CSET Multiple Subjects: Subtest 2 (Science)

Chemical changes

-A change of one substance into a different substance -Occurs whenever compounds are formed or decomposed -During this reaction, there is a rearrangement of atoms that makes or breaks chemical bonds -This change is usually not reversible, unlike physical changes Example: The formation of rust -Iron chemically reacts with air and water to form rust (ferrous oxide) and is unable to change back to iron

Wedge

-A compound and portable inclined plane -A triangular-shaped tool used to separate two objects or portions of an object, lift an object, or hold an object in place -It functions by converting a force applied to its blunt end into forces perpendicular (normal) to its inclined surfaces -The mechanical advantage of a wedge is given by the ratio of the length of its slope to its width -Although a short wedge with a wide angle may do a job faster, it requires more force than a long wedge with a narrow angle

Draw conclusion

-A conclusion is a summary and an explanation of the results of an experiment -Does the data support the hypothesis? If not, a new hypothesis can be formed -For example, the addition of salt lowers the freezing temperature of water, and the weight on the end of a pendulum has no effect on the time required to complete a cycle

Motion

-A constant change in the location of a body -Described by stating an object's position, velocity and acceleration

Inclined plane

-A flat surface whose endpoints are at different heights, resulting in a slope -By moving an object up an inclined plane rather than completely vertically, the amount of force required is reduced, at the expense of increasing the distance the object must travel -Mechanical advantage of an inclined plane is the ratio of the length of the sloped surface to the height it spans -The inclined plane allows the same work to be done with a smaller force exerted over a greater distance Example: ramp

Electricity

-A form of energy that can be used to produce sound, light, heat, and power -Electricity exists where the number of negative electrons does not precisely equal the number of positive protons -Electrons are held in the atom by an electrical force and have an electrical charge -When the electrons are not held tightly in their atoms, the electrons can move freely and can carry electricity from one place to another

Fluorescent lamp/fluorescent tube

-A gas-discharge lamp that uses electricity to excite mercury vapor -The excited mercury atoms produce short-wave ultraviolet light that then causes a phosphor to fluoresce, producing visible light -Unlike incandescent lamps, fluorescent lamps always require a ballast to regulate the flow of power through the lamp -However, a fluorescent lamp converts electrical power into useful light more efficiently than an incandescent lamp; lower energy costs offset the higher initial cost of the lamp -Compared with incandescent lamps, fluorescent lamps use less power for the same amount of light, generally last longer, but are bulkier, more complex, and more expensive than a comparable incandescent lamp

Pulley/block

-A grooved wheel with a rope or other item wrapped around it -Pulleys are used to change the direction of an applied force, change the amount of force, transmit rotational motion, or realize a mechanical advantage in either a linear or a rotational system of motion -A pulley helps an individual lift an object by spreading the weight of the object over the length of the rope Example: -Raising and lowering window blinds -Diagram 1 represents a double pulley. As effort is applied (pulling power), the load (weight) is raised. In this system, the load moves only half the distance that the rope is pulled. However, the force raising the load is double the effort pulling the rope. In this system, the pulleys provide a 2-to-1 mechanical advantage. -Diagram 2 represents a multiple-pulley system. In this system, less strength is used to accomplish the same lifting height as in diagram 1. The workload does not change; however, less force, and consequently less effort, is needed. In this system, the load moves one-third the distance that the rope is pulled, and the pulleys provide a 3-to-1 mechanical advantage. -In both diagrams, the top pulley is only a change of direction and does not provide any type of mechanical advantage.

Develop a hypothesis

-A hypothesis is an attempt to answer the question or predict the outcome -A hypothesis is a possible explanation for a set of observations -Examples: Does air pressure affect how fast fluids move? Does the length of a pendulum's swing influence its frequency?

pH

-A measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution -The pH scale is not an absolute scale; it is relative to a set of standard solutions whose pH is established by international agreement -pH measurements are important for medicine, biology, chemistry, food science, environmental science, oceanography, and many other applications

Simple machine

-A mechanical device that changes the direction or magnitude of a force -The simplest mechanisms that use mechanical advantage to multiply force -Uses a single applied force to do work against a single load force -Ignoring friction losses, the work done on the load is equal to the work done by the applied force -Simple machines can be used to increase the amount of the output force, at the cost of a proportional decrease in the distance moved by the load -Allow the individual to obtain a mechanical advantage

Gravitation

-A natural phenomenon by which objects with mass attract one another -Compels dispersed matter to coalesce, and thus it accounts for the very existence of the earth, the sun, and most of the macroscopic objects in the universe -Responsible for keeping the earth and the other planets in their orbits around the sun, for keeping the moon in its orbit around the earth, for the formation of tides, for convection (by which hot fluids rise), for heating the interiors of forming stars and planets to very high temperatures, and for various other phenomena that we observe

Lever

-A rigid object that is used with an appropriate fulcrum or pivot point to multiply the mechanical force that can be applied to another object -Examples: wheelbarrow (the wheel works as the fulcrum), scissors (the fulcrum is where the blades cross)

Form a question (state the problem)

-A scientific question is one that can be answered on the basis of evidence and that can be measured -The question often asks, "What effect will something have — what if — and how ...?" -Examples: Why is the sky blue? What effect does salt have on the freezing temperature of water? Why does water stay in a straw when a finger is pressed over on end of the straw?

Incandescent light bulb

-A source of electric light that works by incandescence -An electric current passes through a thin filament, heating it until it produces light -The enclosing glass bulb prevents the oxygen in the air from reaching the hot filament, which otherwise would be destroyed rapidly by oxidation -Sometimes called electric lamps/arc lamps

Temperature conversions

-A temperature interval of one degree F is an interval of 5/9 of a degree C -The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales coincide at -40° (i.e., -40°F and -40°C describe the same temperature) C = (5/9)(F - 32) F = (9/5)(C + 32)

Litmus

-A water-soluble mixture of different dyes extracted from lichens -It is often absorbed onto filter paper -The resulting piece of paper or solution with water becomes a pH indicator (one of the oldest), used to test materials for acidity -Turns red under acidic conditions, and turns blue under basic (i.e., alkaline) conditions -Other indicators of the presence of an acid are that when acids react with metals, hydrogen gas is released causing bases to feel soapy when touched

Non-metals in the periodic table

-Account for 17 elements in the periodic table -Lack the properties of metals but are very common -Include oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon, 7 metalloid elements, and 7 gases -Poor conductors of electricity

Rainbow

-After a rainstorm, the air is full of tiny drops of water -Each drop acts as a prism, splitting the light into the colors of the spectrum -Violet is the shortest wavelength; red is the longest

Screw

-All screws are inclined planes -Can convert a rotational force (torque) to a linear force, and vice versa -The ratio of threading determines the mechanical advantage of the machine -More threading increases the mechanical advantage -It is easier to turn a screw than to push a screw directly into a wall -As the screw rotates outward, the weight rises; as the screw rotates inward, the weight lowers

Electromagnetic radiation

-An electric current also generates a magnetic field, demonstrating an intimate connection between electricity and magnetism -Recent work has united these phenomena, as well as light, into electromagnetic radiation

Matter

-Anything that has mass and occupies space -Everything you see and touch is composed of matter -Three states of matter are solids, liquids, and gases

The periodic table of the elements

-Arranges all of the known elements from left to right and top to bottom in order of increasing atomic number, and they generally coincide with their increasing atomic mass -Elements with similar properties fall into the same vertical columns to form groups or families -Properties of elements change greatly across any one row (period) -In each element's square, the chemical symbol is in the middle, the atomic weight is usually directly below the symbol, the atomic number is usually shown at the top of the square -As of 2006, the table contains 117 chemical elements whose discoveries have been confirmed -94 are naturally found on the earth, and the rest are synthetic elements that have been produced artificially in particle accelerators

Solids

-Characterized by their ability to retain their shape -Relatively incompressible -Melt when heated and vaporize only slightly -All substances become solid if cooled sufficiently Examples: rocks, crystals, wood, feather, ice

Chemical elements

-Composed of only one atom and cannot be separated into different substances except in some instances by radioactive decay or by nuclear reactions -Elements are assigned atomic numbers equal to the number of protons in the nucleus of their atoms -Each element has a different number of protons -The sum of the protons and neutrons gives an average atomic mass for the element

Distillation

-Designed to separate substances in a liquid through vaporization -Usually carried out in an apparatus called a still, which requires a boiler, a condenser, and a receiver Example: Purify ocean water -Heat the ocean water until it reaches its boiling point -As the ocean water boils, it begins to evaporate and change from a liquid to a gas, in the form of water vapor -The gas goes through tubing to a collector container -The container sits in ice, which accelerates the condensation from water vapor back to liquid (or from a gas to a liquid) -The condensed water is pure water -Salt and other impurities remain as a residue in the original pan -Salt has a higher boiling point than water and therefore doesn't evaporate with the water

Magnetism

-Displayed by permanent magnets and around electric currents -The north pole of one magnet attracts the south pole of another, but like poles repel each other -Either pole can attract unmagnetized iron objects -Iron filings spread out on a piece of paper above a bar magnet become arranged in a pattern that maps a magnetic field in the space around the magnet -The earth's magnetic field orients the iron needles of navigational compasses -An electric current also generates a magnetic field, demonstrating an intimate connection between electricity and magnetism

Materials with high conductivity

-Electricity flows easily through materials that conduct electricity -Include metals such as aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), silver (Ag), and gold (Au)

Renewable energy

-Energy generated from natural sources (such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat) which are renewable (naturally replenished) -In 2006, about 18% of global energy consumption came from renewable sources, with 13% coming from traditional biomass materials, such as wood burning -Hydroelectricity was the next largest renewable source, providing 3%, followed by solar hot water/heating which contributed 1.3% -Modern technologies, such as geothermal energy, wind power, solar power, and ocean energy, together provided 0.8% of final energy consumption

Nonrenewable energy

-Energy taken from finite resources that will eventually dwindle, becoming too expensive or too environmentally damaging to retrieve -Fossil fuels include coal, petroleum, and natural gas -Fossil fuels are limited and nonrenewable and contribute to global warming -When fossil fuels are burned, they release trapped energy in the form of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere -Carbon dioxide and methane are major greenhouse gases -The burning of coal also contributes to the formation of acid rain

Gases

-Expand to fill any available space -A gas is a compressible fluid, with its volume determined by the pressure and temperature of the environment -A compressed gas pushes out equally in all directions -Boyle's Law: If the pressure increases, the volume decreases; the reverse is true as well -Charles's Law: As temperature increases (at a fixed pressure), so does volume Examples: air, helium, steam

Refraction

-Explains why objects appear bent as light passes from one transparent object into another -Light travels at different speeds through different objects (faster through air than through water or glass) -Responsible for rainbows and for the splitting of white light into a rainbow-spectrum as it passes through a glass prism -Glass has a higher refractive index than air and the different frequencies of light have different wavelengths (dispersion), causing them to be refracted at different angles, so that you can see them -The different frequencies correspond to different colors being observed -The various colors travel at the uniform speed c: c = 186,000 miles/second = 3 x 10^8 meters/second

Density

-For a homogeneous object, density is determined by dividing the mass by the volume (D = M/V) -The mass is normally measured with an appropriate scale or balance -The volume may be measured directly (from the geometry of the object) or by the displacement of a fluid Example: If steel and wood have equal dimensions, the steel would have a greater mass as it is more dense

Transfer of heat

-Heat tends to move from a high-temperature region to a low-temperature region -This heat transfer may occur by the mechanisms of conduction, radiation, and convection

Weight

-In physics and engineering, weight means the strength of the gravitational pull on the object (how heavy it is, measured in newtons) -In everyday situations, the weight of an object is proportional to its mass, which usually makes it acceptable to use the same word for both concepts

Wheel and axle

-In the category of a first-class lever -In its simplest form it consists of a rod attached to a wheel so that their movements are coupled when one of the parts is turned -The wheel and axle is used either as a force multiplier (such as a doorknob, steering wheel or fishing reel) or as a distance multiplier (such as on a bicycle or the driven wheels of a car) -In the first kind of application, the larger wheel is used to create more torque (in the axle) with less force -In the second kind of application, when the axle is turned, the outside of the wheel turns at a greater linear speed that is proportional to the ratio of the radii of the wheel and axle. For example, if a bike wheel has a gear that turns eight inches in one second, and the wheel circumference is eighty inches, the wheel rotates through a distance ten times greater than the gear (and reducing the number of rotations of the pedals required) -By varying the radii of the axle and/or wheel, any amount of mechanical advantage may be gained

Physical changes

-Involve one substance changing states (not one substance changing into another) -Typically reversible Example: water -Can change from a gas (water vapor) to a liquid (water) to a solid (ice), but the water molecules do not change -The particular state of water is determined by pressure and temperature -The dashed lines show the behavior of water at one atmosphere (sea level), freezing at 0°C (32°F), and boiling at 100°C (212°F) -At other pressures, the freezing and boiling temperatures for water differ from the familiar values

Kinetic and potential energy

-Kinetic energy: energy possessed by a moving object -An object in an unstable position has potential energy, for the position could be converted into movement Example: a baseball thrown vertically upward -Its speed decreases upward because the acceleration of gravity is acting downward -The rising ball loses kinetic energy (slows down) as it gains potential energy (rises high) -At the peak of the ball's flight, the ball is instantaneously at rest, with no kinetic energy but maximum stored potential energy -As the ball falls, the potential energy is transformed into kinetic energy and the ball accelerates

Materials with poor conductivity

-Known as insulators -In materials that act as insulators, the electrons are held tightly inside their atoms and the electrons cannot move freely -Include plastic, rubber, glass, air, and wood

The six classical simple machines

-Lever -Pulley -Inclined plane -Screw -Wedge -Wheel and axle

Mixture

-Made by combining two or more different materials without a chemical reaction occurring (the objects do not bond together) -They are the product of a mechanical blending or mixing of chemical substances -Each ingredient substance retains its own chemical properties and makeup (for example, a mixture of salt and pepper would still be identifiable as -While there are no physical changes in a mixture, the chemical properties of a mixture, such as its melting point, may differ from those of its components -Mixtures can usually be separated into their original components by mechanical means -Either homogeneous or heterogeneous

Atoms

-Made up of several tiny parts -At the center of an atom is a core called the nucleus -The nucleus is made up of particles called protons and neutrons -Protons have a positive electrical charge, and neutrons have no charge -Electrons move around the nucleus in electron clouds -Electrons have a negative charge, and they are attracted to the positively charged protons in the nucleus -This attraction keeps the electrons in orbit around the nucleus

Metals in the periodic table

-Metals account for the vast majority of the elements in the periodic table -Show a wide range of chemical and physical properties -Most metals are good conductors of heat and electricity, and some, like iron and cobalt, are magnetic -Many metals in the periodic table are alkali metals, such as sodium and potassium; these metals are very reactive

Reflection

-Occurs when light travels only in straight lines -An object is visible because light is reflected from the object into our eyes -The change in direction of a wave front at an interface between two different media so that the wave front returns to the medium from which it originated -Law of reflection: For smooth surfaces, the angle at which light is incident on the surface equals the angle at which it is reflected Examples: -The reflection of light, sound, and water waves -A mirror is an excellent tool for reflecting light

Nuclear fusion

-Opposite process of nuclear fission -Yields energy when very light nuclei unite to a heavier nucleus -Stars (including the sun) derive their energy from nuclear fusion

Mohs' scale of hardness

-Rates minerals and puts them on a scale from 1 to 10 (1 is the softest and 10 is the hardest) determined by the ability of a harder mineral to scratch a softer mineral -Talc is at 1 and diamond is at 10

Hardness

-Refers to various properties of matter in the solid phase that give it a high resistance to its shape changing when force is applied -Hard matter is contrasted with soft matter -However, the behavior of solid materials under force is complex, resulting in several different scientific definitions of what might be called hardness in everyday usage -Three principal operational definitions of hardness: scratch hardness, indentation hardness, and rebound hardness

Nuclear fission

-Releases energy when a heavy nucleus splits into smaller fragments -Used in power plants and atomic bombs

Newton's second law of motion

-Relies on the the first law -The acceleration of an object is proportional to the force applied (the more force, the more acceleration)

Static electricity

-Results when electrical charges buildup or increase on the surface of a material -In static electricity, there is no current flowing as would be found in electrical outlets -When certain materials are rubbed together, electrons can move from one object to the other -A material can become negatively or positively charged if electrons in the material are gained or lost Examples: -The spark a person might get by walking across a wool rug and then touching a metal doorknob -Rubbing a balloon against your hair or against a wool sweater. Rubbing the objects together can result in the balloon becoming negatively charged and your hair becomes positively charged. Since opposite charges attract, the balloon will cling to your hair. -Lightning

Test experiment

-SELECT THE MATERIALS ---List the specific materials to be used in the experiment ---This allows for replication of the experiment -SET UP THE PROCEDURE ---State the specific plan on how to test the hypothesis ---Create a written, step-by-step procedure -Determine the variables (any factor that can change in an experiment) ---Independent variable (manipulated variable): this is the one factor that will be intentionally changed during the experiment. Examples include changing the amount of salt that is added to water to determine its freezing point; introducing different soil types in germinating seeds; and changing the pendulum length to determine frequency ---Dependent variable (responding variable): This is the variable that changes as a result of the manipulated variable. The dependent variable is observed and measured. Examples include determining how long various saltwater solutions take to freeze, and determining the number of cycles a pendulum swings if the weight of the bob changes ---Variables that are controlled: These are the factors that are kept exactly the same in an experiment. In an experiment on plant growth, the variables could include amount of sunlight, type of soil, amount of water, and type of plant. Only one factor at a time is changed, while all other factors are kept constant. -COLLECT DATA (RESULTS) ---Analyze the data to look for patterns or trends ---Record measurements and observations during the experiment ---Present data in a graph, table, or another form

Light

-Seems to travel in perfectly straight lines as rays -The direction of a ray changes at the interface between two transparent materials, like air and water -Some of the light is reflected, the angle of reflection being equal to the angle of incidence -The portion of the light that crosses the boundary is, however, deflected in another direction, and the angle of refraction does not equal the angle of incidence -Other optical experiments are inconsistent with a simple ray theory and require that light travel as waves of electromagnetic energy

Forms of energy

-Solar -Chemical -Electrical -Magnetic -Nuclear -Sound -Light -Electromagnetic -Mechanical (motion)

Liquids

-Take on the shape of their containers, yet cannot be compressed to any significant extent -The volume of a liquid is constant unless evaporation is occurring -Liquids when chilled sufficiently, while heat causes liquids to vaporize -The liquid state is intermediate between the solid and gaseous states with regard to molecular motion and attractive forces between molecules Examples: water, oil, milk, honey

Celsius (°C)

-Temperature scale -0°C is defined as the freeing point of water and 100°C is defined as the boiling point of water (at standard atmospheric pressure) placing the boiling and freezing points of water 100° apart

Fahrenheit (°F)

-Temperature scale named after the German physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686-1736), who proposed it in 1724 -On this scale, the freezing point of water is 32°F and the boiling point is 212°F (at standard atmospheric pressure), placing the boiling and freezing points of water exactly 180° apart -A degree on the Fahrenheit scale is 1/180th of the interval between the freezing point and boiling point

Energy

-The ability to perform work -Energy transformations result when a change of form takes place -All forms of energy can be converted into other forms

Mass

-The amount of matter in a chemical substance -In everyday usage, mass is commonly confused with weight

Measurement

-The beginning of scientific wisdom -The physicist's first reaction to a new idea is to ask: Can it be measured? Can I describe it with numbers?

Physical properties

-The characteristics that makes up the physical composition of a substance -Include color, form, electrical conductivity, and density

Newton's first law of motion

-The law of inertia -Without outside forces (such as gravity or friction), an object at rest will remain at rest, while an object in motion will never stop or deviate from its course

Atomic number

-The number of protons of that element -No two elements have the same atomic number -Elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of increasing atomic number

Electric circuit

-The path or circuit an electric current flows -Electricity requires a complete path for the electrons to flow -If the path is broken and there are not alternative paths for the electrons to follow, the electrons will not move -Electric circuits make it possible for electric energy to operate a vast range of technology

Mechanical advantage

-The ratio of the output to the input force -Also called leverage -Results in less force applied over a greater distance -Helps to make work easier

Gravity

-The terms gravitation and gravity are mostly interchangeable in everyday use -Gravity refers specifically to the gravitational force exerted by the earth on objects in its vicinity

Thermal radiation

-Transferring of heat by emission and dissemination of waves or particles -Generated when heat from the movement of charged particles within atoms is converted to electromagnetic radiation -Electromagnetic radiation emitted from the surface of an object, which is due to the object's temperature -When infrared radiation is absorbed by an object, it is changed to heat Examples: -Infrared radiation from a common household radiator or electric heater -The light emitted by a glowing incandescent light bulb

Convection

-Transferring of heat by the circulating motion of particles (in liquid or gas) -Occurs when hot air is less dense than cool air and therefore rises -When the heat moves in a circular pattern, convection currents are formed -Heat can be transferred by the circulation of fluids due to buoyancy from changes in density Examples: -The upward flow of air due to a fire or hot object -The circulation of water in a pot that is heated from below -For a visual experience of natural convection, a glass full of hot water with red food dye may be placed in a fish tank with cold, clear, water. The convection currents of the red liquid will be seen to rise and fall and then eventually settle, illustrating the process as heat gradients are dissipated.

Heat conduction/Thermal conduction

-Transition of heat through a medium -From a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature -Heat energy is transferred from one material to another by direct contact -Metals are good conductors of heat Example: If a cup of coffee is stirred with a metal spoon, the spoon will quickly get hot through conduction. The molecules in the hot coffee make the atoms in the spoon vibrate quickly.

Solution

-When foreign substances are dissolved in water it creates a solution -Solutions with a pH of less than 7.0 are said to be acidic, and solutions with a pH greater than 7.0 are said to be basic or alkaline

Current

-When the electrons flow in one direction, the flowing electricity is referred to as current -An electric current is simply a flow of electrons through a wire

Earths atmosphere

21 percent oxygen,78 percent nitrogen and 1 percent other gases and water vapor

1st law of motion (Inertia)..

A body maintains its state of rest or uniform motion unless acted upon by an outside force. A body at rest tends to stay at rest.

DNA

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

base

A compound that is eager to take up the free hydrogen that an acid has. When an acid and base join, a chemical reaction occurs that results in a new compound called a salt.

erosion

A condition in which the earth's surface is worn away by the action of water and wind. In nature, large things are broken down into smaller things. Boulders become sand. Mountains are rained on and become hills. The pieces of the mountain become smaller pieces and go down the sides of hills. Weathering and erosion always happen in a downhill direction.

Interval

A difference between two temperatures or an uncertainty

Life Cycles .

A number of essential cycles take place on Earth, water, oxygen and carbon cycles.

Force

A push or pull exerted on an object. F= Pressure x Area

RNA

A single-stranded nucleic acid, created by DNA, that passes along genetic messages throughout the cell

STAR

A star is a sphere of plasma held together by its own gravity.

Amplitude

A wave's height, the distance between its resting position and its crest

nervous system..

ANS is the autonomic nervous system. PNS is the peripheral nervous system. CNS is the central nervous system.

telophase

After the chromosome seperates, the cell seals off, Final Phase of Mitosis.

MATTER

All matter is made up of atoms. anything that has mass and takes up space. can exist as a solid, liquid, or gas. it cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be converted into energy.

physics

An attempt to understand matter and forces. Physics seeks to describe nature through a number of general statements or laws. These laws are often stated in mathematical form.

ELEMENTS

An element consists of one type of atom. Elements are the building blocks of chemistry. represented in a periodic table.

Fungi

An organism that absorbs nutrients from the environment.

heterotrophic

Animal and fungus cells are heterotrophic because they need to find food from outside sources.

2nd law (Constant Acceleration

As force is applied to an object, the object accelerates in the direction of the force.

astronomy

Astronomy is the study of space and the relationship of objects in space.

finding the atomic mass number

Atomic number = 6. Mass number = 12 (the atomic weight 12.0107 rounded to the nearest whole number) Number of protons = the atomic number There are 6 protons. Number of electrons = number of protons There are 6 electrons and 6 protons. Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons The mass number is 12.

asteroid belt

Between the fourth (Mars) and fifth (Jupiter) planets is a special place. Astronomers call it this because there are millions of tiny asteroids in this region

Atoms

Building blocks of matter

First-class lever

Can multiply force or distance depending on the location of the fulcrum End: Output force Middle: Fulcrum Other end: Input force Examples: seesaws, scissors, pliers

Respiration

Cells create energy through respiration.

Anaphase:

Chromosomes lined up in middle separate Half of the chromosomes are pulled to one side of the cell; half go the other way. When the chromosomes get to the side of the cell, it's time to move on to telophase.

bases

Compounds that reduce the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution. hydroxide.

Energy in a vacuum

Conduction or radiation

Genes

DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission. genes occupy a specific location on one of the chromosomes. Genes carry specific bits of genetic

disease

Diseases compromise the body's defense system.

E = mc 2

E is energy, m is mass, and c is the speed of light, 186,000 miles per second

Types of planets in our solar system

Eight planets in our system, Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are the terrestrial planets. The Jovian (gas giants) planets include Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. The Jovian planets are all much larger and have a lower density when compared to terrestrial planets.

Law of conservation of energy

Energy can be neither created nor destroy

Prophase:

First stage of mitosis where chromatin inside the nucleus condenses down to form chromosomes. duplicate DNA, get certain pieces in the right position (centrioles), and generally prepare the cell for the process of mitotic division

formula for Velocity

For a time t and a constant velocity v the distance traveled d is: d = vt

Newton's third law of motion

For every action (applied force), there is an equal and opposite reaction

Pressure

Force per unit area.

Compounds

Formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements in a fixed ratio Example: water -Made up of molecules with the composition H20 and the structure (arrangement) shown in the picture -The straight lines denote bonds -One water molecule is built from two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen Example: table salt -A compound composed of one atom of sodium and one atom of chlorine (NaCl, sodium chloride)

VIRUSES

Genetic material surrounded by a protective coat of protein, are parasitic, lacks the ability to reproduce by itself, in a living cell, a virus can send its own genetic material into the cell, reproduce, and do significant damage to the host cell and the host organism.

Thermal energy

Heat can be converted to motion, and motion can produce heat

Rebound hardness

Height of the bounce of an object dropped o the material, related to elasticity

Human Biology

Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Females typically have 23 similar pairs including a pair of X chromosomes. Males typically have 22 similar pairs and one X and one Y chromosome.

physical change.

If energy is added (increasing the temperature) or if energy is taken away (freezing something), you can create a physical change Changing the pressure of a system If you place a glass of liquid water on a table, it will just sit there. If you place a glass of water in a vacuum chamber and lower the pressure, you can begin to watch the water boil and the water molecules move to a gas phase.

MEIOSIS II

In Prophase II the DNA that remains in the cell begins to condense and form short chromosomes. Each chromosome pair has a centromere. The centrioles also begin their journey to opposite sides of the cell. In Metaphase II all of the chromosomes line up along the center of the cell and the centrioles are in position for the duplication. Anaphase II shows the chromosomes split and move to opposite sides of the cell. Each one splits into two pieces. They don't divide up the DNA between the new cells; they split the DNA that exists. Each daughter cell will get one-half of the DNA needed to make a functioning cell.

Optics

In optics, refraction occurs when light waves travel from a medium with a given refractive index to a medium with another index Example: A ray of light will refract as it enters and leaves glass, assuming there is a change in the refractive index. Understanding this concept led to the invention of lenses and the refracting telescope.

Cell Activities

Ingestion -Take in food Digestion - Break down food to usable forms Secretion - Create and release useful substances Excretion - Eliminate waste material Homeostasis - Maintain the cell's equilibrium

Arthropods are

Invertebrates with external skeletons and segmented bodies

Sublimination

Makes it possible for some elements and compounds to transition from a solid to gas phase without becoming a liquid Example: a block of dry ice (CO2), which will turn into a gas at room temperature

Radioactivity

Materials are radioactive when they have unstable nuclei. Uranium is an example of a naturally occurring radioactive substance.

Meiosis

Meiosis happens when it's time to reproduce an organism Creates gametes, sperm cells, and egg cells, each with half the number of chromosomes (haploid) found in a human cell. sexual reproduction

Planets in order from the sun

Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune

Second-class lever

Multiply force but do not change the direction of the input force End: Fulcrum Middle: Output force Other end: Input force Examples: wheelbarrows, baby strollers, bottle openers

Electrons

Negatively charged subatomic particles found in atoms

Nuetrons

Neutral particles that don't have an electric charge found inatoms

Composition of air

Nitro : 78% Oxygen : 20.95% Argon : 0.93% CO2 : 0.03% Water vapor : varies

Nuclear energy

Obtained by two different means, fission and fusion

Solar System

Our solar system has one star (the sun), eight planets, some dwarf planets (including Pluto),

MOTION

Physics is concerned with an object's response to force and the resulting movement. Force is energy that causes a change in an object's motion or shape.

Photosynthesis

Plants use the sun's energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into energy and releases oxygen (O2) into the atmosphere.

Plasmas

Plasmas are highly energized gases that have lost their electrons. Stars, including the Sun, are covered in plasma. Hydrogen (H) and helium (He) ions float around the Sun with their electrons moving freely.

Pollination

Pollen fertilizes an ovule to produce a seed.

prokaryotes

Prokaryotes are bacteria, including cyanobacteria (previously called blue-green algae).

PMATI

Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, interphase

Scratch hardness

Resistance to fracture or plastic (permanent) deformation due to friction from a sharp object

Indentation hardness

Resistance to plastic (permanent) deformation due to a constant load from a sharp object

metamorphic rock

Rock changed in structure by heat, moisture, and pressure. found at or below the surface of the Earth

atomic mass

Round the atomic weight to the nearest whole number to find the mass number. The atomic mass shows the total number of protons and neutrons.

Speed formula

S=d/t

Chemical reactions

Show the number of molecules or formula units of the reactants and products Example: nitrous oxide is a colorless, odorless gas that causes mild hysteria when inhaled, hence the name laughing gas; it is prepared by heating ammonium nitrate crystals

five states of matter

Solids, liquids, gases, plasmas, Bose-Einstein condensates (BEC)

Deposition

Some gases can transition directly to a solid Example: the formation of frost

Carbon

Symbol: C Protons: 6 Neutrons: 6 Mass: 12

Iron

Symbol: Fe Protons: 26 Neutrons: 30 Mass 56

Hydrogen

Symbol: H Protons: 1 Neutrons: 0 Mass: 1

Helium

Symbol: He Protons: 2 Neutrons: 2 Mass: 4

Oxygen

Symbol: O Protons: 8 Neutrons: 8 Mass: 16

Uranium

Symbol: U Protons: 92 Neutrons: 146 Mass: 238

Central nervous system

The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord.

Wavelength

The distance between two consecutive points on a wave (crest to crest)

amplitude (AM-plih-tood)

The loudness of a sound is related to the ...

Frequency

The number of waves produced in a given time

Tides

The phases of the moon are also integrally related to tides on Earth. High tides occur on the parts of Earth directly under the moon. Low tides occur halfway between the two high tides.

Pitch

The pitch of a sound depends on how fast the particles of a medium vibrate

Velocity

The rate of change of position with time v = △d/△t (velocity = change of distance/change of time) Example: An automobile that is 100 miles farther along a highway at 3 p.m. than at 1 p.m. has an average velocity during the interval of: 100 miles/2 hours = 50 miles/hour

Acceleration

The rate of change of velocity with time a = △v/△t (acceleration = change of velocity/change of time) Example: An automobile had an initial velocity of 40 mph at 1 p.m. and a final velocity of 60 mph at 3 p.m., then its average acceleration would be: (20 miles/hour)/2 hours = 10 miles/hour² or 10 mile/hour/hour

Biology

The study of living things

Interphase

The time interval between cellular reproduction. The resting stage

Crest

The top of a wave's "hill"

Kingdom Archaea and Kingdom Eubacteria.

These two kingdoms include all prokaryotes.

Asteroids

They are like small pieces of planets made of rocks and metals have gravity and can affect any objects that come too close. The more iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) in the makeup, the greater its mass (and gravity)

biome

They are very specialized ecosystems that only exist in certain parts of the world. They are ecosystems that are defined by their environments. Factors like temperature, rainfall, and altitude all decide what type of life a biome can support.

hydrostatic skeletons

They use water pressure to maintain support of their bodies. Echinoderms, such as starfish, have hydrostatic skeleton

MEIOSIS I

This is basically like the PMATI of a regular mitosis. Pairs of chromosomes are lined up at the center of the cell and then pulled to each side. Meiosis is a bit different because there something called crossing-over happens with the DNA. This crossing over is an exchange of genes. The genes are mixed up, not resulting in a perfect duplicate like mitosis. The cell divides, leaving two new cells with a pair of chromosomes each. Normally the cell would begin to go about its business of living and slowly duplicate the chromosomes for another mitotic division. Since this is meiosis, there is a very short interphase and division begins again.

Third-class lever

Top: Output force (resistance) Middle: Input force (effort) End: Fulcrum Examples: baseball bat, fishing pole, shovel

salt

When acids and bases are combined chemically, they form salt. compound formed when negative ions from an acid combine with positive ions from a base

kinetic energy,

When energy does move things it is the same as work. In that case it is called

MITOSIS

a cell duplicates its own set of chromosomes. asexual reproduction

cytoskeleton

a network of fibers throughout the cell. The cytoskeleton connects to the membrane and all of the cell organelles. They are millions of macromolecules in a long chain (polymer

sedimentary rock

a rock that forms in water when sediments and remains of dead organisms harden. found near the surface of Earth

Skeletal System

a system of bones that consist of a living marrow, blood vessels, and nerves surrounded by a hard calcium exterior. Humans have 206 bones

atomic theory

a theory that states that all matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms.

igneous rock

a type of rock that forms from the cooling of molten rock at or below the surface

hydrosphere

all the water on Earth. This includes all of the rivers, lakes, streams, oceans, groundwater, polar ice caps, glaciers and moisture in the air (like rain and snow). The hydrosphere is found on the surface of Earth, but also extends down several miles below, as well as several miles up into the atmosphere.

El Niño

appears in the Pacific Ocean. The climate variation occurs when the temperature of the ocean increases off the coast of Central and South America. The heated water can lead to heavy rain in the winter and warmer/drier summers for North America.

Seasons

are all created because the Earth actually sits on a small tilt, it spins at 23.5 degrees off a straight up and down position. different parts of the planet are warmer during different times of the year. With the tilt, our year is broken up into four seasons. Winter, spring, summer, fall

Fossils

are evidence of living organisms. Fossils usually form when organisms die and are buried in the sediment that forms sedimentary rocks.

Organelles.

are groups of complex molecules that help a cell survive

Capillaries.

are the transition vessels

Copernicus and Galileo

astronomers that discovered the SUN is actually in the center of our solar system in the 1500s.

atmospheric pressure

at sea level is expressed as 14.7 pounds per square inch.

Veins.

carry blood back to the heart

Arteries

carry oxygen-filled blood to the vessels of the body and lungs (away from the heart).

. Autotrophic

cells can create their own food. Many plant cells are autotrophic because their chloroplasts generate sugars.

Gametes

cells involved in sexual reproduction. There are two types of gametes. Eggs/Ova are the female cells and sperm are the male cells.

Neurons

cells that make up the nervous system. Each type has a specific function. Some neurons only transmit information while others are designed to sense the outside world (touch and sight).

Endocrine System

complex system that uses glands to produce and distribute hormones through the bloodstream.

acids

compounds that form hydrogen ions when dissolved in waters

pharynx

connects the mouth to an area in your throat with a flap. The flap is the epiglottis. The flap moves to one side for food and the other side as you breathe. After the branching point, your air moves into the larynx and your food moves into the esophagus.

Inorganic chemistry

deals with all other substances.

Velocity

described as magnitude (e.g., miles per hour) and direction (e.g., from 220°). The magnitude portion of velocity is speed.

Geosphere/Lithosphere

describes all of the rocks, minerals and ground that are found on and in Earth. This includes all of the mountains on the surface, as well as all of the liquid rock in the mantle below us and the minerals and metals of the outer and inner cores.

Phase

describes the physical state of matter. The key word to notice is "physical". Matter only moves from one phase to another by physical means. If energy is added (increasing the temperature) or if energy is taken away (freezing something), you can create a physical change

Neptune

eighth planet form the Sun Gas giant eight moons has very thin rings around the planet.

Energy

expressed in the same units as work, such as foot-pounds, ergs, and joules.

zygote

fertilizated egg

3rd law (Conservation of Momentum)

for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction

SOLUTION

formed when element(s) or compound(s) are dissolved in another substance.

compound

formed when two or more elements unite chemically. A molecule is the smallest part of a compound with the properties of that compound. 3 parts of compounds—acids, bases, and salt.

Mars

fourth planet from the Sun. It is a very active planet like the Earth. It has evidence of volcanoes, plate tectonics, and liquid water (as opposed to ice) on the planet. has polar ice caps like the Earth, with water in the north and solid carbon dioxide in the south. has 40% of our gravity because the mass of the planet is so much smaller. Also, atmosphere is made up of carbon dioxide and has less than 1% of the atmospheric pressure of Earth.

Elements

fundamental substances that cannot be reduced by chemical reactions to anything else.

Exocytosis

happens when a cell gets rid of an object or material.

Mammal hearts

have four chambers for circulating blood through the body. The two Atriums receive the blood and the two Ventricles push the blood out. Your heart has four chambers while a reptile or amphibian heart only has three. A fish heart only has two chambers.

Measuring work

how much work is being done, need to measure two things: how much force is doing the pushing and how far it is being pushed. work = force × distance

water cycle

how water evaporates from the surface of the earth, rises into the atmosphere, cools and condenses into rain or snow in clouds, falls again to the surface as precipitation. water falling on land collects in rivers and lakes, soil, and porous layers of rock, flows back into the oceans, where it will once more evaporate.

Climate

ia general atmospheric condition in a certain location near the surface of the Earth Biomes and climates are closely related

biosphere

includes everything living on Earth. The biosphere extends to the upper areas of the atmosphere, including birds and insects.

Organic chemistry

is about living things.

Earth's core

is made of solid iron and nickel Outer core is a liquid layer below the mantle, Inner core, is the very center of the Earth. It is very hot and, due to the high pressure, it is solid.

Mass

is the amount of matter in a body and is a measure of the body's inertia (resistance to change of motion). Mass is a measure of the matter in an object while weight is a measure of gravity's pull on an object.

thermosphere

is the highest layer of the atmosphere. the thermosphere is the closest layer to outer space. The troposphere is the closest layer to the surface of the Earth.

Jupiter

is the largest planet in our Solar System. Its mass is over 300 times the mass of the Earth. Has over 20 moons, only one thing missing -- Heat. classified as a Jovian planet. The Jovian planets are gas giants that orbit the Sun. Gas giants don't have solid surfaces of rock like other planets.

atmosphere

is the layer of gases around the Earth. The atmosphere is held in place by Earth's gravity., nitrogen (78.1%). oxygen (20.9%) argon (0.9%), carbon dioxide (~ 0.035%), water vapor. protects life on Earth by absorbing (taking) ultraviolet rays from the sun. It makes our days cooler and our nights warmer.

mantle

is the layer of the Earth right below the crust. It is made mostly of oxygen, silicon and the heavier element magnesium. The lower mantle is found between 670km and 2,890km below the surface, and is made from solid rock. The rock is hot enough to melt, but is solid because of the pressure pushing down on it, upper mantle is made from both solid and melted rock (liquid), while the rock in the upper region is stiffer, because it's cooler.

Earth

is the name of our planet. It is the third planet from the sun. Earth's distance from the sun ranges from about 91,000,000 to 95,000,000 miles.

Phagocytosis

is the process where a large cell surrounds and digests a smaller cell, particle of food, or antigen

Cosmology

is the study of the universe. theories are about the origin, development, and ultimate fate of the universe.

soil

is very small pieces of rocks, dissolved minerals and organic material

Mercury

it is the closest planet to the Sun and really hot. Temperatures on Mercury get up to 460 degrees Celsius.

Carbon .

ithe building block of life on Earth

Saturn

its orbit is in the sixth position. Gas giant Saturn's moon Titan is the only moon in our Solar System that has a measurable atmosphere. Saturn is self-luminous. Self-luminous means that it gives off more light than it receives Saturn is the planet with the big rings that can be seen from Earth

comets

mainly ice and dust along with rocky and organic material. As the comet gets closer to the sun, the ice melts and organic material vaporizes. That warming creates the comet's tail

Basics units in science

mass, distance, and time.

science of chemistry

matter and how it changes,

Compounds

molecules made up of atoms of different elements joined together.

Core

molten iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) outer core. As the iron swirls around the solid inner core, it creates a magnetic field that surrounds our planet. The entire electromagnetic envelope is called the magnetosphere and it protects us from materials released by the Sun (solar winds).

insects

must have three body parts (head, thorax, abdomen), six (jointed) legs, two antennae, and an exoskeleton. Most insects fly, but an insect need not have wings.

Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune

name Names of the the outer planets

periodic table. of elements order in each element

name, atomic number, symbol, weight

chemical reaction

new substances are formed. involves the rearrangement of electrons. occur when elements are heated, mixed, cooled, or burned.

Infared

non visible light and gives us heat

Organelles in cells

nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and centrioles..

eukaryotes

organisms made up of one or more cells that have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles

protons

positively charged subatomic particles found in atoms

Endocytosis

process of a cell eating.

metamorphosis

process of an insect changing from an egg to an adult in separate stages.

Osmosis

process that occurs when water moves from an area of high concentration to low concentration

The first cells

prokaryotes (bacteria),

Chemistry

refers to the composition, properties, and interactions of matter.

Ecology

refers to the relationship between organisms and their ecosystem

Venus

second planet away from the Sun . Venus is one of the harshest planets in the Solar System. It's over 460 degrees Celsius. It has clouds of sulfuric acid in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide. Lava is found across the surface after being spewed from volcanoes

rocks

sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic.

Uranus

seventh planet from the Sun planet largely composed of gases. It has a light blue color because of the methane in its atmosphere. Uranus spins almost on its side

Telophase II

shows the DNA completely pulled to the sides and the cell membrane begins to pinch. When it's all over, you are left with four haploid cells that are called gametes. The eventual purpose of the gametes will be to find other gametes with which they can combine. When they do, they will form a new organism

Comets

small chunks of ice and dirt that fly through systems in long, wild orbits Halley's Comet is famous and orbits the Sun once every 76 years. Comet Kohoutek has a period of 75,000 years.

BACTERIA

small, single-celled organisms, bacilli (rod-shaped), cocci (circular or spherical), spirilla (coiled).

speed of sound in air

sound travels in air at about 1,000 feet a second.

square inch

square with sides of 1 inch

Metaphase:

stage of mitosis where the chromosomes align themselves in the middle of the cell. The DNA lines up along a central axis and the centrioles send out specialized tubules that connect to the DNA. The DNA (chromatin) has now condensed into chromosomes. Two strands of a chromosome are connected at the center with something called a centromere. The tubules actually connect to the centromere, not the DNA.

science of physics

study light, movement, and sound

science of physics.

study light, movement, and sound

science of chemistry.

study of matter and how it changes

Pinocytosis

term related to a cell bringing in liquid (drinking).

greenhouse effect

term that scientists use to describe a slow increase in temperature of the earths environment natural or accelerated by humans. Cold periods changing to warmer periods s.

Meteoroid

term used to describe a solid particle smaller body that may have broken off from an asteroid or a comet.

diploid

term used to refer to a cell that contains both sets of homologous chromosomes

molecule

tformed when two or more atoms join together

telophase

the final stage of meiosis when the chromosomes move toward opposite ends of the nuclear spindle

Osmosis

the movement of water across the cell membrane

La Niña.

the name for a period of lower-than-average temperatures in the eastern Pacific Ocean

pressure

the number of units of force divided by the number of units of area.

Flower

the reproductive unit of most plants.

crust lithosphere.

the solid shell, outermost layer of the Earth. It is made of solid rocks. Oceanic crust made up of iron, oxygen, silicon, magnesium and aluminium. Continental crust made up of granite, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks.

Meteorology

the study of Earth's atmosphere. We are most attentive to meteorologist's predictions about weather. Weather observations are taken on the ground, in the upper atmosphere, and from satellites in space. All these observations inform us about likely weather events and add to our knowledge about the atmosphere.

Earth

third planet from the Sun. The Earth is the only known planet where life can survive.

Electrical force

two electrons or two protons push each other away, and electrons and protons attract each other.

magnetic force

two north or two south poles repel each other, and north and south poles attract each other.

newton

unit used to measure forces. A newton is about .225 pounds.

primate

upright mammal

sound waves

vibrations can exist only in things that have mass. Unless a sound causes the air next to our eardrums to vibrate, we can't hear it.

Work

when force moves something work being done, and the farther it is moved, the more work is done.

ions

when the number of electrons is not equal to the number of protons. An ion with more electrons than protons is negatively charged, An ion with more protons is positively charged.

Expressing work measurement

work can be expressed by combining distance and force, one of the expressions for work is the foot-pound