Critical Thinking and Logic
Analyzing one's own thinking- breaking it down into its component parts.
3 Critical thinking dimensions
Evaluating one's own thinking- identifying its weaknesses while recognizing its strengths.
3 Critical thinking dimensions
Improving one's own thinking- reconstructing it to make it better.
3 Critical thinking dimensions
Thinking, feeling, and wanting
3 functions of the mind
Gathers information that supports his/her presuppositions when thinking through a problem
A critical thinker
is able to reason from assumptions that are not his/her own.
A critical thinker
-Seek trustworthy information sources -Be vigilant about information sources we use -Be alert to the use we make of our own experience, which could be biased, distorted, or self-deluded
A critical thinker must
represent an application of the standards of critical thinking? Choose two answers.
A person clarifies the question at issue.
represent an application of the standards of critical thinking? Choose two answers.
A person follows the reasoning to determine significant implications.
Identifying relevant information
A standard
Distinctions between the elements of reasoning are relative not _____
Absolute
It is impossible to interpret the significance of a percentage without knowing the ________ on which it is based.
Absolute numbers
The total or aggregate of something, expressed as a number without relationship to other numbers
Absolute numbers
Being near to the true value or meaning of something
Accuracy
Actively using information that is false, although we mistakenly think it is true, is an example of ________.
Activated ignorance
False information that is mistakenly believed to be true and acted upon.
Activated ignorance
Mentally taking in and actively using false information
Activated ignorance
We mislearn or partially learn information or accept illogical beliefs and then act on them.
Activated ignorance
Truthful information that is employed to pursue more knowledge and/or is acted upon.
Activated knowledge
We bring significant ideas and knowledge into the mind and are able to apply them systematically to new situations.
Activated knowledge
Dismissing an argument by attacking the person who offers it rather than by refuting its reasoning.
Ad hominem
Dismissing an argument by attacking the person who offers it rather than by refuting its reasoning is an example of ________.
Ad hominem fallacy
Which elements of reasoning are operative when we think through a problem?
All 8 elements
Which of the following is not a drawback to using appeal to authority as a source of evidence?
An authority will often support the rival cause.
Drawing a comparison between two things in order to show a meaningful resemblance between them, implying that if two things are alike in one respect, they will be alike in other respects
Analogy
Hinges its quality on two factors: -The degree to which the two things being compared are similar and different -The relevance of the similarities and differences
Analogy
look for concomitant variation, a pattern of variation between a possible cause and a possible effect.
Analyze causation
Looking at the way your behavior is shaped by others
Analyze group influences
Looking at the way your behavior is shaped by others is part of which tactic to improve critical thinking?
Analyze group influences on your life
it is a good idea to try to rule out non-causal factors until one correct causal factor remains.
Analyzing causation
Critical thinking involves _______ one's own thinking.
Analyzing, evaluating, and improving
How did an oral culture pass on its history to is succeeding generations
Anthropology
Can be valuable evidence when the authority has relevant expertise, is not biased, and has a reputation of dependability.
Appeal to authority
Justifying a position by citing an expert or authority who supports it
Appeal to authority
Justifying support for a position by citing an esteemed or well-known figure who supports it. _____ does not address the merit of the position.
Appeal to authority
- can be mistaken - often has a bias or agenda - may lack the expertise to make an informed judgment on an issue
Appeal to authority drawbacks
Claiming to speak with the "voice of experience" in support of an argument (even when that experience may not be relevant).
Appeal to experience
Citing a threat or possibility of a frightening outcome as the reason for supporting an argument. This threat can be physical or emotional: the idea is to invoke fear. This is sometimes termed "scare tactics."
Appeal to fear
Citing majority sentiment or popular opinion as the reason for supporting a claim is an example of ________.
Appeal to popularity
Citing majority sentiment or popular opinion as the reason for supporting a claim. It assumes that any position favored by the larger crowd must be true or worthy.
Appeal to popularity
-Questioning fairness in someones thinking -Checking for logic in inferences
Application of standards of critical thinking
Are always present in any form of reasoning. They lie at the heart of arguments. Being able to identify this standard is essential to critical thinking
Assumptions
People routinely use their beliefs as ______ and make inferences based on those _____. We rely on _____ and inferences because we cannot make sense of our world—we cannot judge, interpret, or conclude
Assumptions
The implicit beliefs that support our explicit reasoning about something are ________.
Assumptions
To begin solving a problem, we should avoid unwarranted ______ about the solution or the cause of the problem
Assumptions
We make inferences based on _____
Assumptions
Which of the following is something we take for granted as true in our reasoning?
Assumptions
the unstated or hidden beliefs that support our explicit reasoning about something. What we take for granted as being true when we formulate or accept an argument.
Assumptions
The ____ we make affect the ____ that follow from our thinking.
Assumptions/Implications
Discrediting the underlying evidence for an argument and thereby questioning its validity.
Attacking evidence
If a sample is too small or not random enough, the critical thinker must:
Be skeptical of outcome
When is the optimal time for a learner to apply the Elements of Reasoning to the logic of a subject?
Before the learner has begun the course
Asserting a conclusion that is assumed in the reasoning. The reason given to support the conclusion restates the conclusion.
Begging the question
Uncritical preferences for some particular point of view
Bias
"The union has a number of legitimate grievances which have never been addressed by management. If you talk to any of the workers involved in these disputes, it's clear that their testimony has been ignored."Is this information fairly gathered and reported or biased?
Biased
Failure to duly consider points of view pertinent to an issue is to think narrow-mindedly
Breadth
Our reasoning is broad when it considers the issue at hand from every relevant viewpoint. ___ directs us to look around us, at alternative or opposing perspectives
Breadth
What is the best way to increase productivity yet maintain job satisfaction
Business management
A detailed account of a person or event; a striking or dramatic anecdote
Case example
Personalizes an issue through colorful examples and dramatic anecdotes but is suspect as evidence.
Case example
-Limited reliability because it is untypical or represents the exception to the norm -Can distract attention from other relevant evidence by appealing to emotions
Case example drawbacks
Is a science and can be used as strong evidence in determining the correct order of a series of events. When there is no direct evidence, thinkers look for a repeated sequence of events. If one event repeatedly precedes another event, perhaps there is some connection. This is not as solid as direct evidence but can support a proposed cause and effect relationship.
Chronology
Being unambiguous and easily understood
Clairty
Thinking that is easily understood reflects which of the intellectual standards?
Clarity
___of thought enables us to see where our thinking is leading us We can't determine either the accuracy or relevance of a statement if it is unclear
Clarity
is to seek or insist on one simple cause for something.
Common error in reasoning
A scientist discovered that all laboratory hamsters that had been eating lettuce developed Salmonella poisoning. This is an example of causation by:
Common factor
In analyzing causation, looking for a single shared factor
Common factor
Reasoning takes form in ____. These are general categories or ideas by which we interpret or classify information used in our thinking. When we think about anything, we reason based on some ____ of that thing.
Concepts
Theories are examples of ________.
Concepts
We "decode" things in our experience through the power of our mind to create _____ of them and make inferences based on such conceptualization. This happens routinely and automatically that we don't recognize ourselves doing so.
Concepts
_____ include the theories, principles, axioms, and rules implicit in our reasoning.
Concepts
How we ____ the information affects the ____ we make.
Conceptualize/Assumptions
In analyzing causation, looking for a pattern of variation between a possible cause and a possible effect
Concomitant Variation
Proceeds from the belief that both the individual's and society's higher interests are best served by unfettered reason
Confidence in reason
An effective approach to correcting egocentric myopia would be to:
Consider points of view that conflict with ours
" The Customer Service committee has been very disciplined in reviewing the weekly call reports by focusing on each category of call sequentially."Is this information consistently applied or inconsistently applied?
Consistently applied
Determining diverse points of view
Contains standard of breadth
Seeking out facts and evidence that challenge our thinking
Correct Egocentric blindness
Reviewing our thinking for realismAsking: "If I really believed this, how would I act? Do I really act that way?"
Correct egocentric absurdity
Comparing beliefs and behaviors and standards and actions to expose inconsistencies
Correct egocentric hypocrisy
Adopting a broader view and keeping positive and negative events in perspective
Correct egocentric immediacy
Explicitly seeking evidence and information that runs counter to our thinking
Correct egocentric memory
Considering points of view that conflict with ours
Correct egocentric myopia
Focusing on complexities, restating them, and considering their impact on our thinking
Correct egocentric oversimplification
Stating unanswered questionsReminding ourselves how little we actually know
Correct egocentric righteousness
Provides the mental tools and fosters the intellectual skills needed to reason through anything in life that demands thought.
Critical Thinking
-Raises vital questions -Gathers and assesses relevant information -Reaches well-reasoned conclusions and solutions -Thinks open-mindedly -Communicates effectively with others
Critical thinker reasoning through any problem
intellectually humble, meaning they are conscious of the limitations of their own knowledge and understanding.
Critical thinkers.
An in-depth process needed to address complex problems
Critical thinking
Can be selfish and fair-minded
Critical thinking
Values depth of thought over speed of thought.
Critical thinking
involves thinking about thinking while thinking in order to make thinking better.
Critical thinking
-Self-directed -Self disciplined -Self monitored -Self corrective
Critical thinking is characteristically
Asking the question, "Did I try to impose my will on others?" is part of which tactic to improve critical thinking?
Deal with your ego
Improve critical thinking
Deal with your ego
How might one go about reading a daily newspaper with as little influence from biased reporting as possible?
Deconstruct news stories and reconstruct them with alternative biases and slants.
involves developing the tools of critical thinking and applying them to whatever challenges you encounter now and in the future.
Deep learning
Depends on an informed citizenry, and it is vital that citizens recognize bias, slanting, and propaganda in news coverage;
Democracy
Refusing to admit contradictions or inconsistencies when making an argument or defending a position.
Denying inconsistencies
The ______ of a claim is a direct function of the quality of evidence supporting it.
Dependability
Plumbs beneath the surface of an issue or problem to identify the underlying complexities; and addresses those complexities in an intellectually responsible way. Directs us to delve deeper into an issue
Depth
In which of the following situations would critical thinking most appropriately apply?
Determining the best exercise to lose weight.
The wording of survey questions may be subject to differing interpretations; survey responses may not reflect respondents' true beliefs; and surveys have built-in biases.
Difficulty with surveys as evidence
Failing to recognize thinking that has "absurd" consequences
Egocentric absurdity
Not seeing facts and evidence that contradict our thinking
Egocentric blindness
Ignoring inconsistencies between belief and behavior and between public standards and private actions
Egocentric hypocrisy
Overgeneralizing so that immediate events, whether favorable or unfavorable, influence thinking
Egocentric immediacy
Remembering only that evidence and information that supports our thinking
Egocentric memory
Adopting an overly narrow point of view and thinking in absolutes
Egocentric myopia
Ignoring complexity and embracing simplicity that conforms to our existing views, values, and beliefs
Egocentric oversimplification
Feeling superior because of possessing the "Truth"
Egocentric righteousness
Often employ the tactic of domination, using direct power over others (up to and including force) to get what they selfishly want.
Egocentric thinkers
Also described as rigidity of thought—represents one of the main barriers to effective critical thinking. Disciplined, strong-sense thinking can serve to mitigate the irrationality of _____
Egocentricity
The tendency to view everything in relationship to oneself and to regard one's own opinions, values, or interests as most important.
Egocentrism
Which term means the tendency to view everything in relationship to oneself?
Egocentrism
Assuming only two alternatives when, in reality, there are more than two. It implies that one of two outcomes is inevitable—either x or y.
Either-or
Determining underlying assumptions
Element of assumptions
Thinking about implications of possible decisions
Element of implication
Assumptions
Element of reasoning
Concepts
Element of reasoning
Implications
Element of reasoning
Inferences
Element of reasoning
Information
Element of reasoning
Points of view
Element of reasoning
Purposes
Element of reasoning
Questions
Element of reasoning
A flaw in any of the ______ is a potential source of problems in our thinking and threatens to undermine its rigor or soundness.
Elements
Questioning interpretations
Elements of questioning
-Purpose -Information -Questions -Interpretations/inferences -Concepts -Implications -Assumptions -Point of View
Elements of reasoning
Anything that contains a standard is something we can eliminate
Elements of reasoning
Fundamental parts of thought.
Elements of reasoning
To analyze the logic of an article, one can apply:
Elements of reasoning
Parts of thinking/Fundamental structures of thought
Elements of reasoning other names
Based on or derived from practical experiment and direct observation
Empirical
When we accept a claim because we think it is justified by the supporting statements for it, we have inferred the conclusion from the reasons. This process captures the ___
Essence of reasoning
Avoiding direct and truthful answers to difficult questions through diversionary tactics, vagueness, or deliberately confusing or complex responses.
Evading questions
Bring an unbiased and unprejudiced perspective to all viewpoints relevant to a situation.
Fair-mindedness
Bringing an unbiased perspective to all relevant viewpoints exemplifies which of the following?
Fair-mindedness
By nature, the human mind is too egocentric and self-interested to realize complete ______
Fair-mindedness
The commitment to consider all relevant opinions equally without regard to ones own sentiments or selfish interests
Fair-mindedness
The traits to critical thinking all related fundamentally to ______
Fair-mindedness
-Reject manipulation and controlling others -Combine critical thinking skills with desire to serve public good -Want all points of view expressed -Want manipulative persuasion exposed
Fairminded critical persons
Thinking that satisfies all other fundamental intellectual standards satisfies the standard of justifiability
Fairness
Flaws or errors in reasoning which, when found in the premise of an argument, invalidate its conclusion.
Fallacies
Many _____ are committed whenever we think that poor or bad assumptions are indeed true
Fallacies
Perpetrated without deliberate intent. They stem from careless or sloppy thinking. Others, can be categorized as "dirty tricks," calculated attempts to win arguments through devious intellectual methods.
Fallacies
Spotting ___ begins with evaluating arguments critically. Are their conclusions supported by their premises? Our starting point should be locating and assessing the assumptions in an argument. What does the argument assume.
Fallacies
______ reasoning impedes critical thinking because it builds arguments on a faulty foundation. It asks us to accept conclusions based on flawed premises.
Fallacious
Faulty assumptions are very often at the root of ___. The faultier an assumption is, the less valid the reasoning.
Fallacy
Present in an argument when the premises (or reasons) given for the conclusion don't properly support the conclusion.
Fallacy
_____ reasoning, the premises might be irrelevant to the conclusion or not logically connected to it. They might be insufficient to warrant the conclusion. The presence of a _____, invalidates the argument.
Fallacy
The mainstream media tends to avoid strange or sensational studies. True or false?
False
Drawing an invalid comparison between things for the purpose of either supporting or refuting some position. ______ suggests that because two things are alike in some respect, they must be alike in other respects.
Faulty analogy
the things being compared have important, relevant differences
Faulty analogy
there are important relevant dissimilarities between 2 things being compared
Faulty analogy
Monitors the meanings created by thinking. It evaluates the degree to which life's events are either positive or negative, given the meaning we assign to them. Continually informs us how we should respond emotionally to what is happening in our lives.
Feeling
Ordinary thinking. Spontaneous and non-reflective Contains insight, prejudice, good and bad reasoning Indiscriminately combined
First-Order Thinking
-Too narrow Founded on false or misleading information -Embodies contradictions
Flaws in point of view
Improve critical thinking
Get in touch with your emotions
Brings one best thinking to bear in every realm of ones life
Goal of critical thinking
Improve critical thinking
Handle one problem per day
Justifying illegal or unethical practices by arguing that they are necessary to confront a greater evil or threat.
Hard-cruel-world argument
Inferring a general proposition about something based on too small a sample or an unrepresentative sample.
Hasty generalization
Focused on the written record of the human race
History
Component in strategic thinking: Recognizing when your thinking is irrational or flawed
Identification
In strategic thinking, recognizing when your thinking is irrational or flawed is which component?
Identification
Involves looking at your irrational emotions or desires and figuring out what is generating them. Then, the critical thinker seeks to replace the irrational thinking with rational thinking.
Identification
-Identify basic concepts -Identifying underlying assumptions
Identification of elements of reasoning
what logically follows from reasoning
Implication
What is said to follow from our reasoning?
Implications
______ also follow from the words we use. Our words always carry ______.
Implications
What extend beyond the position we reach. They form the answer to the question, "What follows from our reasoning?"
Implications and consequences
The ____ affect how we see things—i.e., _____
Implications/Our point of view
Analyze group influences of your life
Improve critical thinking
"The first-place winner in the 10K race was Steven Katz. The third-place finisher was Gregor Mankins. Fred Habib finished fourth."Is this information adequate or inadequate?
Inadequate
Taking into the mind information that, though memorized, we do not understand.
Inert information
We think we understand this information, but we don't and can't use it.
Inert information
What we ____ from the information affects how we ____ it.
Infer/Conceptualize
A logical process of drawing conclusions
Inference
An ______ can be accurate, logical, or justified. Conversely, it can be inaccurate, illogical, or unjustified.
Inference
Is a mental step by which one concludes that something is true based on something else being true or appearing to be so.
Inference
_____ Once identified, should become the focus of critical evaluation. Does it merit acceptance based on the explicit reasons provided for it? Are there implicit assumptions that lead us to a given inference? Are those assumptions justified?
Inference/Conclusion
The outcome of reasoning. It is what the writer or speaker is trying to prove about the issue being addressed. When we identify what the communicator is trying to persuade us to accept.
Inference/conclusion
All reasoning proceeds by steps in the following construct: "Because this is so, that also is so (or probably is so)."
Inferences
An element of critical thinking?
Inferences
We sometimes begin with something we know (or at least, which we believe we know) and figure out something else based on it. Come to conclusions. We continually make ____ about people, events, and things in our everyday lives.
Inferences
In reasoning, we make __________ based on ___________.
Inferences/assumptions
The mind drawing conclusions on the basis of reasons defines which process?
Inferring and reasoning
Evidence is used anonymously with ____
Information
Reasoning can only be as sound as the ________________ it is based on.
Information
Reasoning often follows from bad or incomplete ____. Therefore, the critical thinker must be able to skillfully evaluate _____ for accuracy and completeness. We need to recognize when we don't have sufficient ____ to draw a reasonable conclusion.
Information
Takes many forms: statistical data, our observations, others' testimony, etc. In thinking critically about an issue, we must determine what ___ is relevant to it. We rely on this standard to direct us to a supportable conclusion.
Information
The data, facts, opinions, and experiences that factor in your reasoning
Information
A common problem with applying the critical thinking standard of clarity to information is:
Information isn't clear
The ____ we gather affects the ____ we make from it.
Information/Inferences
Thinking for oneself while adhering to standards of rationality. Reasoning through issues on one's own rather than uncritically accept others' viewpoints
Intellectual Autonomy
Confronting ideas, viewpoints, or beliefs with fairness, even when doing so is painful. Challenging popular belief, Leads us to recognize that ideas which society deems dangerous or absurd may hold some truth or justification.
Intellectual Courage
Fear of ideas or viewpoints that do not conform to one's own.
Intellectual Cowardice
Inhabiting the perspectives of others in order to genuinely understand them. Ability to reconstruct other people's viewpoints and reasoning
Intellectual Empathy
Commitment to discovering the extent of one's own ignorance on any issue. Recognition that one should claim only what one actually knows. Awareness that egocentrism is often self-deceiving (convinces the mind that it knows more than it does)
Intellectual Humility
Openness to the possibility that one's beliefs are mistaken and a willingness to reevaluate them in the face of new evidence or persuasive counterarguments.
Intellectual Humility
Working one's way through intellectual complexities despite frustrations inherent in doing so. Not giving up when confronted by complicated problems that don't lend themselves to easy solutions
Intellectual Perseverance
-Accuracy -Sound logic -Clarity -Depth of thought
Intellectual Standards
Component in strategic thinking: Engaging and challenging your own thinking
Intellectual action
In strategic thinking, engaging and challenging your own thinking is which component?
Intellectual action
The opposite of intellectual conformity is:
Intellectual autonomy
The ability to reconstruct others' viewpoints exemplifies which of the following traits?
Intellectual empathy
The act of routinely inhabiting the perspectives of others in order to genuinely understand them.
Intellectual empathy
Holding oneself to the same rigorous intellectual standards that one expects others to meet. Admitting flaws and inconsistencies in our own thinking
Intellectual integrity
To admit flaws in one's own thinking is an expression of:
Intellectual integrity
The act of working one's way through intellectual complexities despite frustrations inherent in doing so.
Intellectual perseverance
-Clarity -Depth -Accuracy -Breadth -Precision -Logicalness -Relevance -Fairness
Intellectual standards
These can be visualized as "filters" that screen out flawed thinking—i.e., thinking which is unclear, inaccurate, irrelevant, illogical, or insufficient;
Intellectual standards
Feel no responsibility to represent viewpoints with which they disagree fairly and accurately. Always see yourself as right and just. Nearly always involves an element of self-deception.
Intellectual unfairness
Improve critical thinking
Internalize intellectual standards
-Ideology -Professional jealousy -Personal aggrandizement
Introduce bias
As an unconscious process, _____ often ignores or dismisses relevant empirical evidence.
Intuition
Has dependability beyond objective judgment because it is a subjective, private experience. There is no reliable basis for deciding which of two differing intuitive claims is more plausible.
Intuition
"We've been asked to provide an estimate of sales for next year. I think we can safely say that we will reduce costs 25 percent and improve profitability."Is this information relevant or irrelevant?
Irrelevant
Which of the following is not a characteristic of second-order thinking?
It relies on intuition
Improve critical thinking
Keep an intellectual journal
Plot the relationship between two or more variables by using connected data points.
Line graphs
There is a bias in the _____ towards reporting what is novel, strange, or sensational. This leads to news reporting that ignores important stories while the sensational is blown out of proportion.
Mainstream news media
A ________ is calculated by adding up all the values in a dataset and dividing by the total number of values in the dataset.
Mean
The ________ is the value that appears most frequently in a dataset.
Mode
Distinguishing between what a situation actually implies and what we may infer from it
Most important critical thinking skills
- false sense of superiority - close-mindedness - suppression of opposing viewpoints
Negative impact of socioscentrism
The failure to recognize that 2 events may be related through the effects of a common third factor
Neglect of a common cause
An unsupported claim is what critical thinking experts refer to as a(n) ________.
Opinion
An unsupported claim is what critical thinking experts refer to as an
Opinion
Can lead to hasty generalizations based on only one or a couple of experiences (i.e., too few to be a representative example).
Personal experience
Is filtered through one's values, biases, and expectations. This can lead two observers to see or perceive the same thing differently.
Personal observation
Focused on the critical and systematic study of problems
Philosophy
Is an element of reasoning
Point of view
Observing things from a particular _______ does not render one unable to distinguish accurate from inaccurate statements.
Point of view
Strive for a ____ that is broad, flexible, and justifiable. Weigh alternative ______ when you reason through an issue.
Point of view
Strive for a ______ that considers opposing _____ with fairness.
Point of view
The particular perspective from which something is observed or thought through
Point of view
How does citizen perception shape decision making in a theocracy
Political science
What are the three kinds of implications that may be involved in any situation?
Possible, probable, necessary
Improve critical thinking
Practice intellectual strategies
Reasoning that is specific, exact, and sufficiently detailed is said to be ________.
Precise
An argument that lacks specifics violates which of the following universal intellectual standards?
Precision
Reasoning is precise when it is specific, exact, and sufficiently detailed. ____ is related to clarity but distinct from it. Something may be clear but not precise. For example:
Precision
Implies that things should be a certain way
Prescriptive statement
When looking for value-related statements, identify:
Prescriptive statements
A mechanic ruled out failures in 10 different engine parts before finding the problem in the carburetor. This is an example of:
Process of elimination
In analyzing causation, successively ruling out non-causal factors until one correct causal factor remains
Process of elimination
Focused on the mental process and behavior
Psychology
Is the goal or objective of reasoning. It describes the desired outcome or intent (winning an argument, grasping a complex concept, justifying one's behavior). The critical thinker always asks what function reasoning serves and in what direction it is moving.
Purpose
What is the term for the goal or desired outcome of our reasoning?
Purpose
Our___ affects how we ask ____.
Purpose/Questions
A personal observation is what kind of evidence?
Qualitative
_____ evidence describes an understanding of what something means and how it occurred.
Qualitative
Derives from participant observation and personal communications. It is the result of unstructured or unscientific gathering of information.
Qualitative evidence
Describes or recounts an observation or phenomenon. It communicates understanding and meaning—why and how something happened.
Qualitative evidence
A research study is an example of which kind of evidence?
Quantitative
Research studies are what kind of evidence?
Quantitative
Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, and analyzing _________.
Quantitative data
Quantifies an observation or phenomenon—i.e., expresses it as a number or empirical measure. Derives from quantitative research and deductive analysis. It generally is an outcome of scientific methods
Quantitative evidence
is an outcome of scientific methods including: -Devising empirical models/hypotheses about things -Testing the models/hypotheses through controlled experiments -Using statistically valid samples -Developing instruments for measuring outcomes -Collecting verifiable data
Quantitative evidence
is concerned with determining causation: one thing caused another thing under controlled experimental conditions.
Quantitative evidence
These questions have more than one answer, with some answers better than others.
Question of judgement
What is the most effective and safest way to design a roadway system to achieve efficiency?
Question of judgement
A question with competing and debatable answers
Question of judgment
"Is basketball or ice hockey more fun to watch?" is a:
Question of preference
Have definitive answers
Questions of fact
Have more than one reasoned answer, but some answers are better than others. Does not have one correct answer but a number of well-reasoned answers.
Questions of judgement
Critical thinking is only for ________
Questions of judgment
Have a range of potential answers, which reflect personal and subjective views on a topic.
Questions of preference
How we ask ____ affects the ____ we gather.
Questions/Information
A common error in ______ is to seek or insist on one simple cause for something. In reality, in human activities, outcomes usually result from multiple contributory causes.
Reasoning
Introducing an irrelevant point or topic to divert attention from the issue at hand. It is a tactic for confusing the point under debate.
Red herring
Improve critical thinking
Redefine the way you see things
The standards must be applied to the elements as the critical thinker learns to develop intellectual traits.
Relationship between standards, elements and intellectual traits
Which report of risk reduction conveys a more significant treatment effect?
Relative
Distinctions between the elements of reasoning are_______ not ________.
Relative/absolute
Thinking is ___ when it focuses on what is important—on what matters—in understanding or deciding the issue at hand
Relevance
A systematic set of observations collected through scientific methods
Research study
Can provide strong evidence because it yields empirical data that may be independently verified. Relies on scientific methods to reduce errors in observation and measurement.
Research study
-The quality of studies varies greatly -___ values, self-interest, and biases can skew the way they conduct research and interpret findings - ___ findings often get distorted or oversimplified by people who speak or write about them
Research study drawbacks
Improve critical thinking
Reshape your character
Another term used to describe egocentric thinking is:
Rigidity of thought
is a statistical expression that appears most commonly in reports about health risks (and interventions for limiting them).
Risk reduction
can be deceptive because they may be expressed in either relative or absolute terms, and the form in which they are reported can significantly impact our perception of the actual magnitude of the reduced risk.
Risk reduction statistics
Which of the following terms describes a plausible alternative explanation for why a particular outcome happened?
Rival cause
is a plausible alternative explanation for why a certain outcome happened.
Rival cause
Any explanation that fails to consider multiple ______ constitutes an oversimplification.
Rival causes
The dependability of a particular claim of causation is inversely related to the number of plausible ______
Rival causes
tell us that there is more than one credible explanation for why something happened—for what caused it. Their existence should give us pause before accepting the explanation given by a speaker or writer.
Rival causes
Asserting that a solution is not worth adopting because it does not fix the problem completely.
Search for perfect solution
First-order thinking that is consciously realized (i.e., analyzed, assessed, and reconstructed)
Second-Order Thinking
doesn't produce lasting knowledge or comprehension.
Shallow learning
In analyzing causation, looking for a causal factor that is present in one situation but absent in another, similar, situation
Single difference
In analyzing causation, looking for a causal factor that is present in one situation but absent in another similar situation is called the:
Single difference method
-Skilled in manipulation -Pursue self-interest -Employ manipulation, domination, demagoguery -Try to keep other points of view from being heard
Skilled manipulators
Weak-sense critical thinkers
Skilled manipulators
Suggesting that a step or action, once taken, will lead inevitably to similar steps or actions with presumably undesirable consequences. The fallacy is invoked to justify not taking a given initial step or action, lest it lead us down the ______
Slippery slope
. The assumption that one's own social group is inherently superior to all others
Sociocentrism
Focused on the interaction and relationships among individuals and in groups
Sociology
A systematic disciplined approach to asking questions aimed at assessing the truth
Socratic questioning
What is the best medical approach for treating alcohol poisoning?
Solution that is widely accepted by experts?
The ability to win an argument regardless of flaws in its reasoning.
Sophistry
-Logic -Significance -Accuracy -Precision
Standards of critical thinking
Must be applied to the elements as the critical thinker learns to develop intellectual traits.
Standards of critical thinking
it must be developed from a sample that is random and sufficiently large.
Statistical data to be valid
The frequency with which each value in a series of values occurs
Statistical distribution
The gap between the smallest and largest values in a series of values
Statistical range
Critical thinking is concerned with ____ because they are sometimes used as evidence in reasoning to support claims and conclusions.
Statistics
Generally are perceived to add legitimacy or weight to evidence. We tend to be impressed by numbers, which express precise values and seem "factual."
Statistics
_____ based on imprecise reporting is known as a best guess, an approximation, and also an opinion.
Statistics
is the science of collecting, organizing, and analyzing quantitative data. The data thus produced are what we know and refer to as ____.
Statistics
Egocentrism and sociocentrism also play a significant role in maintaining the ____
Status quo
A fixed or oversimplified conception of a person, group, or idea.
Stereotype
Distorting or exaggerating an opponent's argument so that it might be more easily attacked.
Straw man
the things being compared have relevant similarities and lack relevant differences.
Strong analogy
Thinking that uses critical thinking skills to evaluate all beliefs especially ones owns and pursues what is intellectually fair and just
Strong-Sense critical thinking
Fair-minded critical persons
Strong-sense critical thinkers
-Consider all thinking by the same standards -Expect good reasoning from supporters as well as opponents -Apply the same critical criteria to our own logic as to others reasoning -Recognize the actual strengths and weaknesses of any reasoning we assess
Strong-sense critical thinking
-Strive to be ethical -Strive to empathize with others viewpoints -Will entertain arguments with which they do not agree -Change their views when confronted with superior reasoning -Employ their thinking reasonably rather than manipulatively
Strong-sense critical thinking
Implies higher-order thinking—i.e., thinking which is deep and highly insightful.
Strong-sense critical thinking
In some cases, the conclusions we draw are based on assumptions that operate at a ________ level.
Subconscious
In some cases, the conclusions we draw are based on assumptions that operate at a(n) ________ level.
Subconscious
When confronted with a more powerful or prestigious person who can help them achieve their goals, an egocentric thinker is likely to turn to which of the following strategies?
Submission
where the egocentric thinker caters to those with power or prestige who can advance their goals. _____ blocks the development of healthy, rational relationships and becomes an impediment to self-insight.
Submission
Are quite skilled in getting their way through manipulation and domination and in rationalizing their unethical behavior.
Successful egocentric thinkers
Can, when well designed and properly conducted, yield responses that may be regarded as good evidence.
Survey/Questionnaire
- responses don't necessarily reflect respondents' actual beliefs -Ambiguously worded survey questions are open to differing interpretations by survey participants - often include built-in biases
Survey/Questionnaire drawbacks
Varies in quality depending on the expertise behind it and any biases it reflects.
Testimony
-People are selective about what they reveal and don't reveal -It may come from someone who stands to profit from the testimonial (a motive of personal gain can result in a biased account) -It often leaves out information that would modify the message if the information were not omitted
Testimony drawbacks
Accuracy
The Standards
Breadth
The Standards
Clarity
The Standards
Depth
The Standards
Fairness
The Standards
Logic
The Standards
Precision
The Standards
Relevance
The Standards
Significance
The Standards
Ethical principles common to all humans can be found in:
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Fosters sociocentric thinking, reflecting national and cultural bias. (Sociocentrism is seeing social conventions, beliefs, and taboos of your society as "the only correct way to live and think
The major media
_______ must be applied to the elements as the critical thinker learns to develop intellectual traits.
The standards of critical thinking
Are examples of concepts
Theories
-judging -perceiving -analyzing -clarifying -determining -comparing -synthesizing
Thinking
Creates meaning. It sorts events in our lives into categories. It finds patterns in the world around us.
Thinking
Using irrelevant, misleading, or questionable statistics to support an argument or defend a position.
Thrown-in statistics
-Become master of your own conceptualizations -Not become trapped in one set of concepts
To take command of your thinking
Analyze, access and reconstruct ones own thinking in order to improve its quality
To think is to
Of the five key factors Jefferson Flanders identifies in evaluating research, which one best addresses tracing the origins of the information?
Transparency
Citing abstract concepts (freedom, justice, science) to support an argument or to call for action.
Treating abstracts as reality
According to Paul and Elder, egocentrism and sociocentrism are significant barriers to sound ethical reasoning. True or false?
True
Asking questions and challenging the status quo makes you a critical consumer of information. True or false?
True
Concomitant variation refers to a pattern of variation between a possible cause and a possible effect. True or false?
True
Intellectual humility is a character trait of critical thinkers. True or false?
True
Intellectual standards require that assumptions be acknowledged and stated clearly and concisely. True or false?
True
Objectivity requires distinguishing between fact and opinion. True or false?
True
One good way to analyze causes is to eliminate non-causal factors, identifying the causal factor through the process of elimination. True or false?
True
Defending or justifying our wrong position or conduct by pointing to a similar wrong done by someone else.
Two wrongs make a right
-Socially conditioned beliefs -Personal beliefs often grounded in prejudice -Motivated by irrationality, personal vanity, intellectual arrogance -Prone to emotional counter-attacks when thinking is questioned -See themselves as "good" and opponents as "evil"
Uncritical persons
untellectually unskilled thinkers
Uncritical persons
Principles for correct human behavior acknowledged by reasonable people
Universal ethical standards
Improve critical thinking
Use wasted time
allocates energy into action. It does so consistently with how we define what is desirable and possible. Continually tells us what is (or is not) worth seeking or getting.
Wanting
-Lacks key higher level skills and values of critical thinking -Makes no good faith effort to consider alternative viewpoints
Weak-Sense critical thinking
-Ignores the flaws in their own thinking -Often seek to win arguments trickery or deceit
Weak-sense critical thinking
-Making unreasonable thinking appear reasonable and reasonable thinking appear unreasonable -Employ emotionalism and intellectual trickery -Hide or distort evidence
Weak-sense critical thinking
Thinking that does not consider counter viewpoints, that lacks fair mindedness and that uses critical thinking skills to defend current beliefs.
Weak-sense critical thinking
-Misinformation (i.e., incorrect or erroneous information) or deliberately false information -Unreported or undisclosed information -Unobservable events
difficult to get precise statistics
X leads to... X determines... X is responsible for... X results in... X brings about...
indicate evidence is being presented to support causation
A rival cause tells us that there is ________ for why something happened.
more than one credible explanation
The elements of reasoning are also known as the ________
parts of thinking and fundamental structures of thought.
Strong analogies entail comparisons between things that have ________ and lack ________.
relevant similarities/relevant differences
Is the belief that one's own society or group is superior to others. It is a key barrier to critical thinking as it encourages close-mindedness and suppression of opposing viewpoints.
sociocentrism