Culture & Identity

What are some e.g.s of high culture?

Classical music, theatre, Shakespeare found in museums, concert halls etc

What are the 4 codes of gender-role socialisation?

Colour codes - they dress girls and boys in different colour clothes, blue for boys and pink for girls. Toy codes - they give them different toys, barbie's and babies, trains and guns. Play codes - boys are expected to play actively whilst girls are expected to be quite and docile. Control codes - boys are subjected to far less control from their parents, allowed out more at night, play without constant supervision. Whilst girls are protected more, need to phone home more often, are encouraged to play indoors and be safe.

How does Connell 2002 refer to hegemonic masculinity and femininity, and give an e.g.

Connell 2002 refers to hegemonic masculinity and femininity as a traditional set of ideas about how men and women are supposed to behave in our society. e.g. women are expected to be wives and mothers and take on the main responsibility for child rearing and domestic work whereas men are expected to be the head of the household and the breadwinner. Women are expected to show emotions, whereas men aren't allowed to show theirs.

What are the criticisms of postmodernists?

Critics argue that postmodernists have overstated their case and that people are not all free to choose their identities. Being born black or white, rich or poor, male or female still have an important influence on people's identities and lifestyles. Postmodern explanations of identity may work for some people fortunate enough to have access to social networking and designer labels but for those at the bottom of the social class structure, feeling discriminated against and socially excluded identity isn't a choice.

What is the feminist view on culture?

Culture has played a part in the subordination of women to the interests of men. It can be argued that the main features of British culture inc being white, patriarchal and unequal. Sue Sharpe 1976 argued that differences in primary socialisation serve to generate masculine and feminine cultural identities. Secondary agencies of socialisation continue to reinforce these gender identities. For e.g., girls and boys are encouraged to play with different toys, have different levels of control and are exposed to different media images.

Define culture

Culture includes values, norms and mores which are passed on via the process of socialisation. Values are those things seen as good desirable and worth striving for. Norms are guides to behaviour; they're rules about how we should behave. Mores are behaviors that are seen as completely unacceptable within a culture such as incest - if mores are broken then swift punishment will follow.

What is the interactionist view on culture?

Culture is maintained through interaction based on communication of signs and signals. Meaning is transmitted symbolically and is generated through the process of interaction. The interpretivist Max Weber portrays individuals as social actors who seek meaning and self-development. Therefore, human beings should not be regarded as mindless puppets of their culture; instead they have consciousness and can reflect on the cultures they're born into; accepting or rejecting aspects of these cultures.

What are the 4 things the upper class share?

1) Education: The children of upper class families are usually educated in top public schools such as Eton and harrow. They socialise their pupils into high levels of self-confidence and social superiority. 2)Family marriage and kinship: The young members of the upper class tend to socialise with other members of the upper class because they attend the same schools and go to the same leisure activities. Therefore, they inter-marry and develop further connections between upper class families. Many then go onto Oxford and Cambridge. At school and university, they build up valuable social contacts - 'the old boy network' which ca help get jobs and internships. 3)Social and leisure activities: During their socialisation young members of the upper class are intro'd to the exclusive social events that provide a distinctive upper class lifestyle. 4)Upper class values: The values of the entrepreneurial upper class centre on their work. Rojek argues that for the individuals he studied, work is valued as a source of pleasure, fun and excitement.

What are 3 points which support that class is declining as a source of identity?

1) In recent years some sociologists have argued that class has ceased to be the main factor in creating identity. Postmodernists argue that class identity has fragmented into numerous separate identities - our identity is like the shirts we wear. 2) A supporting study: Savage 2001 found that although class influenced people's living standards, class identities had weakened. He interviewed 178 people in Manchester and found that although people talked freely about class and understood the term, most didn't identify themselves as members of a social class. They preferred to describe themselves as 'ordinary' or 'individuals'. They felt their individuality was under threat if they defined themselves in class terms. Savage therefore concluded that class identity is weak. 3) The new working class and the diverse middle class suggest identities have fragmented and social class is less important as a source of identity.

What are the 3 interlocking groups of the upper class?

1) Landowning aristocrats: 0.65% of the UK population own 68.3% of the land, most of this land is in the hands of aristocratic families dating back many hundreds of years. 2) Entrepreneurs: Nowadays many of the upper class have gained their wealth from owning a business e.g. Richard Branson 3) Jet set: The upper class inc a number of people who have made their money e.g. sport or entertainment, Mick Jagger has a knighthood.

Give 4 examples of things that show how prospects for men are diminishing in their traditional identities.

1) Males are underachieving in education. 2) Traditional manual work is disappearing - mining, shipbuilding and steel. 3) Women are increasingly doing better than men in the labour market and equality laws are supporting this. 4) Men's position in the family, as breadwinner and decision maker, has been undermined due to women's increasing independence and equality laws. 70% of divorces are initiated by women and more women are choosing to remain single and childless; advances in tech are reducing and men's role in reproduction.

What are the 4 processes she identifies during primary socialisation?

1) Manipulation - boys and girls are encouraged to adopt behaviours regarded as appropriate and normal for their gender. 2) Canalisation - boys and girls are directed to different toys and games (construction and active sports for boys and dolls, sewing machines and tea sets for girls), this helps boys and girls develop 'normal' and traditional behaviour associated with masculinity and femininity. Verbal appellations - boys and girls are exposed to different language and praised or rebuked for different things - e.g. parental praise such as 'you're such a brave boy' or 'you're such a sweet girl' - rewarding behaviour which is seen as appropriate for their gender. Differential activity exposure - boys and girls are exposed to and encouraged to do different activities, e.g. by watching and imitating the role models provided by the usually different activities carried out by their fathers and mothers. Other e.g.s could be when girls and boys are given different tasks to do around the house e.g. cooking versus tidying the garden.

Give 4 points which suggest class is still important as a source of identity.

1) Marxists argue that our social identity is rooted in the work we do and different classes develop different social identities as a result of their experience in the workplace. Members of the traditional working class have strong class loyalty and so have the upper class. Therefore, Marxists in particular would argue that class continues to define life chances and identity. 2) Some sociologists would say we should not be fooled by the appearance of diversity and choice in modern society. Social class is the most important factor influencing life chances. 3) A supporting study: Devine 1997 found that class identity remained strong. Most respondents could place themselves in a class if prompted. They both concluded that class is the most common and significant social identity. He argues class identities are much stronger than identities based on things like shopping tastes or leisure pursuits. 4) The traditional working class and the upper class have a strong class identity, also Roberts argues that there are values which unite the middle class.

What are the 4 ways social institutions do this?

1) Socialise us into key values, e.g. respect for authority and individual achievement. 2) Make the norms and values of society appear sacred and important - i.e. make us think that we 'ought' to work hard and respect authority. 3) Control our behaviour by reminding us what counts as normality and deviance - e.g. Parents and schools enforce this through sanctions and rewards. 4) They encourage social solidarity (a sense of community) and social integration (a sense of belonging). This is because through sharing the same values we come to see other members of society as 'like ourselves' and we feel a bond with them.

What are 3 criticisms of influence of gender-role socialisation on gender identity?

1) The experiences of men and women vary greatly. There are huge differences in the experience of socialisation because factors such as ethnicity, class and age also impact and age also impact and these also influence identity. 2) It also assumes that people are passive and controlled in this process - ignoring the fact that many women and men resist gender stereotypes. 3) Changing identities show how gender identities are constructed in ways which challenge (resist) hegemonic gender roles and how male and female gender roles may overlap.

What are 2 reasons why the working class have a strong class identity?

1) Traditional manual workers identified strongly with each other. This was partly due to the dangerous nature of so e manual jobs but also because they worked together, through trade unions, to improve wages and working conditions. They took strike action if necessary. This led to a strong sense of 'us' and 'them'. This meant they had a strong political identity and saw the Labour Party and the trade unions as representing their interests against those of the employers. Socially these groups of men often met together outside work at the pub or working men's club. 2) Such workers also had a strong sense of class identity because they lived in close-knit communities e.g. mining villages. Adult children often lived close to their parents and saw them on a regular basis. Mutual support was offered by a range of relatives, especially childcare, financial help and finding work.

What are the 4 features of postmodern culture?

1)An emphasis on image and style: the mass media bombard us with images, logo's and brands. These provide us with a range of images and styles which we can choose from to reflect our chosen identities. 2)Choice and diversity of lifestyle: Identities are increasingly chosen rather than being imposed by birth or tradition. Hobsbawn 1996 notes that most identities are now like 'shirts' that we choose to wear, rather than the 'skin' we are born with. People can choose from lifestyles on offer, and they can combine different identities. 3)Rapid social change: Society in the postmodern era changes rapidly; largely because of changing technology e.g. new types of social interaction develop on social networking websites. Identities are more fluid and shifting, reflecting the rapid changes in society. Self-identity is no longer fixed but is there to be invented and reinvented. 4)Postmodern sociologists suggest that identities are becoming more unstable and fragile. Older identities, rooted in community and class have been undermined by rapid social change but the new identities which are replacing them don't always provide a firm sense of 'roots'. Bauman suggests that the collapse of traditional communities has led people to search for other sources of meaning in some form of collective identity. These identity groups such as people with disabilities, ethnic minorities campaign against discrimination but they also want recognition from the rest of society that they have equal worth despite cultural differences.

Give 4 reasons why globalisation is a bad thing.

1)Sociologists like Ritzer 1993 would disagree. Ritzer focuses on the concepts of McDonalisation - where culture is now created on mass by mainly American society - homogenized - one size fits all. 2)Choice is an illusion - same products sold across the world. The American food industry operates in many different countries - McDonalds in 119 different countries. Starbucks and Subway. We aren't getting more choice - just the same choices. 3)May create more conflict as national and local cultures are eroded and replaced with a mass produced, plastic culture. The culture tends to be American and this may create hostility in societies that don't want to become more western 4)Greater chance of exploitation - now transnational corporations can move their industries to countries with a poor human rights record - outsourcing.

Give 4 reasons why globalisation is a good thing.

1)Sociologists like Strinati would claim that globalisation has been a good thing for culture. Creating more choice and diversity. Blurring the distinction between high/low/mass culture. 2)It has created more choice for individuals - now there are several ways to live your life, enjoy your leisure time and spend your money. 3)Greater degree of understanding and tolerances for other cultures - reducing conflict. 4)Improving some economics and human rights in some countries - pressure groups like Amnesty work internationally now.

What are subcultures of resistance?

A few subcultures, among young people or in minority ethnic groups, may not simply be different from the dominant culture but in some ways oppose it. These are known to sociologists are subcultures of resistance.

What has led to a new type of working class identity?

A shift away from heavy industry towards service industries and 'high tech' units employing skilled technicians has meant that the traditional working class has declined. This has led to a new type of working class identity.

Define subculture.

A subculture is a smaller culture held by a group of people within the main culture of society.

What is the marxist view on culture?

According to Marx, culture (or ruling class ideas and values) is produced by the dominant group in order to justify its dominance over others. Culture is seen to contain a ruling-class ideology that is socialised into the consciousness if individuals living in a society. Ideology is deliberately created by the powerful to ensure their continuing domination and main economic inequality. A famous Marxist sociologist called Pierre Bourdieu 1971 is critical of the term 'high culture'. He suggests that social classes have their own cultural values and tastes. He argues that the upper classes have the 'cultural capital' to present their culture as 'good taste' and superior to the culture of the ordinary people. In this way they present themselves as superior and worthy of their higher wealth and status. This is supported within the education system - having access to high culture puts the upper class at a distinct advantage over those that are only exposed to popular (or low/mass) culture.

What is the interactionist theory of labelling theory?

According to labelling theory an individual's identity will be strongly shaped by the labels others give to them. A self-fulfilling prophecy can happen when a person is labelled. The person who is applying the label will treat them differently and the label will often be accepted by the person who has been labelled. They will live up to the expectations placed on them by others.

What did it show?

Among the Arapesh both sexes were gentle and submissive (feminine). Among the Mundugamor both sexes were aggressive, rough and competitive (masculine). Finally, among the Tchambuli the gender roles seem to have been reversed to western stereotypes (women make the sexual advances and men enjoyed a good gossip).

What does hegemonic mean?

Dominant.

When was folk culture undermined

During industrialisation when societies became more complicated and people didn't share the same roles and lifestyles.

What does Dyer 1991 say?

Dyer 1991 - 'Being gay doesn't show' and so stereotypes are often used to indicate to an audience that a character is gay in the media.

What is folk culture generally associated with?

Folk culture is generally associated with pre-industrial or early industrial society. Pre-industrial societies were described by Durkheim 1892 as having mechanical solidarity. In pre-industrial societies people worked together in small traditional farming communities. They had similar roles, values and lifestyles. People felt automatically connected with each other as they had similar roles and religious beliefs, and from these shared experiences they created a shared folk culture e.g. traditional folk songs and stories passed down from generation to generation.

Define Folk culture.

Folk culture is the culture created by local communities and is rooted in the experiences, customs and beliefs of the everyday life of ordinary people.

What did Margaret Fuller find in her study of a group of black girls at a London Comprehensive?

Found that the girls resented the stereotypes associated with being female and black. They felt that many people expected them to fail, but far from living up to their expectations - self-fulfilling prophecy - they tried to prove them wrong. The girls devoted themselves to school work in order to try to ensure their success.

What are the criticisms of the functionalist perspective?

Functionalism has also been criticised for over-emphasizing consensus and order and failing to explain social conflicts. There are clear differences in culture within our society. Functionalists try and explain that way with the idea of subculture - groups that hold some of the main values of society but have their own in opposition. As with the marxist perspective it fails to acknowledge freedom of choice - we are not over-socialised dopes who can't think for ourselves. Functionalists have been criticised by Marxists in that they ignore the fact that power isn't equally distributed in society. Some people have more power to impose their norms and values on the less powerful.

What is the functionalist concept of culture?

Functionalists are primarily interested in culture in the context f exploring how social order is maintained. They stress the importance of a shared common consensus around the main values in regulating behaviour and ensuring that change occurs in orderly ways. A common consensus or shared culture is placed at the centre of functionalist concerns. According to Emile Durkheim culture bonds the individual to the wider group through the process of socialisation. Culture is necessary for social order to be established and maintained.

What are the criticisms of social action view?

Functionalists would be critical of this approach as they think that society is based on a consensus of norms and values and we are socialised into these via primary and secondary socialisation. Interpretivists stress individuality and creativity however they fail to explain why human behaviour is so orderly and patterned. Why do we consistently choose to behave in very similar ways instead of all the other ways we could have chosen to behave. Marxists would say that the norms reflect the interests of the powerful - and they argue that interpretivists fail to explore this.

Define Gender.

Gender refers to the socially constructed cultural, social and psychological differences between men and women - masculinity and femininity.

What did Mulvey 1975 argue about the way women are portrayed in the media?

As a sex object - slim, sexually seductive, scantily clad - Mulvey refers to this as the 'male gaze' - to describe the way men look at women as sex objects. Celebrity culture provides strong models for the ways girls should dress and behave and 'supermodels' are the beauty queens of today - replacing Miss World competitions.

What did Baumeister note?

Baumeister 1986 notes that family socialisation provides children with an identity. A very young child has no life apart from its role in the family. Many children copy their parents through play. The roles played by parents provide children with a blueprint for future action.

Why is the extent to which lads and ladettes represent a true picture of young people today questionable?

Because it could be argued that the media exaggerates these descriptions to attract interest and sell media products (TV programmes etc.)

What are the criticisms of Murray's view?

Blaming the victim - many sociologists accuse, Murray of blaming the victim. The underclass aren't to blame for their social disadvantage. Powerful groups in society have adopted policies that create poverty and unemployment and this group don't work because they can't find jobs. A stigmatized identity - Jones argues in his book that chav has become an acceptable class abuse by people asserting superiority over those they despise. This is so ordinary that Prince William and Harry played at dressing up and talking funny at a chav party mocking their lower class subjects. The stigma attached to this identity may be one reason why Charlesworth found that the people he interviewed on the deprived estate didn't have pride in their class identity. Other sociologists say that a lack of employment opportunities cause people to become demoralized and apathetic.

What are 'New lads'?

By the 1990's the new men were upstaged by the 'New lads'. It became fashionable again for young men to have a good time through sex, football, lager and loutish behaviour.

What did she find?

Carolyn Jackson 2006 found this ladette behaviour in schools too - between 13 and 14 year olds. - With girls adopting the same assertive, boisterous and crude 'laddish' culture and confrontational anti-school activity traditionally associated with boys.

Who did research on ladette behaviour?

Carolyn Jackson.

Define the concept of globalisation.

Globalisation refers to the increasing economic and cultural interconnectedness of the world.

What do symbolic interactionalists say about constructing identities?

Herbert Mead argued that a central characteristic of human beings is that we have a self-identity. This self-identity is built up through the process of interaction, through the way other people respond to us. Cooley referred to this as the looking glass self because we see ourselves reflected in the reactions of others. Mead goes on to explain the concept of I and the me. The 'me' is the passive part of the self-identity - the part that is influenced by other people. However, Mead talks about an active and creative part of the self 'the I' that can reject the labels of others.

Define high culture.

High culture is seen as something set apart from everyday life, the culture of the elite and is generally seen as superior to other forms of culture such as popular, mass, low and folk culture.

Define identity.

Identity is who you are. Identity refers to the way we see ourselves in relation to other people - what makes us similar to some people and different to others.

What is the marxist view of socialisation?

Ideological institutions socialise us into accepting inequality and exploitation as both natural and fair. We aren't socialised into a value consensus like the functionalists believe - but instead we are socialised into a dominate ideology - the values and beliefs of the ruling class. Marxists claim that the working class rarely challenge the ruling class because those who control the economy also control the social institutions, family, education, religion and media. Marxists argue that these institutions operate in the interests of the powerful. They all transmit the idea of the ruling class - they make them seem normal and natural.

What is anticipatory socialisation?

In many cases we have already rehearsed roles before we take them on. We imagine ourselves in them; we learn something about them beforehand. For e.g., the young person who enters medical school already knows a bit about the life of a doctor from personal experience as a patient and from watching TV shows.

What was Skelton's study?

In school assembly it was the male teachers who would be called upon by the head teacher to move equipment or lead the singing. Teachers who couldn't recall a boy's name would refer to 'you' or 'boy' or if it was a girl 'darling' or 'sweetheart'. Other institutions such as the media reinforce gender stereotypes - therefore expectations regarding gender become an important part of our identity and it can be difficult to go against these expectations.

What are 'New men'?

In the 1980's there was some speculation that in Britain a 'new men' had emerged. These men were non-sexist, non-aggressive, sensitive and considerate. Male bodies are now emerging in advertising to sell things in much the same way that women's have been used for decades.

What are criticisms of the functionalist view?

Interactionalists claim that functionalists ignore the active role that people can take in creating culture through meaningful interaction. Marxists also criticise functionalists by adopting the view that culture is a constraint on individuals - controlling people and supporting the unequal power relations in society.

What is the idea of the changing self?

Interactionists also argue that identity can change over time - we don't have a 'fixed' self. An identity may change slowly or may be transformed by a dramatic life event such as redundancy may lead to a changed social identity.

How does sexual behaviour offer clear e.g.s of different cultural expectations of males and females?

It's commonly assumed that males and females have different sexual personalities (women are more interested in love, men more interested in sex). Also men and women have different sexual 'scripts' to act out - he does the chasing and she is the passive sex object. There's also a sexual double-standard. Sexual promiscuity can enhance a man's reputation but it may earn woman a bad reputation.

What Jenkins note?

Jenkins 1966 states that social identity is very important - we need to know who we are, if we didn't we would struggle to relate to each other meaningfully and in fact without social identity there would be no society.

What are the criticisms of the marxist theory?

Like functionalists, Marxists are accused of ignoring freedom of choice enjoyed by individuals. Some would argue that people 'choose' what to think and how to act - they aren't 'brainwashed' by ideology. In this sense Marxism can present an 'over-socialised' picture of human beings. Marxists place too much emphasis on conflict and ignore the common interests that employers and workers have. If workers work well then more profits are made and higher wages are paid out. Neo-Marxists have claimed that 'oppositional subcultures' exist in society. Hall and Jefferson 1976 argued that some youth subcultures are often a means by which youth can express dissatisfaction with the capitalist system. Rather than being 'brainwashed' by ideology these oppositional subcultures resist the dominant ideology through their values, dress codes and behaviour. e.g mods, punks, hippies etc.

What does Oakley argue about the role of the family?

Males and females learn their gender roles from a range of agents of socialisation. Oakley argues children are steered towards gender riles and identities by their parents.

What do the thinkers of the Marxist influenced Frankfurt School of sociologists argue about mass culture?

Marcuse - mass culture is produced for, and marketed to, the majority of the population through mass media.

Who did a famous study of New Guinea tribes in 1935?

Margaret Mead.

What are the criticisms of the marxist view?

Marxists can be criticised for assuming that the individual is powerless in all of this and unable to see through ruling class ideology.

What did Mike Savage say?

Mike Savage 2010: in his work on social class he commented that some groups combine diverse interests like opera and street culture.

What did Morgan note?

Morgan 1996 argues that a great deal of primary socialisation is concerned with social control and encouraging conformity. This can be seen in a number of ways: Parents often use sanctions to reinforce and reward socially approved behaviour. Positive sanctions may inc sweets, praise whereas negative could inc smacking, grounding etc. Sanctions encourage the development of a conscience in the child. It's culturally expected a child will eventually know the difference between 'good' and 'bad' behaviour. Socialisation is seen to be successful when a child realises that the costs in terms of parental punishment outweigh the benefits of deviant actions and so the child exercises self-control.

Where can folk culture still be seen today?

Morris dancing and traditional events such as cheese rolling in rural events each year.

Who came up with the idea of metrosexual men?

Mort 1996.

What does Murray say about the urban underclass?

Murray argues this group consist of individuals who are long-term unemployed and single parents as well as drug addicts, criminals etc. Murray suggests the culture and identity of the underclass revolves around being work-shy, anti-authority, anti-education, and immoral and welfare dependent. Murray argues that the children of the underclass are being socialised by their inadequate parents into a culture of idleness, failure and criminality.

What is the neo-marxist view on culture?

Neo-Marxists focus much more on the ideological institutions than the economic base of society. This perspective focuses on the culture of the mass media as the most powerful influence in preventing social change. Gramsci argued that only when marxist intellectuals break through popular culture aimed at the proletariat will a revolution occur.

What is the social action view of socialisation?

Norms are flexible and open to individual interpretation. The roles we are socialised into can be performed very differently. People have a much more positive and active role in shaping social life.

Give an e.g. of a study on anti-school subcultures.

Paul Willis 1977 found an anti-school subculture in his study of a group of working class lads, in which resistance to the school culture was valued. Hall and Jefferson 1976 considered particular youth sub-cultural styles such as Mods and Punks as forms of resistance to dominant culture.

Define personality.

Personality is descriptive and tends to be more fixed.

What do post-modernists argue?

Post modernists argue that the distinction between high culture and popular or mass culture is weakening. People now have a wider diversity of cultural choices and products available to them than ever before and they can 'pick and mix' from either popular or high culture.

What are the values of self-employed middle classes?

Roberts argues that the self-employed owners of small business have a distinctive set of values. Surveys suggest they believe that people should be standing on their own two feet and not rely on the welfare state. They also have great faith in hard work and discipline - believing that success in life is down to effort and not luck.

What are the values of professionals in the middle class?

Savage claims that these subscribe to an intellectual identity gained from a long and successful education. They value cultural capital such as knowledge, qualifications, achievement. They pace a high value on their children's education. They also value altruism e.g. they often see themselves as serving a higher purpose in society.

Define sex.

Sex refers to the natural or biological difference between men and women.

Who did a study which showed that gender role socialisation is reinforced in secondary socialisation?

Skelton.

What is the social action theory of socialisation?

Social action approaches that heavily criticise structural approaches for seeing individuals as puppets, what Garfinkel 1984 said 'cultural dopes', passively consuming and accepting norms and values handed down through socialisation. Social action theorists appreciate the fact that people have 'free will' can make choices, challenge norms and interpret values differently.

Define social class.

Social class is a term that refers to a group of people who share a similar economic situation, such as a similar occupation level, income and ownership of wealth.

What is the feminist view on socialisation?

Society is characterised by differences in power and status of two groups: men and women. Men have more power and status than women - feminists call this patriarchy. From an early age, people are trained to conform to social expectations about their gender. Much of this training goes on in the family - primary socialisation. Stratham 1986 argued that it was almost impossible for parents to overcome the cultural pressure for their children to behave in gender stereotyped ways. By the age of 5 most children have acquired a clear gender identity.

Why is it difficult to move into the upper class?

Sociologists refer to this as social closure. The upper class share a strong sense of identity - its members tend to be the children of upper class parents. The shared culture and contacts make it difficult for non-members to be accepted.

What does Strinati argue?

Strinati argues elements of high culture have become a part of popular culture, and elements of popular culture have been incorporated into high culture - it is now difficult for elite to claim their culture is superior.

What is the structuralist theory of socialization?

Structuralists adopt a macro approach seeing culture and individual identities created by wider social forces making up the social structure of society. From this point of view people are like puppets or programmed robots, who are socialised and manipulated by social institutions.

What is the functionalist view of socialisation?

Talcott Parsons was a key functionalist thinker. He argued that society was based on a value consensus. A shared set of values is important for society to be stable and harmonious and socialisation is they key to understanding how we learn to accept and behave in terms of these values. The role of institutions like education and the family is to ensure the passing on, or reproduction of, socially acceptable patterns of behaviour.

What does Taylor 1997 argue about homosexuals?

Taylor 1997 argues that female female homosexuals (lesbians) have always had a much lower social profile than gay men. The law regularly criminalized gay men until the 1960's but this wasn't the case for women. The radical feminist movement of the 1970's and the feminisation of the labour market have benefited lesbian women, according to Taylor.

What do new men and new lads show?

That masculinity varies over time.

What is Goffman's theory?

The Dramaturgical analogy - He refers to individual as social actor and to others as the audience. He argues that in everyday social interaction individuals are trying to create an impression of themselves in the minds of their audience - he refers to this process as impression management. We do this so that people know how to interact with us.

What does the objective dimensions of social class refer to?

The aspects of social class that exist independently of peoples thoughts and ideas - the material differences in people's life chances such as housing, sickness, income etc.

What did the sociologist Marcuse say?

The consumers of mass culture are seen to be passive. They buy what the adverts tell them to and Marcuse refers to this as false needs. As such the masses are easily manipulated and open to exploitation.

What is the dominant culture?

The dominant culture refers to the main culture of society - which is shared by the majority of people. The culture may not always be 100% supported but generally people accept it anyway. It cane be argued that the main features of British culture include it being white, patriarchal and unequal. This would indicate that those with the power and status in society are white males over females of those from an ethnic minority. Similarly, those who are rich and powerful (usually white and male) are in a position to have their views of what is valuable and worthwhile in a culture regarded as more important than those of others.

What is a ladette, and give some evidence.

The ladette is an e.g. of converging (overlapping male/female identities). Research from the World Health Organisation for 2006 found that girls in the UK were among the most violent in the world and nearly 1 in 3 Scottish and English teenage girls admitted to having been involved in a fight within the last year. This survey also linked the rise in binge drinking and 'ladette' culture to this increased violence.

Why is it difficult to make general statements about the culture and identity of the middle classes?

The middle class come from diverse backgrounds: There has been a spectacular growth in middle class jobs - largely as a result of the expanding public sector e.g. NHS, education. There has also been a growth in white collar jobs in office work and sales. Many members of this expanding middle class come from working class backgrounds and many are women. Therefore, the middle classes, unlike the upper classes are very open to 'outsiders'. The middle class inc a range of jobs. There are large differences in the pay and status of the middle classes. A part-time office worker may have little in common with a top solicitor. The diversity of the middle classes means that people in these groups may have little in common and so it's less likely they will develop a shared culture or identity.

What is this new working class?

The new working class has no sense of class injustice or political loyalty. They believe in individualism, rather than collective action such as strikes. They vote for whichever political party benefits them. They're more likely to define themselves by their standard of living, hobbies and recreational activities. Leisure has become a central life interest.

What are the values of routine white collar workers in the middle classes?

The pay and status of this group has declined and it's suggested they have more in common with the working class. However, surveys indicate this group don't hold typical working class values. Many aren't in unions and they don't hold an 'us' and 'them' relationship with bosses. they rarely mix with manual worker and spend their leisure time and money in different ways.

What is the postmodernist view on culture?

The perspective criticises all other perspectives (especially functionalist, Marxist and feminist). Culture isn't fixed according to postmodernists - it's flexible, negotiable, pic n mix, and means different things to different people. The world is very different lace due to the spread of globalisation, and you can no longer consider culture of identities to be fixed or predictable. People experience a variety of cultural flows which are often cascaded to them via the media.

What is the urban underclass?

The urban underclass may be another type of working class identity held by those who exist on the margins of society and live in run down council estates.

How do these hegemonic definitions influence gender identity?

These hegemonic definitions influence gender identity and it can be difficult for boys and girls to adopt an identity which goes against these hegemonic ideas.

What is primary socialisation?

They early years of life are important in the learning process. This is the stage of primary socialisation, when we are normally in intimate and prolonged contact with parents. They have great influence on us and we care about their judgements of us. Significant others play a key part in teaching us the basic values and norms.

What is secondary socialisation?

This refers to the socialisation we receive later in life, from a wide range of people and agencies. They inc peer groups, teachers, media and casual acquaintances. Sometimes they play a supportive role, adding to the primary socialisation of earlier years. But teachers also into us to new and more complex knowledge and skills. And friends sometimes intro us to values and lifestyles which wouldn't win the approval of our parents.

How has there been a crisis of masculinity?

Though the 'new man' has turned out to be a rare specimen - with the ;new lad' emerging in the 2000's as a reaction to the new man, men are said to be facing anxiety, uncertainty and confusion about their role and identity. In comparison to hegemonic definitions of masculinity explained by Connell - most men feel they can't live up to that view of being a man in society.

What does subjective dimensions of social class refer to?

To people's perception of the social class they think they belong to - their class identity.

What are metrosexual men?

Traditionally fashion was associated with women and 'real' men didn't care about how they dressed. Mort 196 highlighted the emergence of the metrosexual man. These are heterosexual men who are concerned with their image and consequently invest in personal grooming and designer labels. David Beckham is usually associated with the metrosexual man.

What is re-socialisation?

We usually have to learn new things when our roles change in society. This may be a gradual process - for e.g., growing into adulthood. At other times it can be dramatic and abrupt. For e.g., army recruits experiencing the shock of basic training, when they have to abandon their civilian identity and submit to strict discipline.

What are 4 differences between mass, folk and high culture?

While folk culture was created by ordinary people, mass culture is only consumed by them. While folk culture is authentic, mass culture is plastic and superficial. High culture in contrast to mass culture is long-established and worthy whilst mass culture is short-lived and unworthy. The audience of mass culture from MacDonald's point of view are passive members of a mass society, unable to think for themselves.