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Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective: Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family

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Polygamy

having more than one spouse at a time =so, basically just polyandry or polygyny

fraternal, nonfraternal

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Number of Spouses*... *Polyandry*... Polyandry may be ___1___ (where the husbands are brothers) or ___2___.

Family Disruption Theory

**Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Mate Selection: Who Is Out of Bounds?*... Given that incest taboos are universally found throughout the world, anthropologists have long been interested in explaining their origins and persistence. A number of possible explanations have been suggested. *Inbreeding Theory*... *_____* Whereas the inbreeding theory focuses on the biological consequences of incest, a second theory centers on its negative social consequences. This theory, which is most closely linked with Bronislaw Malinowski (1927), holds that mating between a mother and son, father and daughter, or brother and sister would create such intense jealousies within the nuclear family that the family would not be able to function as a unit of economic cooperation and socialization... *Theory of Expanding Social Alliances* =============== *Class 16 (3-10-20)*... *Mate selection: who is out of Bounds?*... --Often results in role ambiguity ---Confusion about how one is expected to behave =-Argues a practical reason for incest tattoo

Two Qualifications About Marriage

*Class 16 (3-10-20)*... *_____* (Two Qualifications About Marriage) -Marriage defines a sexual union between adults according to social criteria; sometimes societies do not permit sexual relations during specific periods --Postpartum sex taboo: Rule that a husband and wife must abstain from any sexual activity for a period of time after the birth of a child =-So there's a whole range even within marriage of how sex is controlled. =-If you have to be married to have legitimate sexual relations, and people want to have sex with one another, and social constraints of sex outside of marriage are severe and tight, we sometimes find temporary marriages; this sometimes occurs in Islam, because divorce is easy, they'll divorce afterwords -The permanence of the marital union varies from society to society; in no society do all marriages last until death

Single and plural spouses

*Class 17 (3-12-20)*... *_____* (Single and plural spouses) -Marriage --Polygamy ---Polygyny ---Polyandry --Monogamy =Flow chart

bridewealth, bride service, dowry, reciprocal exchange

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Economic Considerations of Marriage* Most societies view marriage as a binding contract between at least the principal partners, and in many cases between their respective families. Such a contract includes the transfer of certain rights between the parties involved—rights of sexual access, legal rights to children, and rights of the spouses to each other's economic goods and services. Often the transfer of rights is accompanied by the transfer of some type of economic consideration. These transactions, which may take place either before or after the marriage, can be divided into four categories: ___1___, ___2___, ___3___, and ___4___... *Summary*... 7. In many societies marriages involve the transfer of some economic considerations in exchange for rights of sexual access, legal rights over children, and rights to each other's property. These economic considerations involve such practices as ___1___, ___2___, ___3___, and ___4___.

cross cousins, parallel cousins

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Mate Selection: Whom Should You Marry?*... *Preferential Cousin Marriages*... Some kinship systems distinguish between two different types of first cousins: ___1___ and ___2___. This distinction rests on the gender of the parents of the cousin... In societies that make such a distinction, ___2___, who are considered family members, are called "brother" and "sister" and thus are excluded as potential marriage partners. However, because one's ___1___ are not thought of as family members, they are considered by some societies as not just permissible marriage partners but actually preferred ones. The most common form of preferential cousin marriage is between ___1___ because such a union strengthens and maintains the ties between kin groups established by the marriages that took place in the preceding generation... A much less common form of cousin marriage is between ___2___, the children of one's mother's sister or father's brother (Murphy and Kasdan 1959)... Because ___2___ belong to the same group, such a practice can prevent the fragmentation of family property and facilitate arranged marriages.

bridewealth

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Economic Considerations of Marriage* Most societies view marriage as a binding contract... Often the transfer of rights is accompanied by the transfer of some type of economic consideration. These transactions... can be divided into four categories: _____, bride service, dowry, and reciprocal exchange. *_____* _____ is the compensation given upon marriage by the family of the groom to the family of the bride... _____ is paid in a wide variety of currencies, but in almost all cases the commodity used for payment is highly valued in the society... Just as the commodities used in _____ transactions vary considerably, so does the amount of the transaction... Not only do _____ payments vary among different cultures, but variations also exist within a single cultural group... The meaning of _____ has been widely debated by scholars and nonscholars for much of the twentieth century... Less concerned with moral and legal issues, cultural anthropologists saw _____ as a rational and comprehensible part of traditional systems of marriage... Although a much-needed corrective to the previous interpretations of _____ as wife purchase, the anthropological interpretation overlooked the real economic significance of _____... It is now generally held that a comprehensive understanding of the practice of _____ is impossible without recognizing its economic as well as its noneconomic functions. Since the mid-twentieth century, _____ has become "monetized" (that is, money is becoming the typical medium of exchange)... The monetization of _____ in Oceania is particularly well described in a volume called The Business of Marriage (Marksbury 1993). --------------- *Definition* _____ - The transfer of goods from the groom's lineage to the bride's lineage to legitimize marriage.

bride service

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Economic Considerations of Marriage* Most societies view marriage as a binding contract... Often the transfer of rights is accompanied by the transfer of some type of economic consideration. These transactions... can be divided into four categories: bridewealth, _____, dowry, and reciprocal exchange. *Bridewealth*... Although bridewealth is practiced in most regions of the world, it is perhaps most widely found in Africa, where some societies require a substantial payment of bridewealth whereas for others the practice is that of offering a token bride wealth or _____ (providing labor, rather than goods, to the bride's family)... *_____* In societies with considerable material wealth, marriage considerations take the form of bridewealth paid in various commodities. But because many small-scale societies cannot accumulate capital goods, men often give their labor to the bride's family instead of material goods in exchange for wives... _____ is likely to be found in nomadic foraging societies such as the traditional Ju/'hoansi of south-western Africa. --------------- *Definition* _____ - Work or service performed for the bride's family by the groom for a specified period of time either before or after the marriage. =============== *Class 17 (3-12-20)*... *_____*... -Husband often moves in with his bride's family, works or hunts for them, and serves a probationary period of several weeks to several years. -Found in nomadic foraging societies such as the traditional Ju/'hoansi of south-western Africa =-Ex from Bible - Rachel and Leah

dowry

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Economic Considerations of Marriage* Most societies view marriage as a binding contract... Often the transfer of rights is accompanied by the transfer of some type of economic consideration. These transactions... can be divided into four categories: bridewealth, bride service, _____, and reciprocal exchange... *_____* In contrast to bridewealth, a _____ is goods or money transferred in the opposite direction, from the bride's family to the groom or to the groom's family as a precondition for a marriage... More often than not, the _____ was not given to the husband but was something that the bride brought with her into the marriage... In certain European countries, where it is still practiced to some extent today, substantial _____ payments have been used as a means of upward mobility—that is, as a way to marry a daughter into a higher-status family... In India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, gift giving as a precondition of marriage has escalated to the extreme... Since 1961, dowries have been banned in India under various acts, such as the _____ Prohibition Act (1961); its revised version of 1983 has been passed as a way to decrease the incidence of _____ deaths. Yet, a bride's family is still expected to give expensive gifts to the groom and his family as part of the wedding ceremony. --------------- *Definition* _____ - Goods or money transferred from the bride's family to the groom or the groom's family to legalize or legitimize a marriage.

reciprocal exchange

child-drought brides

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Economic Considerations of Marriage*... *Bridewealth*... Increasingly, because of climate change young girls of poor rural families, and in particular girls younger than eighteen years of age, are being married off to lessen the burden on their families. These early marriages are referred to as "_____" and are found in Africa, India, the Philippines, and other parts of the world.

nuclear, extended

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Family Structure* Cultural anthropologists have identified two fundamentally different types of family structure: the ___1___ family and the ___2___ family... *Summary*... 9. Cultural anthropologists distinguish between two types of family structure: the ___1___ family, comprising the parent(s) and children, and the ___2___ family, a much larger social unit, comprising relatives from three or more generations.

cross cousins

exogamy, endogamy, arranged marriage, preferential cousin marriage, levirate, sororate

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Summary*... 4. Cultures restrict the choice of marriage partners by such practices as ___1___, ___2___, ___3___s, ___4___, the ___5___, and the ___6___.

nuclear

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Family Structure* Cultural anthropologists have identified two fundamentally different types of family structure: the _____ family and the extended family. The _____ family is based on marital ties... *The _____ Family* The traditional _____ family at one time consisted of a mother and father and their children. In more current times the _____ family has come to have a variety of permutations that include two parents (a husband and wife or two same-sex spouses) and their children, as well as single-parent households, and those families adopting children. Today, the _____ family is also a two-generation family formed around the "marital" union and the single parent... The _____ family is most likely to be found in societies with the greatest amount of geographic mobility... During much of our early history, the extended family—tied to the land and working on the family farm—was the rule rather than the exception. Today, however, the family farm—housing parents, grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, and siblings—is a thing of the past... In addition to being found in highly industrialized societies, _____ families are found in certain societies located at the other end of the technological spectrum... Although the independent _____ family was the ideal in the United States for much of the twentieth century, significant changes have occurred in recent years... There are three explanations for the recent decline of the _____ family in the United States. First, as more and more women complete higher education and enter the job market, they are more likely to delay marrying and having children. Second, the increasing cost of maintaining the ideal middle-class household that includes parents, children, a three- or four-bedroom house, a golden retriever, and an SUV or two, has caused some couples to opt for remaining childless altogether. Third, the divorce rate, although declining in the United States, still contributes to the increase in non-_____ families in recent decades. --------------- *Definition* _____ family - The most basic family unit, composed of parent(s) and children. =============== *Class 17 (3-12-20)*... *The _____ Family* =Kinship diagram =-Have to figure out where to start, and we always start with the ego; represented by square =-Males are represented by triangles =-Females are represented by circles =-Siblings related by horizontal line =-Offspring is related by vertical line =-Equal sign = marriage =Kin terms carry relationships with them

extended

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Family Structure* Cultural anthropologists have identified two fundamentally different types of family structure: the nuclear family and the _____ family. ...the _____ family, a much larger social unit, is based on blood ties among three or more generations of kin... *The _____ Family* _____ families consist of two or more nuclear families that are linked by blood ties... When a couple marries in a society with _____ families, the newlyweds are not expected to establish a separate and distinct family unit... In _____ family systems, marriage is viewed more as bringing a daughter into the family than acquiring a wife. In other words, a man's obligations of obedience to his father and loyalty to his male kin are far more important than his relationship to his wife... In some _____ family systems, the conjugal relationship is suppressed to such an extent that contact between husband and wife is kept to a minimum. --------------- *Definition* _____ family - The family that includes in one household relatives in addition to a nuclear family.

Modern-Day Family Structure and Living Arrangements

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Family Structure*... *_____* (Modern-Day Family Structure and Living Arrangements) Most Western social thinkers over the past century have been in general agreement concerning the long-term effects of urbanization and modernization on the family and living arrangements. In fact, the concept of family is changing with increased acceptance of same-sex marriage and same-sex couples adopting children, nonmarried individuals raising children, while others delay marriage, which in turn increases the age of first marriages for men and women and possibly contributes to limiting family size (Vespa, Lewis, and Kreider 2013)... In addition, economic circumstances in the United States from 2009 to the present have made it challenging for young adults, especially those who are recent college graduates, to find employment that allows them to start out on their own... Carrying on with the multigenerational family living arrangements can be an asset for aging grandparents and young children, increasing the well-being for families (Ellis and Simmons 2014)... All of these permutations in family structure make it difficult to describe a single kind of family or a mainstream type of living arrangement when thinking about the concept of the modern family.

postpartum sex taboo

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Marriage and the Family*... *Sexual Union* Like with any term, the definition of marriage often must be qualified. Marriage, according to our definition, is a socially legitimate sexual union... Although this is generally true, we should bear in mind that this social legitimacy is not absolute; there may be specified periods during which sexual relations with one's spouse are taboo. To illustrate, in many societies, sexual relations between spouses must be suspended during periods of menstruation and pregnancy. After a child is born, women in many societies are expected to observe a _____, lasting in some cases until the child is weaned, which can be as long as several years. --------------- *Definition* _____ - The rule that a husband and wife must abstain from any sexual activity for a period of time after the birth of a child.

Common Residence

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Marriage and the Family*... *_____* A qualifying statement must also be added about the notion that family members share a _____. Although family members usually do live together, there are some obvious definitional problems. If we define "sharing a _____" as living under the same roof, a long list of exceptions can be cited... Thus, as we are beginning to see, the terms marriage and family are not easy to define.

Permanence

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Marriage and the Family*... *_____* (Permanence) A second qualification to our definition involves the _____ of the marital union. Often, as part of the marriage vows recited in Western weddings, spouses pledge to live together in matrimony "until death do us part." Even though it is difficult to ascertain a person's precise intentions or expectations when entering a marriage, an abundance of data suggest that the _____ of marriage varies widely, and in no societies do all marriages last until death.

partners

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Marriage and the Family*... It is critical to point out that our definition of marriage uses the term _____ rather than wives and husbands. Although many Westerners assume that marriage takes place only between men and women, others recognize marriages of men to men and women to women as being legitimate.

Young Children Raising a Family

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Marriage and the Family: Functions*... *_____* (Young Children Raising a Family) In some families young children have stepped in to the picture to become young adults raising their younger brothers and sisters... Organizations, such as UNICEF, SOS Children's Villages, AIDS Orphans and Street Children, and the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, are raising funds and awareness to reduce the vulnerability of children orphaned as a result of AIDS.

incest taboo

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Mate Selection: Who Is Out of Bounds?* Every society known to anthropology has established for itself rules that regulate mating (sexual intercourse). The most common form of prohibition is mating with certain types of kin who are defined by the society as being inappropriate sexual partners. The prohibition on mating with certain categories of relatives is known as the _____... Although _____s and rules prohibiting marrying certain kin often coincide with each other (that is, those who are forbidden to have sex are also forbidden to marry), it cannot be assumed that they always coincide. The most universal form of _____ involves mating between members of the immediate (nuclear) family—that is, mothers and sons, fathers and daughters, and brothers and sisters—although there are several notable yet limited exceptions. For political, religious, or economic reasons, members of the royal families among the ancient Egyptians, Incas, and Hawaiians were permitted to mate with and marry their siblings, although this practice did not extend to the ordinary members of those societies. The _____ invariably extends beyond the scope of the immediate or nuclear family, however. In some non-Western societies, the _____ may extend to large numbers of people on one side of the family but not on the other... *Summary*... 3. Every culture has a set of rules (_____s) regulating which categories of kin are inappropriate partners for sexual intercourse. The explanations for this universal _____ include the inbreeding theory, the family disruption theory, and the theory of expanding social alliances. --------------- *Definition* _____ - The prohibition of sexual intimacy between people defined as close relatives.

role ambiguity

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Mate Selection: Who Is Out of Bounds?*... *Family Disruption Theory*... In addition to causing disruption among nuclear family members through sexual competition, incest creates the social problem of _____. For example, if a child is born from the union of a mother and her son, the child's father will also be the child's half brother, the child's mother will also be the child's grandmother, and the child's half sister will also be the child's aunt. These are just some of the peculiar role combinations created by such an incestuous union. Because different family roles, such as brother and father, carry with them vastly different rights, obligations, and behavioral expectations, the child will have great difficulty deciding how to behave toward immediate family members. --------------- *Definition* _____ - Confusion about how one is expected to behave.

Theory of Expanding Social Alliances

Inbreeding Theory, Family Disruption Theory, Theory of Expanding Social Alliances

Inbreeding Theory

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Mate Selection: Who Is Out of Bounds?*... Given that incest taboos are universally found throughout the world, anthropologists have long been interested in explaining their origins and persistence. A number of possible explanations have been suggested. *_____* A popular theory that attempts to explain the existence of the incest taboo focuses on the potentially harmful effects of inbreeding on the family. This _____, proposed well before the introduction of the science of genetics, holds that mating between close kin, who are likely to carry the same harmful recessive genes, tends to produce a higher incidence of genetic defects (which result in an increased susceptibility to disease and higher mortality rates). There is, however, little solid genetic evidence to support this view. What we do know is that outbreeding, which occurs in human populations that have strong incest taboos, has positive genetic consequences. This _____ has, no doubt, led to numerous state laws prohibiting first-cousin marriage in the United States. It should be noted, however, that there is hardly consensus on this issue among state legislatures because thirty states have laws against first-cousin marriage... *Family Disruption Theory*... *Theory of Expanding Social Alliances*

exogamy, endogamy

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Mate Selection: Whom Should You Marry?* As we have seen, every society defines a set of kin with whom a person is to avoid marriage and sexual intimacy. In no society is it permissible to mate with one's parents or siblings (that is, within the nuclear family), and in most cases the restricted group of kin is considerably wider. Beyond this notion of incest, people in all societies are faced with rules either restricting their choice of marriage partners or strongly encouraging the selection of certain people as highly desirable mates. These are known as rules of ___1___... and ___2___... (see Figure 9.4). =============== *Class 17 (3-12-20)*... *Mate Selection: Whom Should You Marry?*... =-These are rules in that they are normative but not typically legally required, although sometimes it's a matter of law =--One form of exogenous marriage that has been illegal for many many years. Same-sex marriage and interracial marriage.

parallel cousins

Sororate

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Mate Selection: Whom Should You Marry?*... *The Levirate and _____*... The _____, which comes into play when a wife dies, is the practice of a widower marrying the sister (or some close female relative) of his deceased wife. If the deceased spouse has no sibling, the family of the deceased is under a general obligation to supply some equivalent relative as a substitute. For example, in societies that practice the _____, a widower may receive as a substitute wife the daughter of his deceased wife's brother. --------------- *Definition* _____ - The practice of a woman marrying the husband of her deceased sister.

Levirate

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Mate Selection: Whom Should You Marry?*... *The _____ and Sororate* Individual choice also tends to be limited by another form of mate selection that requires a person to marry the husband or wife of deceased kin. The levirate is the custom whereby a widow is expected to marry the brother (or some close male relative) of her dead husband. Usually any children fathered by the woman's new husband are considered to belong legally to the dead brother rather than to the actual father. Such a custom serves as a form of social security for the widow and her children and preserves the rights of the husband's family to her future children... The _____ is found in patrilineal societies (those societies made up of a man, his sons, and the sons' wives and children) in which the bride marries into her husband's family and essentially severs her ties with her original family. --------------- *Definition* _____ - The practice of a man marrying the widow of his deceased brother.

Preferential Cousin Marriage

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Mate Selection: Whom Should You Marry?*... *_____s* A somewhat less coercive influence on mate selection than arranged marriages is found in societies that specify a preference for choosing certain categories of relatives as marriage partners. A common form of preferred marriage is _____, which is practiced in one form or another in most of the major regions of the world. --------------- *Definition* _____ - A preferred form of marriage between either parallel or cross cousins.

Arranged Marriage

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Mate Selection: Whom Should You Marry?*... *_____s* In Western societies, with their strong emphasis on individualism, mate selection is largely a decision made jointly by the prospective bride and groom... Even though absolute freedom of choice is constrained by such factors as social class, ethnicity, religion, and race, individuals in most contemporary Western societies are free to marry anyone they please. In many societies, however, the interests of the families are so strong that marriages are _____s. Negotiations are handled by family members of the prospective bride and groom, and for all practical purposes, the decision of whom one will marry is made primarily by one's parents or other influential relatives... All such cases of _____, wherever they may be found, are based on the cultural assumption that because marriage is a union of two kin groups rather than merely two individuals, it is far too significant an institution to be based on something as frivolous as physical attractiveness or romantic love. _____s are often found in societies that have elaborate social hierarchies; perhaps the best example is Hindus in India (see Figure 9.5)... Prompted by this belief, in certain parts of India girls marry at a young age... Child marriages take place daily... Anthropologist Serena Nanda (1992) reminds us that arranging marriages in India is serious business and should not be taken frivolously... Indian couples were once introduced by family members who spent months, even years, researching potential partners. Today these matchmaking kinsmen are being rendered obsolete by an explosion of matrimonial websites... Even though mate selection in North America generally is a matter of individual choice, many singles are not opposed to seeking help. Whereas Indians use the Internet to find potential marriage partners, the matchmaking services used by North Americans focus on dating, romance, and finding the right relationship, with marriage as a more distant goal... Many matchmaking services, including speed dating, specialize in a variety of demographics, such as nationality (Russian, Chinese, Colombian), ethnicity (Latino, African American), religion (Catholic, Jewish, Hindu, Muslim), sexual orientation (gay, lesbian, straight), or lifestyle preference (vegetarians, Harley-Davidson enthusiasts, farmers, pet lovers, yoga practitioners, or singles with sexually transmitted diseases)... These matchmaking site services also provide opportunities for husbands and wives to seek out extramarital relations. Straying partners generally get caught, which often puts an end to their marriages. All of these recent matchmaking services—both electronic and more personal—are noticeably different from the traditional forms of matchmaking, which were largely in the hands of family members. Nevertheless these new mechanisms for arranging marriages fit in nicely with the pressures of the modern world... In some countries, matchmaking, or at least facilitating marriage for young adults, is becoming the business of the government. --------------- *Definition* _____s - A marriage in which the selection of the spouse is outside the control of the bride and groom. =============== *Class 17 (3-12-20)*... *Mate selection: Whom Should you marry?*... =--There may be some period in which they get to know each other under strictly supervised settings

exogamy

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Mate Selection: Whom Should You Marry?*... ...people in all societies are faced with rules either restricting their choice of marriage partners or strongly encouraging the selection of certain people as highly desirable mates. These are known as rules of _____ (marrying outside of a certain group) and endogamy... *Rules of _____* Because of the universality of the incest taboo, all societies have rules about marrying outside a certain group of kin. These are known as rules of _____. In societies such as the United States and Canada, the exogamous group extends only slightly beyond the nuclear family... In societies that are based on unilineal descent groups, however, the exogamous group is usually the lineage, which can include hundreds of people, or even the clan, which can include thousands of people who are unmarriageable. Thus, when viewed cross-culturally, rules of _____ based on kinship do not appear to be based on the closeness of blood ties. --------------- *Definition* _____ - A rule requiring marriage outside of one's own social or kinship group.

endogamy

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Mate Selection: Whom Should You Marry?*... ...people in all societies are faced with rules either restricting their choice of marriage partners or strongly encouraging the selection of certain people as highly desirable mates. These are known as rules of exogamy... and _____ (marrying within a certain group)... *Rules of _____* In contrast to exogamy, which requires marriage outside one's own group, the rule of _____ requires a person to select a mate from within one's own group. Hindu castes in traditional India are strongly endogamous, believing that to marry below one's caste would result in serious ritual pollution... Even though there are no strongly sanctioned legal rules of _____ in the United States, there is a certain amount of marrying within one's own group based on class, ethnicity, religion, and race. This general de facto _____ found in the United States results from the fact that people do not have frequent social contacts with people from different backgrounds... This general social segregation by class, coupled with parental and peer pressure to "marry your own kind," results in a high level of _____ in complex Western societies such as the United States. --------------- *Definition* _____ - A rule requiring marriage within a specified social or kinship group.

monogamy, polygyny, polyandry

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Number of Spouses* In much the same way that societies have rules regulating whom one may or may not marry, they have rules specifying how many mates a person may or should have. Cultural anthropologists have identified three major types of marriage based on the number of spouses permitted: ___1___..., ___2___..., and ___3___... *Summary*... 6. All societies have rules governing the number of spouses a person can have. Societies tend to emphasize ___1___ (one spouse at a time), ___2___ (a man having multiple wives at one time), or ___3___ (a woman having multiple husbands at one time).

serial monogamy

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Number of Spouses*... *Monogamy*... Interestingly, many societies that practice monogamy circumvent the notion of lifelong partnerships by either permitting extramarital affairs (provided they are conducted discreetly) or practicing _____ (taking a number of different spouses in series (in other words, one after another rather than having multiple spouses concurrently, at the same time). --------------- *Definition* _____ - The practice of having a succession of marriage partners, but only one at a time.

fraternal

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Number of Spouses*... *Polyandry*... Polyandry may be _____ (where the husbands are brothers) or nonfraternal.

nonfraternal

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Number of Spouses*... *Polyandry*... Polyandry may be fraternal (where the husbands are brothers) or _____.

sororal polygyny

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Number of Spouses*... *Polygyny*... *Competition among Wives*... Some societies practice a form of polygyny called _____, in which a man marries sisters or other female relatives. It is possible that sisters may be less likely to feel jealous of one another when they become wives.

Advantages of Polygyny

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Number of Spouses*... *Polygyny*... *_____* (Advantages of Polygyny) Having two or more wives in a polygynous society is usually a mark of prestige or high status... Sometimes a man takes multiple wives because the society views them as economic and political assets. Each wife not only contributes to the household's goods and services but also produces more children, who are valuable economic and political resources... The old anthropological literature (written before the 1970s) gave the impression that women in polygynous societies generally favored polygyny over monogamy. However, such a conclusion was to some extent the result of male bias because the majority of ethnographers for the first half of the twentieth century were men. Nevertheless there is evidence to suggest that polygyny remains popular among women in many parts of the world (Kilbride 1997; Mulder 1992; Shahd 2005). It is also true that men in polygynous societies view the practice even more positively than women. Opposition to polygyny usually comes from younger, better-educated women, who prefer monogamy (or remaining single) to polygyny.

Competition among Wives

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Number of Spouses*... *Polygyny*... *_____* (Competition among Wives) Despite the advantages just discussed, living in a polygynous household has drawbacks... The major problem is jealousy among the wives, who often compete for the husband's attention, sexual favors, and household resources... Even though _____ in polygynous societies can threaten domestic tranquility, there are ways to minimize the friction. First, wives will be less jealous if they have a hand in selecting subsequent wives. Some societies practice a form of polygyny called sororal polygyny... Second, wives in many polygynous societies are given their own separate living quarters... Third, dissension is lessened if the rights and obligations among the wives are clearly understood. Fourth, potential conflict among wives can be reduced by establishing a hierarchy among the wives. Because the senior wife often exerts considerable authority over more junior wives, she can run a fairly smooth household by adjudicating the various complaints of the other wives. Not only can the jealousies among wives be regulated, but some ethnographic reports from polygynous societies also reveal considerable harmony and cooperation among the wives.

Polygyny in the United States

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Number of Spouses*... *Polygyny*... *_____* (Polygyny in the United States) Although North America is adamantly monogamous, the practice of having more than one wife at a time does exist, particularly in Utah... Viewed from a global perspective, polygyny is one of many legitimate forms of marriage. There is nothing inherently immoral or exploitive about the practice of having more than one wife at a time. However, polygyny— as practiced in the United States—has come under fire recently because of certain abuses to the practice.

Sex Ratio in Polygynous Societies

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Number of Spouses*... *Polygyny*... *_____* (Sex Ratio in Polygynous Societies) For polygyny to work, a society must solve the practical problem of the sex ratio. In most human populations, the number of men and women is roughly equal... More commonly this numerical discrepancy is alleviated simply by postponing the age at which men can marry. That is, if females can marry from age fourteen on and males are prohibited from marrying until age twenty-six, the marriage pool always has a surplus of marriageable women.

monogamy

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Number of Spouses*... Cultural anthropologists have identified three major types of marriage based on the number of spouses permitted: _____ (the marriage of one individual to another, specifically one at a time), polygyny..., and polyandry... *_____* The practice of having only one spouse at a time is so widespread and rigidly adhered to in the United States and Canada that most people have great difficulty imagining any other marital alternative... So ingrained is this concept of _____ in Western society that we often associate it with the highest standards of civilization, while associating plural marriage with social backwardness and depravity. --------------- *Definition* _____ - The marital practice of having only one spouse at a time.

polygyny

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Number of Spouses*... Cultural anthropologists have identified three major types of marriage based on the number of spouses permitted: monogamy..., _____ (the marriage of a man to two or more women at the same time), and polyandry... *_____* Even though monogamy is widely practiced in the Western world, the overwhelming majority of world cultures do not share our values about the inherent virtue of monogamy... To suggest that approximately 70 percent of the world's cultures practice _____ is not to say that 70 percent of the world's population practices _____. Many cultures that practice _____ are small-scale societies with small populations. Moreover, even in polygynous societies, the majority of men at any given time still have only one wife... _____ in these societies is the preferred or ideal, not the usual, form of marriage. --------------- *Definition* _____ - The marriage of a man to two or more women at the same time.

polyandry

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *Number of Spouses*... Cultural anthropologists have identified three major types of marriage based on the number of spouses permitted: monogamy..., polygyny..., and _____ (the marriage of a woman to two or more men at the same time)... *_____* _____, the mirror image of polygyny, is the marriage of a woman to two or more men at the same time. A much rarer form of plural marriage than polygyny, _____ is found in fewer than 1 percent of the societies of the world, most notably in Tibet, Nepal, and India... Perhaps the best-known case of _____ is found among the Toda of southern India, who practice the fraternal variety... Toda society is characterized by a shortage of females brought about by the traditional practice of female infanticide, and this shortage of women may be one of the reasons for the existence of _____ among the Toda... In addition to explaining the existence of _____ by a shortage of women, there are certain economic factors to consider... Marriage in the United States is undergoing further change. There seems to be an increasing interest in _____ as noted by the numerous websites now available for finding spouses as well as communities supportive of the polyamorous lifestyle. --------------- *Definition* _____ - The marriage of a woman to two or more men at the same time.

Divorce

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *_____* Just as all cultures have established a variety of ways of legitimizing marriages, they also have many ways of dealing with separation and _____, the formal dissolution of a marriage... As a general rule, _____ rates are lower in societies that have strong kinship and large bridewealth payments, which represent compensation for a woman's limited procreative power, which is essentially a payment for her to bare children... In the industrialized world, the incidence of _____ has increased dramatically over the last hundred years, and most industrialized nations have legal procedures for dissolving marriages... A number of factors have been cited for the initial dramatic rise of _____ in the United States. First, industrialization and urbanization modified the functions of the family... Second, the rise of individualism and the pursuit of personal happiness have led some people to spend less time with family members and made some less willing to make sacrifices for the good of the family. Third, the emphasis Western culture puts on romantic love as the basis for marriage makes marriages vulnerable when sexual passion subsides. Fourth, much less stigma is attached to _____ today than a century ago... And fifth, _____ in the United States today is relatively easy to obtain... *Summary*... 8. Just as all societies have customary ways of establishing marriages, they also have ways of dissolving them. As a rule, _____ rates are lower in societies that have strong kinship groups and systems of bridewealth. --------------- *Definition* _____ - The legal and formal dissolution of a marriage.

Marriage and the Family: Functions

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *_____* (Marriage and the Family: Functions) The functionalist school of anthropologists, represented by Bronislaw Malinowski and Alfred Radcliffe-Brown (see Chapter 4), sought to understand how the parts of a culture contributed to the well-being of the society. Following some of the early functionalist research, we can better understand how the formation of families through marriage serves several important functions for the societies in which they operate. One function is to create fairly stable relationships between men and women that regulate sexual mating, reproduction, and child rearing... A second social function of marriage is to provide a mechanism for regulating the sexual division of labor that exists to some extent in all societies... Third, marriage creates family relationships that can provide for the material, educational, and emotional needs of children.

Marriage: Continuity and Change

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *_____* (Marriage: Continuity and Change) As with any aspect of culture, marriage practices and customs change over time. In some cultures, and at certain times in their histories, changes are rapid and far reaching, whereas at other times these customary practices remain fairly stable... In contemporary Japanese society, however, changes in wedding practices have occurred both dramatically and rapidly.

The Role of Romantic Love and Courtship

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family*... *_____* (The Role of Romantic Love and Courtship) With all of the previously mentioned requirements and restrictions for selecting a spouse found throughout the world (exogamy, endogamy, arranged marriages, preferential cross-cousin marriage, the levirate, and the sororate), there seems to be little room left for basing a marriage on romantic love. To be certain romantic love has been a major prerequisite for marriage in Western cultures for generations... Unfortunately, early anthropologists who have examined those many marital systems not based on romantic love have left us with the impression that the notion of romantic love does not exist in non-Western cultures... So far we have seen how young people throughout the world face cultural prescriptions about whom they should or should not marry... The critical question all cultures must answer is: To what extent do the two young people themselves decide whom they shall marry?... The Trobriand Islanders of Papua New Guinea are on the permissive end of the continuum... At the opposite end of the continuum, where any contact between unmarried men and women is forbidden, is Saudi Arabia, perhaps the most socially conservative Islamic country in the world... Trobriand culture and Saudi Arabian culture are clearly two examples at the extreme ends of the spectrum. In actual fact most young people in the world today live in cultures that fall somewhere between these two extremes. Moreover, many of these cultures, owing to modern communication and transportation technology, are experiencing rapid sociocultural change... *Summary*... 5. In many cultures romantic love is not a major criterion for selecting a spouse. Courtship practices found throughout the world vary widely from being virtually nonexistent at one extreme to permissive at the other.

Family

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: Marriage and the _____*... *Marriage and the _____*... A _____ is a social unit characterized by economic cooperation, the management of reproduction and child rearing, and common residence. _____ members, both adults and children, recognize certain rights and obligations toward one another.

Marriage, Family

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: ___1___ and the ___2___*... *Summary* 1. Because of the vast ethnographic variations found in the world, the terms ___2___ and ___1___ are not easy to define. Recognizing the difficulties inherent in such definitions, anthropologists define ___2___ as a social unit whose members cooperate economically, manage reproduction and child rearing, and most often live together. ___1___, the process by which families are formed, is a socially approved union between adult partners.

Marriage

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: _____ and the Family*... *_____ and the Family*... _____ can be defined as a series of customs formalizing the relationship between adult partners within the family. _____ is a socially approved union between two or more adult partners that regulates the sexual and economic rights and obligations between them... *Summary*... 2. The formation of families through the process of _____ serves important social functions by reducing competition for spouses, regulating the sexual division of labor, and meeting the material, educational, and emotional needs of children. =============== *Class 16 (3-10-20)*... *_____ Defined* -Socially approved union between two or more adult partners within the family -Usually involves an explicit contract or understanding and is entered into with the assumption that it will be permanent... =---not being faithful is an informal market for ______ -Family members share some kind of common residence. *What is _____?* -_____ is an institution that --transforms the status of the participants. --stipulates the degree of sexual access the partners are expected to have to each other. -perpetuates social patterns through the production or adoption of offspring. -creates relationships between kin of the partners. -is symbolically marked in some way. =-Others in community can know they're married =-Example includes wedding ring =--not everyone wears wedding ring, when prof. Grew up, women would always wear wedding rings but not always men

Marriage and the Family

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *Chapter 9: _____*... *_____* (Marriage and the Family) Even though we use the terms family and marriage routinely, their meanings are ambiguous... Until recently, same-sex couples could not legally marry anywhere in the world (see Figure 9.1). In a number of countries, however, same-sex marriage has been legalized and thus protected under the law in the same way as heterosexual unions... In 2012, the president of the United States, Barack H. Obama, campaigned for a second term and while doing so declared his support for the legalization of same-sex marriage.

Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family

*Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective*... *_____* (Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family)... In all known societies people recognize a certain number of relatives who make up the basic social group generally called the family. This is not to imply, however, that all societies view the family in the same way. In fact humans have developed a wide variety of family types... Many young couples today face new challenges in the globalized and biotech world in which they find themselves.

Cultural Anthropology - Applied Perspective: Chapter 9: Marriage and the Family

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