CS 404 Exam 1 Study Guide

ACM Code of Ethics

1. Contribute to society and to human well-being 2. Acknowledge that all people are stakeholders in computing

What is Kant's FUL: Formulation of Universal Law

Act only on those maxims that one can will to become universal laws.

Kant What are the 3 types of motive scenarios Kant gives in relation to the question of acting from and acting according to duty?

Acting according to duty from indirect inclination Acting according to duty from direct inclination Acting according to duty against inclination

Kant What's the difference between acting according to and from duty (be able to define them both)?

Acting from duty means doing what is right because it is right or doing what is right for the reason that it is right. Acting According to duty means having the right behavior/ doing the right thing.

What is psychological egoism?

All actions are based only on self interest. Ethical egoism is the milder, all actions are based [partly] on self interest.

The Strong A.I. Thesis:

An appropriately programmed computer would be a thinking thing (a mind).

Subjectivism Pojman

Claims that all moral principles are justified simply in virtue of their acceptance by an individual. Implies that little or no interpersonal criticism is possible, and it implies the absurd notion that Hitler was as moral as Gandhi.

Main problems with ethical relativism (according to Pojman).

Ethical Relativism struggles to make the transition between: Observation that different cultures have different rules No culture's set of rules is any better than another (There are no ideal set of rules) Problem with Tolerance Then tolerance would be universal, contradicting relativism

Thesis of Ethical Relativism Pojman

Ethical relativism says: There are no universal moral principles. All moral principles are valid relative to culture or individual. Pojman says that ethical relativism is a mistaken theory and that cultural differences do not demonstrate that all ways of life are equally valid from a moral perspective.

Intuitionism What are the 8 prima facie duties?

Fidelity: keeping our promises, being faithful to our word Reparations: repairing harm we have done Gratitude: appropriately acknowledging benefits that others have given us Self-improvement: making oneself more intelligent or virtuous Justice: ensuring that virtue is rewarded and vice is punished Beneficence: enhancing the intelligence, virtue or pleasure of others Non-maleficence: preventing harm to others Veracity: duty to avoid lying

Shafer-Landau's response to the best argument for Ethical Egoism (concerning moral rights)

If you are morally required to do something, then you have a good reason to do it. If there is a good reason to do something, then doing it must advance your interests. Therefore, if you are morally required to do something, then it must advance your interests. Response: There are good reasons to help others even when it in no way benefits our interests. Examples: duties of easy rescue. Also, the interests of others count for nothing in themselves according to ethical egoism.

Kant Wide duties:

Imperfect duties are not specifiable in the same way that perfect duties are. They allow a good deal of leeway in how an agent acts. Ex. Develop your talents.

Kant: Duty from direct inclination

In this duty, We are directly inclined to do the right action any way. We want to do what is right either because we already love, like, or admire the person. Ex. Helping your child, doing something for a girlfriend.

Consequentialist argument for self-driving cars

Increase in traffic efficiency Eliminate up to 90% of traffic accidents Reduce stress for drivers Reduce pollution

What should be the ethical stance of such cars in minimizing harm scenarios?

It depends. People prefer a utilitarian framework that minimizes casualties, even in the driver is killed, unless they are the ones to be sacrificed. 50% surveyed would be willing to buy a car that places highest value on passenger protection, but only 19% would be willing to purchase one programmed to save the most live

Utilitarian/Consequentialist What are the main objections to utilitarianism?

It is hard to know what consequences will result from our actions. It is impossible to precisely measure. The personal rights or justice objection says that utilitarianism would require or allow that we violate individual rights for the sake of the greater good—this is sometimes called the end justifies the means. The good of the many shouldn't always overrule the interests (rights) of the few.

Utilitarian/Consequentialist What is the "overall good" and how can you make sure to not misunderstand this?

It is not always the act that benefits the most people. It is not always the act that brings about the most happiness (Gladiator vs. normal game). The right act is the one that brings about the best overall situation.

Searle's critique of strong AI

John Searle is locked in a room, he does NOT know or understand any Chinese.He is given slips of paper with Chinese writing/symbols on it.Then he is given instructions on how to decipher the Chinese writing/symbols.He is not given anything that would allow him to understand the Chinese, there is NO dictionary to tell him what the writing/symbols mean. He answers in Chinese, and it is indistinguishable from how a native Chinese speaker would answer. But, Searle does not know a word of Chinese Searle performed like a computer would but he can't think in Chinese. Thus a smart programmed computer could not be a thinking thing (a mind).

What are the problems with the GR (both versions)?

LR has no same situation clause. It also tells what specific act to do, instead of forbidding an action-desire combination. We violate consistency if we treat ourselves as we are not willing to have others treat themselves. It would seem the golden rule would prohibit a business from raising prices even when their costs go up on the grounds that customers would prefer that they not do so or else prevent employers from firing unproductive employees who wish not to lose their job because clearly neither the employee nor the employer would want to be fired. The GR also faces difficulties when multiple parties are involved, such as in the case of a judge trying to adjudicate between competing litigants in a civil trial, or other complex cases involving many stakeholders with different preferences, wants, and interests. In such cases it may be impossible to meet each person's (or group's) preferences and wants. The Golden Rule is based on preferences and wants. Therefore, we need a principle that is based on rationality, or a more objective standard.

What is Gensler's revised interpretation of the GR and how does it differ from the LR?

LR is literal golden rule. It says if you want x to do something to you, then do that thing to x. GR is the revised one and it says treat others only as you consent to being treated in the same situation. It's not how you'd feel in the other person's place (drug addict, baby), but if you'd consent from your current perspective.

The point concerning the Abraham Lincoln example and guilt:

Landau says guilt proves that you care. Lincoln said guilt proves psychological egoism. Lincoln left the carriage to help the pig. He says he did so only because he didn't want to feel guilty.

Conventionalism Pojman

Moral principles are justified by virtue of their cultural acceptance.

What is ethical egoism?

Morality is based on self interest. We ought only to do what is in our overall, long term interest. EE need not endorse an indifferent attitude toward helping others since such indifference is most likely not in our long term interest, even from a mortal perspective.

Kant Narrow duties:

Perfect duties refer to duties which can be specified. Most of them are negative duties. Ex. Don't kill.

Intuitionism Actual duties vs. prima facie duties:

Prima facie duty - duty unless stronger moral overrides Actual duty - duty one is morally bound to do

Intuitionism 3 characteristics of prima facie duties: ¥ actual duties vs. prima facie duties

Self evident, non-absolute, always morally relevant.

Sentience vs Sapience

Sentience: The capacity for phenomenal experience or qualia, such as the capacity to feel pain and suffer. Sapience: A set of capacities associate with higher intelligence, such as self-awareness and being a reason-responsive agent. (qualia are defined to be individual instances of subjective, conscious experience.)

What does Pojman say about the relation between tolerance and Moral relativism?

There can't be a principle of universal tolerance because moral relativism can't prescribe universal principles.

Objectivism Pojman

There is a universally valid core morality. Human nature is relatively similar in essential respects, having a common set of needs and interests. Moral principles are functions of human needs and interests, instituted by reason to promote the most significant interests and needs of rational beings. Some moral principles will promote these interests and needs better than others. Those principles that will meet essential needs and promote the most significant interests of humans in optimal ways can be said to be objectively valid moral principles.

Kant According to duty against inclination

This duty involves acts in which the person has almost no inclination to do the right action or has a strong inclination to violate one's duty. These are the most heroic acts. Ex. helping someone that you despise, jumping on a grenade.

Kant: Duty from indirect inclination

This duty involves cases in which a person does what is right but one's motivation is mainly out of fear of punishment or promise of reward. Almost always a self-interested inclination. Ex. Speed limit because you see a cop.

Kant FHE: Formulation of Humanity as an end

Treat humanity, in oneself and others, always as an end and never merely as a means.

What is Nagel's argument against ethical egoism?

We are able to recognize an objective element in the concern we feel for ourselves. We in turn are able to recognize the legitimacy of extending that objective interest to the needs of others. That is, we attribute an objective status to our needs in the sense that we believe such needs give other people reasons not to harm us and in certain instances reasons to help us. If there are others with needs and interests similar to ours, then their needs and interests deserve a similar objective respect as ours.

What are the main points from the "Argument from Strongest Desires" & what is Shafer-Landau's response? Psychological egoism

Whenever you do something, you are motivated by your strongest desire. Whenever you are motivated by your strongest desire, you are pursuing your self-interest. Therefore, whenever you do something, you are pursuing your self interest. Premise 2 begs the question. Even if we always do what we most want to do, that does not show that our strongest desires are always for personal gain.

Software Engineering Code of Ethics

• Act in a manner that is in the clients, the public, and the employer's best interest • Maintain integrity and independence in one's professional judgment

Kant Contradictions in conception:

• Define narrow, perfect duties o Suicide: If everyone committed suicide, humanity would cease to exist o Conceptually the idea is absurd o Affects everyone

Kant Contradictions in will:

• Define wide, imperfect duties o If everyone didn't help each other, when you need help, no one will help you o When you universalize the will then the result will ultimately hurt you o Will have a personal effect

Aristotle's Virtue Ethics--Examples of virtues and vices and the mean:

• Virtues sit on a continuum as the mean between two vices • Virtue is essential to happiness • Mean: a midpoint of virtue connected to emotion • Examples (Defect --- Virtue --- Extreme): o Self controlled (no pleasure) --- self control --- self indulgent o Cowardice --- courage --- recklessness o Self deprecation --- truthfulness --- boasting o Boorishness --- wittiness --- buffoonery