a series of events. When there is no direct evidence, thinkers look for a repeated sequence of events. If one event repeatedly precedes another event, perhaps there is some connection. This is not as solid as direct evidence but can support a proposed cause and effect relationship.

Chronology

Being unambiguous and easily understood

Clairty

Thinking that is easily understood reflects which of the intellectual standards?

Clarity

___of thought enables us to see where our thinking is leading us We can't determine either the accuracy or relevance of a statement if it is unclear

Clarity

is to seek or insist on one simple cause for something.

Common error in reasoning

A scientist discovered that all laboratory hamsters that had been eating lettuce developed Salmonella poisoning. This is an example of causation by:

Common factor

In analyzing causation, looking for a single shared factor

Common factor

Reasoning takes form in ____. These are general categories or ideas by which we interpret or classify information used in our thinking. When we think about anything, we reason based on some ____ of that thing.

Concepts

Theories are examples of ________.

Concepts

We "decode" things in our experience through the power of our mind to create _____ of them and make inferences based on such conceptualization. This happens routinely and automatically that we don't recognize ourselves doing so.

Concepts

_____ include the theories, principles, axioms, and rules implicit in our reasoning.

Concepts

How we ____ the information affects the ____ we make.

Conceptualize/Assumptions

In analyzing causation, looking for a pattern of variation between a possible cause and a possible effect

Concomitant Variation

Proceeds from the belief that both the individual's and society's higher interests are best served by unfettered reason

Confidence in reason

An effective approach to correcting egocentric myopia would be to:

Consider points of view that conflict with ours

" The Customer Service committee has been very disciplined in reviewing the weekly call reports by focusing on each category of call sequentially."Is this information consistently applied or inconsistently applied?

Consistently applied

Determining diverse points of view

Contains standard of breadth

Seeking out facts and evidence that challenge our thinking

Correct Egocentric blindness

Reviewing our thinking for realismAsking: "If I really believed this, how would I act? Do I really act that way?"

Correct egocentric absurdity

Comparing beliefs and behaviors and standards and actions to expose inconsistencies

Correct egocentric hypocrisy

Adopting a broader view and keeping positive and negative events in perspective

Correct egocentric immediacy

Explicitly seeking evidence and information that runs counter to our thinking

Correct egocentric memory

Considering points of view that conflict with ours

Correct egocentric myopia

Focusing on complexities, restating them, and considering their impact on our thinking

Correct egocentric oversimplification

Stating unanswered questionsReminding ourselves how little we actually know

Correct egocentric righteousness

Provides the mental tools and fosters the intellectual skills needed to reason through anything in life that demands thought.

Critical Thinking

-Raises vital questions -Gathers and assesses relevant information -Reaches well-reasoned conclusions and solutions -Thinks open-mindedly -Communicates effectively with others

Critical thinker reasoning through any problem

intellectually humble, meaning they are conscious of the limitations of their own knowledge and understanding.

Critical thinkers.

An in-depth process needed to address complex problems

Critical thinking

Can be selfish and fair-minded

Critical thinking

Values depth of thought over speed of thought.

Critical thinking

involves thinking about thinking while thinking in order to make thinking better.

Critical thinking

-Self-directed -Self disciplined -Self monitored -Self corrective

Critical thinking is characteristically

Asking the question, "Did I try to impose my will on others?" is part of which tactic to improve critical thinking?

Deal with your ego

Improve critical thinking

Deal with your ego

How might one go about reading a daily newspaper with as little influence from biased reporting as possible?

Deconstruct news stories and reconstruct them with alternative biases and slants.

involves developing the tools of critical thinking and applying them to whatever challenges you encounter now and in the future.

Deep learning

Depends on an informed citizenry, and it is vital that citizens recognize bias, slanting, and propaganda in news coverage;

Democracy

Refusing to admit contradictions or inconsistencies when making an argument or defending a position.

Denying inconsistencies

The ______ of a claim is a direct function of the quality of evidence supporting it.

Dependability

Plumbs beneath the surface of an issue or problem to identify the underlying complexities; and addresses those complexities in an intellectually responsible way. Directs us to delve deeper into an issue

Depth

In which of the following situations would critical thinking most appropriately apply?

Determining the best exercise to lose weight.

The wording of survey questions may be subject to differing interpretations; survey responses may not reflect respondents' true beliefs; and surveys have built-in biases.

Difficulty with surveys as evidence

Failing to recognize thinking that has "absurd" consequences

Egocentric absurdity

Not seeing facts and evidence that contradict our thinking

Egocentric blindness

Ignoring inconsistencies between belief and behavior and between public standards and private actions

Egocentric hypocrisy

Overgeneralizing so that immediate events, whether favorable or unfavorable, influence thinking

Egocentric immediacy

Remembering only that evidence and information that supports our thinking

Egocentric memory

Adopting an overly narrow point of view and thinking in absolutes

Egocentric myopia

Ignoring complexity and embracing simplicity that conforms to our existing views, values, and beliefs

Egocentric oversimplification

Feeling superior because of possessing the "Truth"

Egocentric righteousness

Often employ the tactic of domination, using direct power over others (up to and including force) to get what they selfishly want.

Egocentric thinkers

Also described as rigidity of thought—represents one of the main barriers to effective critical thinking. Disciplined, strong-sense thinking can serve to mitigate the irrationality of _____

Egocentricity

The tendency to view everything in relationship to oneself and to regard one's own opinions, values, or interests as most important.

Egocentrism

Which term means the tendency to view everything in relationship to oneself?

Egocentrism

Assuming only two alternatives when, in reality, there are more than two. It implies that one of two outcomes is inevitable—either x or y.

Either-or

Determining underlying assumptions

Element of assumptions

Thinking about implications of possible decisions

Element of implication

Assumptions

Element of reasoning

Concepts

Element of reasoning

Implications

Element of reasoning

Inferences

Element of reasoning

Information

Element of reasoning

Points of view

Element of reasoning

Purposes

Element of reasoning

Questions

Element of reasoning

A flaw in any of the ______ is a potential source of problems in our thinking and threatens to undermine its rigor or soundness.

Elements

Questioning interpretations

Elements of questioning

-Purpose -Information -Questions -Interpretations/inferences -Concepts -Implications -Assumptions -Point of View

Elements of reasoning

Anything that contains a standard is something we can eliminate

Elements of reasoning

Fundamental parts of thought.

Elements of reasoning

To analyze the logic of an article, one can apply:

Elements of reasoning

Parts of thinking/Fundamental structures of thought

Elements of reasoning other names

Based on or derived from practical experiment and direct observation

Empirical

When we accept a claim because we think it is justified by the supporting statements for it, we have inferred the conclusion from the reasons. This process captures the ___

Essence of reasoning

Avoiding direct and truthful answers to difficult questions through diversionary tactics, vagueness, or deliberately confusing or complex responses.

Evading questions

Bring an unbiased and unprejudiced perspective to all viewpoints relevant to a situation.

Fair-mindedness

Bringing an unbiased perspective to all relevant viewpoints exemplifies which of the following?

Fair-mindedness

By nature, the human mind is too egocentric and self-interested to realize complete ______

Fair-mindedness

The commitment to consider all relevant opinions equally without regard to ones own sentiments or selfish interests

Fair-mindedness

The traits to critical thinking all related fundamentally to ______

Fair-mindedness

-Reject manipulation and controlling others -Combine critical thinking skills with desire to serve public good -Want all points of view expressed -Want manipulative persuasion exposed

Fairminded critical persons

Thinking that satisfies all other fundamental intellectual standards satisfies the standard of justifiability

Fairness

Flaws or errors in reasoning which, when found in the premise of an argument, invalidate its conclusion.

Fallacies

Many _____ are committed whenever we think that poor or bad assumptions are indeed true

Fallacies

Perpetrated without deliberate intent. They stem from careless or sloppy thinking. Others, can be categorized as "dirty tricks," calculated attempts to win arguments through devious intellectual methods.

Fallacies

Spotting ___ begins with evaluating arguments critically. Are their conclusions supported by their premises? Our starting point should be locating and assessing the assumptions in an argument. What does the argument assume.

Fallacies

______ reasoning impedes critical thinking because it builds arguments on a faulty foundation. It asks us to accept conclusions based on flawed premises.

Fallacious

Faulty assumptions are very often at the root of ___. The faultier an assumption is, the less valid the reasoning.

Fallacy

Present in an argument when the premises (or reasons) given for the conclusion don't properly support the conclusion.

Fallacy

_____ reasoning, the premises might be irrelevant to the conclusion or not logically connected to it. They might be insufficient to warrant the conclusion. The presence of a _____, invalidates the argument.

Fallacy

The mainstream media tends to avoid strange or sensational studies. True or false?

False

Drawing an invalid comparison between things for the purpose of either supporting or refuting some position. ______ suggests that because two things are alike in some respect, they must be alike in other respects.

Faulty analogy

the things being compared have important, relevant differences

Faulty analogy

there are important relevant dissimilarities between 2 things being compared

Faulty analogy

Monitors the meanings created by thinking. It evaluates the degree to which life's events are either positive or negative, given the meaning we assign to them. Continually informs us how we should respond emotionally to what is happening in our lives.

Feeling

Ordinary thinking. Spontaneous and non-reflective Contains insight, prejudice, good and bad reasoning Indiscriminately combined

First-Order Thinking

-Too narrow Founded on false or misleading information -Embodies contradictions

Flaws in point of view

Improve critical thinking

Get in touch with your emotions

Brings one best thinking to bear in every realm of ones life

Goal of critical thinking

Improve critical thinking

Handle one problem per day

Justifying illegal or unethical practices by arguing that they are necessary to confront a greater evil or threat.

Hard-cruel-world argument

Inferring a general proposition about something based on too small a sample or an unrepresentative sample.

Hasty generalization

Focused on the written record of the human race

History

Component in strategic thinking: Recognizing when your thinking is irrational or flawed

Identification

In strategic thinking, recognizing when your thinking is irrational or flawed is which component?

Identification

Involves looking at your irrational emotions or desires and figuring out what is generating them. Then, the critical thinker seeks to replace the irrational thinking with rational thinking.

Identification

-Identify basic concepts -Identifying underlying assumptions

Identification of elements of reasoning

what logically follows from reasoning

Implication

What is said to follow from our reasoning?

Implications

______ also follow from the words we use. Our words always carry ______.

Implications

What extend beyond the position we reach. They form the answer to the question, "What follows from our reasoning?"

Implications and consequences

The ____ affect how we see things—i.e., _____

Implications/Our point of view

Analyze group influences of your life

Improve critical thinking

"The first-place winner in the 10K race was Steven Katz. The third-place finisher was Gregor Mankins. Fred Habib finished fourth."Is this information adequate or inadequate?

Inadequate

Taking into the mind information that, though memorized, we do not understand.

Inert information

We think we understand this information, but we don't and can't use it.

Inert information

What we ____ from the information affects how we ____ it.

Infer/Conceptualize

A logical process of drawing conclusions

Inference

An ______ can be accurate, logical, or justified. Conversely, it can be inaccurate, illogical, or unjustified.

Inference

Is a mental step by which one concludes that something is true based on something else being true or appearing to be so.

Inference

_____ Once identified, should become the focus of critical evaluation. Does it merit acceptance based on the explicit reasons provided for it? Are there implicit assumptions that lead us to a given inference? Are those assumptions justified?

Inference/Conclusion

The outcome of reasoning. It is what the writer or speaker is trying to prove about the issue being addressed. When we identify what the communicator is trying to persuade us to accept.

Inference/conclusion

All reasoning proceeds by steps in the following construct: "Because this is so, that also is so (or probably is so)."

Inferences

An element of critical thinking?

Inferences

We sometimes begin with something we know (or at least, which we believe we know) and figure out something else based on it. Come to conclusions. We continually make ____ about people, events, and things in our everyday lives.

Inferences

In reasoning, we make __________ based on ___________.

Inferences/assumptions

The mind drawing conclusions on the basis of reasons defines which process?

Inferring and reasoning

Evidence is used anonymously with ____

Information

Reasoning can only be as sound as the ________________ it is based on.

Information

Reasoning often follows from bad or incomplete ____. Therefore, the critical thinker must be able to skillfully evaluate _____ for accuracy and completeness. We need to recognize when we don't have sufficient ____ to draw a reasonable conclusion.

Information

Takes many forms: statistical data, our observations, others' testimony, etc. In thinking critically about an issue, we must determine what ___ is relevant to it. We rely on this standard to direct us to a supportable conclusion.

Information

The data, facts, opinions, and experiences that factor in your reasoning

Information

A common problem with applying the critical thinking standard of clarity to information is:

Information isn't clear

The ____ we gather affects the ____ we make from it.

Information/Inferences

Thinking for oneself while adhering to standards of rationality. Reasoning through issues on one's own rather than uncritically accept others' viewpoints

Intellectual Autonomy

Confronting ideas, viewpoints, or beliefs with fairness, even when doing so is painful. Challenging popular belief, Leads us to recognize that ideas which society deems dangerous or absurd may hold some truth or justification.

Intellectual Courage

Fear of ideas or viewpoints that do not conform to one's own.

Intellectual Cowardice

Inhabiting the perspectives of others in order to genuinely understand them. Ability to reconstruct other people's viewpoints and reasoning

Intellectual Empathy

Commitment to discovering the extent of one's own ignorance on any issue. Recognition that one should claim only what one actually knows. Awareness that egocentrism is often self-deceiving (convinces the mind that it knows more than it does)

Intellectual Humility

Openness to the possibility that one's beliefs are mistaken and a willingness to reevaluate them in the face of new evidence or persuasive counterarguments.

Intellectual Humility

Working one's way through intellectual complexities despite frustrations inherent in doing so. Not giving up when confronted by complicated problems that don't lend themselves to easy solutions

Intellectual Perseverance

-Accuracy -Sound logic -Clarity -Depth of thought

Intellectual Standards

Component in strategic thinking: Engaging and challenging your own thinking

Intellectual action

In strategic thinking, engaging and challenging your own thinking is which component?

Intellectual action

The opposite of intellectual conformity is:

Intellectual autonomy

The ability to reconstruct others' viewpoints exemplifies which of the following traits?

Intellectual empathy

The act of routinely inhabiting the perspectives of others in order to genuinely understand them.

Intellectual empathy

Holding oneself to the same rigorous intellectual standards that one expects others to meet. Admitting flaws and inconsistencies in our own thinking

Intellectual integrity

To admit flaws in one's own thinking is an expression of:

Intellectual integrity

The act of working one's way through intellectual complexities despite frustrations inherent in doing so.

Intellectual perseverance

-Clarity -Depth -Accuracy -Breadth -Precision -Logicalness -Relevance -Fairness

Intellectual standards

These can be visualized as "filters" that screen out flawed thinking—i.e., thinking which is unclear, inaccurate, irrelevant, illogical, or insufficient;

Intellectual standards

Feel no responsibility to represent viewpoints with which they disagree fairly and accurately. Always see yourself as right and just. Nearly always involves an element of self-deception.

Intellectual unfairness

Improve critical thinking

Internalize intellectual standards

-Ideology -Professional jealousy -Personal aggrandizement

Introduce bias

As an unconscious process, _____ often ignores or dismisses relevant empirical evidence.

Intuition

Has dependability beyond objective judgment because it is a subjective, private experience. There is no reliable basis for deciding which of two differing intuitive claims is more plausible.

Intuition

"We've been asked to provide an estimate of sales for next year. I think we can safely say that we will reduce costs 25 percent and improve profitability."Is this information relevant or irrelevant?

Irrelevant

Which of the following is not a characteristic of second-order thinking?

It relies on intuition

Improve critical thinking

Keep an intellectual journal

Plot the relationship between two or more variables by using connected data points.

Line graphs

There is a bias in the _____ towards reporting what is novel, strange, or sensational. This leads to news reporting that ignores important stories while the sensational is blown out of proportion.

Mainstream news media

A ________ is calculated by adding up all the values in a dataset and dividing by the total number of values in the dataset.

Mean

The ________ is the value that appears most frequently in a dataset.

Mode

Distinguishing between what a situation actually implies and what we may infer from it

Most important critical thinking skills

- false sense of superiority - close-mindedness - suppression of opposing viewpoints

Negative impact of socioscentrism

The failure to recognize that 2 events may be related through the effects of a common third factor

Neglect of a common cause

An unsupported claim is what critical thinking experts refer to as a(n) ________.

Opinion

An unsupported claim is what critical thinking experts refer to as an

Opinion

Can lead to hasty generalizations based on only one or a couple of experiences (i.e., too few to be a representative example).

Personal experience

Is filtered through one's values, biases, and expectations. This can lead two observers to see or perceive the same thing differently.

Personal observation

Focused on the critical and systematic study of problems

Philosophy

Is an element of reasoning

Point of view

Observing things from a particular _______ does not render one unable to distinguish accurate from inaccurate statements.

Point of view

Strive for a ____ that is broad, flexible, and justifiable. Weigh alternative ______ when you reason through an issue.

Point of view

Strive for a ______ that considers opposing _____ with fairness.

Point of view

The particular perspective from which something is observed or thought through

Point of view

How does citizen perception shape decision making in a theocracy

Political science

What are the three kinds of implications that may be involved in any situation?

Possible, probable, necessary

Improve critical thinking

Practice intellectual strategies

Reasoning that is specific, exact, and sufficiently detailed is said to be ________.

Precise

An argument that lacks specifics violates which of the following universal intellectual standards?

Precision

Reasoning is precise when it is specific, exact, and sufficiently detailed. ____ is related to clarity but distinct from it. Something may be clear but not precise. For example:

Precision

Implies that things should be a certain way

Prescriptive statement

When looking for value-related statements, identify:

Prescriptive statements

A mechanic ruled out failures in 10 different engine parts before finding the problem in the carburetor. This is an example of:

Process of elimination

In analyzing causation, successively ruling out non-causal factors until one correct causal factor remains

Process of elimination

Focused on the mental process and behavior

Psychology

Is the goal or objective of reasoning. It describes the desired outcome or intent (winning an argument, grasping a complex concept, justifying one's behavior). The critical thinker always asks what function reasoning serves and in what direction it is moving.

Purpose

What is the term for the goal or desired outcome of our reasoning?

Purpose

Our___ affects how we ask ____.

Purpose/Questions

A personal observation is what kind of evidence?

Qualitative

_____ evidence describes an understanding of what something means and how it occurred.

Qualitative

Derives from participant observation and personal communications. It is the result of unstructured or unscientific gathering of information.

Qualitative evidence

Describes or recounts an observation or phenomenon. It communicates understanding and meaning—why and how something happened.

Qualitative evidence

A research study is an example of which kind of evidence?

Quantitative

Research studies are what kind of evidence?

Quantitative

Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, and analyzing _________.

Quantitative data

Quantifies an observation or phenomenon—i.e., expresses it as a number or empirical measure. Derives from quantitative research and deductive analysis. It generally is an outcome of scientific methods

Quantitative evidence

is an outcome of scientific methods including: -Devising empirical models/hypotheses about things -Testing the models/hypotheses through controlled experiments -Using statistically valid samples -Developing instruments for measuring outcomes -Collecting verifiable data

Quantitative evidence

is concerned with determining causation: one thing caused another thing under controlled experimental conditions.

Quantitative evidence

These questions have more than one answer, with some answers better than others.

Question of judgement

What is the most effective and safest way to design a roadway system to achieve efficiency?

Question of judgement

A question with competing and debatable answers

Question of judgment

"Is basketball or ice hockey more fun to watch?" is a:

Question of preference

Have definitive answers

Questions of fact

Have more than one reasoned answer, but some answers are better than others. Does not have one correct answer but a number of well-reasoned answers.

Questions of judgement

Critical thinking is only for ________

Questions of judgment

Have a range of potential answers, which reflect personal and subjective views on a topic.

Questions of preference

How we ask ____ affects the ____ we gather.

Questions/Information

A common error in ______ is to seek or insist on one simple cause for something. In reality, in human activities, outcomes usually result from multiple contributory causes.

Reasoning

Introducing an irrelevant point or topic to divert attention from the issue at hand. It is a tactic for confusing the point under debate.

Red herring

Improve critical thinking

Redefine the way you see things

The standards must be applied to the elements as the critical thinker learns to develop intellectual traits.

Relationship between standards, elements and intellectual traits

Which report of risk reduction conveys a more significant treatment effect?

Relative

Distinctions between the elements of reasoning are_______ not ________.

Relative/absolute

Thinking is ___ when it focuses on what is important—on what matters—in understanding or deciding the issue at hand

Relevance

A systematic set of observations collected through scientific methods

Research study

Can provide strong evidence because it yields empirical data that may be independently verified. Relies on scientific methods to reduce errors in observation and measurement.

Research study

-The quality of studies varies greatly -___ values, self-interest, and biases can skew the way they conduct research and interpret findings - ___ findings often get distorted or oversimplified by people who speak or write about them

Research study drawbacks

Improve critical thinking

Reshape your character

Another term used to describe egocentric thinking is:

Rigidity of thought

is a statistical expression that appears most commonly in reports about health risks (and interventions for limiting them).

Risk reduction

can be deceptive because they may be expressed in either relative or absolute terms, and the form in which they are reported can significantly impact our perception of the actual magnitude of the reduced risk.

Risk reduction statistics

Which of the following terms describes a plausible alternative explanation for why a particular outcome happened?

Rival cause

is a plausible alternative explanation for why a certain outcome happened.

Rival cause

Any explanation that fails to consider multiple ______ constitutes an oversimplification.

Rival causes

The dependability of a particular claim of causation is inversely related to the number of plausible ______

Rival causes

tell us that there is more than one credible explanation for why something happened—for what caused it. Their existence should give us pause before accepting the explanation given by a speaker or writer.

Rival causes

Asserting that a solution is not worth adopting because it does not fix the problem completely.

Search for perfect solution

First-order thinking that is consciously realized (i.e., analyzed, assessed, and reconstructed)

Second-Order Thinking

doesn't produce lasting knowledge or comprehension.

Shallow learning

In analyzing causation, looking for a causal factor that is present in one situation but absent in another, similar, situation

Single difference

In analyzing causation, looking for a causal factor that is present in one situation but absent in another similar situation is called the:

Single difference method

-Skilled in manipulation -Pursue self-interest -Employ manipulation, domination, demagoguery -Try to keep other points of view from being heard

Skilled manipulators

Weak-sense critical thinkers

Skilled manipulators

Suggesting that a step or action, once taken, will lead inevitably to similar steps or actions with presumably undesirable consequences. The fallacy is invoked to justify not taking a given initial step or action, lest it lead us down the ______

Slippery slope

. The assumption that one's own social group is inherently superior to all others

Sociocentrism

Focused on the interaction and relationships among individuals and in groups

Sociology

A systematic disciplined approach to asking questions aimed at assessing the truth

Socratic questioning

What is the best medical approach for treating alcohol poisoning?

Solution that is widely accepted by experts?

The ability to win an argument regardless of flaws in its reasoning.

Sophistry

-Logic -Significance -Accuracy -Precision

Standards of critical thinking

Must be applied to the elements as the critical thinker learns to develop intellectual traits.

Standards of critical thinking

it must be developed from a sample that is random and sufficiently large.

Statistical data to be valid

The frequency with which each value in a series of values occurs

Statistical distribution

The gap between the smallest and largest values in a series of values

Statistical range

Critical thinking is concerned with ____ because they are sometimes used as evidence in reasoning to support claims and conclusions.

Statistics

Generally are perceived to add legitimacy or weight to evidence. We tend to be impressed by numbers, which express precise values and seem "factual."

Statistics

_____ based on imprecise reporting is known as a best guess, an approximation, and also an opinion.

Statistics

is the science of collecting, organizing, and analyzing quantitative data. The data thus produced are what we know and refer to as ____.

Statistics

Egocentrism and sociocentrism also play a significant role in maintaining the ____

Status quo

A fixed or oversimplified conception of a person, group, or idea.

Stereotype

Distorting or exaggerating an opponent's argument so that it might be more easily attacked.

Straw man

the things being compared have relevant similarities and lack relevant differences.

Strong analogy

Thinking that uses critical thinking skills to evaluate all beliefs especially ones owns and pursues what is intellectually fair and just

Strong-Sense critical thinking

Fair-minded critical persons

Strong-sense critical thinkers

-Consider all thinking by the same standards -Expect good reasoning from supporters as well as opponents -Apply the same critical criteria to our own logic as to others reasoning -Recognize the actual strengths and weaknesses of any reasoning we assess

Strong-sense critical thinking

-Strive to be ethical -Strive to empathize with others viewpoints -Will entertain arguments with which they do not agree -Change their views when confronted with superior reasoning -Employ their thinking reasonably rather than manipulatively

Strong-sense critical thinking

Implies higher-order thinking—i.e., thinking which is deep and highly insightful.

Strong-sense critical thinking

In some cases, the conclusions we draw are based on assumptions that operate at a ________ level.

Subconscious

In some cases, the conclusions we draw are based on assumptions that operate at a(n) ________ level.

Subconscious

When confronted with a more powerful or prestigious person who can help them achieve their goals, an egocentric thinker is likely to turn to which of the following strategies?

Submission

where the egocentric thinker caters to those with power or prestige who can advance their goals. _____ blocks the development of healthy, rational relationships and becomes an impediment to self-insight.

Submission

Are quite skilled in getting their way through manipulation and domination and in rationalizing their unethical behavior.

Successful egocentric thinkers

Can, when well designed and properly conducted, yield responses that may be regarded as good evidence.

Survey/Questionnaire

- responses don't necessarily reflect respondents' actual beliefs -Ambiguously worded survey questions are open to differing interpretations by survey participants - often include built-in biases

Survey/Questionnaire drawbacks

Varies in quality depending on the expertise behind it and any biases it reflects.

Testimony

-People are selective about what they reveal and don't reveal -It may come from someone who stands to profit from the testimonial (a motive of personal gain can result in a biased account) -It often leaves out information that would modify the message if the information were not omitted

Testimony drawbacks

Accuracy

The Standards

Breadth

The Standards

Clarity

The Standards

Depth

The Standards

Fairness

The Standards

Logic

The Standards

Precision

The Standards

Relevance

The Standards

Significance

The Standards

Ethical principles common to all humans can be found in:

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Fosters sociocentric thinking, reflecting national and cultural bias. (Sociocentrism is seeing social conventions, beliefs, and taboos of your society as "the only correct way to live and think

The major media

_______ must be applied to the elements as the critical thinker learns to develop intellectual traits.

The standards of critical thinking

Are examples of concepts

Theories

-judging -perceiving -analyzing -clarifying -determining -comparing -synthesizing

Thinking

Creates meaning. It sorts events in our lives into categories. It finds patterns in the world around us.

Thinking

Using irrelevant, misleading, or questionable statistics to support an argument or defend a position.

Thrown-in statistics

-Become master of your own conceptualizations -Not become trapped in one set of concepts

To take command of your thinking

Analyze, access and reconstruct ones own thinking in order to improve its quality

To think is to

Of the five key factors Jefferson Flanders identifies in evaluating research, which one best addresses tracing the origins of the information?

Transparency

Citing abstract concepts (freedom, justice, science) to support an argument or to call for action.

Treating abstracts as reality

According to Paul and Elder, egocentrism and sociocentrism are significant barriers to sound ethical reasoning. True or false?

True

Asking questions and challenging the status quo makes you a critical consumer of information. True or false?

True

Concomitant variation refers to a pattern of variation between a possible cause and a possible effect. True or false?

True

Intellectual humility is a character trait of critical thinkers. True or false?

True

Intellectual standards require that assumptions be acknowledged and stated clearly and concisely. True or false?

True

Objectivity requires distinguishing between fact and opinion. True or false?

True

One good way to analyze causes is to eliminate non-causal factors, identifying the causal factor through the process of elimination. True or false?

True

Defending or justifying our wrong position or conduct by pointing to a similar wrong done by someone else.

Two wrongs make a right

-Socially conditioned beliefs -Personal beliefs often grounded in prejudice -Motivated by irrationality, personal vanity, intellectual arrogance -Prone to emotional counter-attacks when thinking is questioned -See themselves as "good" and opponents as "evil"

Uncritical persons

untellectually unskilled thinkers

Uncritical persons

Principles for correct human behavior acknowledged by reasonable people

Universal ethical standards

Improve critical thinking

Use wasted time

allocates energy into action. It does so consistently with how we define what is desirable and possible. Continually tells us what is (or is not) worth seeking or getting.

Wanting

-Lacks key higher level skills and values of critical thinking -Makes no good faith effort to consider alternative viewpoints

Weak-Sense critical thinking

-Ignores the flaws in their own thinking -Often seek to win arguments trickery or deceit

Weak-sense critical thinking

-Making unreasonable thinking appear reasonable and reasonable thinking appear unreasonable -Employ emotionalism and intellectual trickery -Hide or distort evidence

Weak-sense critical thinking

Thinking that does not consider counter viewpoints, that lacks fair mindedness and that uses critical thinking skills to defend current beliefs.

Weak-sense critical thinking

-Misinformation (i.e., incorrect or erroneous information) or deliberately false information -Unreported or undisclosed information -Unobservable events

difficult to get precise statistics

X leads to... X determines... X is responsible for... X results in... X brings about...

indicate evidence is being presented to support causation

A rival cause tells us that there is ________ for why something happened.

more than one credible explanation

The elements of reasoning are also known as the ________

parts of thinking and fundamental structures of thought.

Strong analogies entail comparisons between things that have ________ and lack ________.

relevant similarities/relevant differences

Is the belief that one's own society or group is superior to others. It is a key barrier to critical thinking as it encourages close-mindedness and suppression of opposing viewpoints.

sociocentrism