CVA Unit 1 and 2

Inez Beverly Prosser1895-1934

1st African American woman to achieve a Ph.D. in Psychology: University of Cincinnati, 1933. Research on: Race, Child Development, Segregation. Died early in tragic accident in Shreveport, LA.

Mamie Phipps Clark1917-1983

1st African-American woman to earn degree at Columbia University. Research on race, self-concept, self-esteem, child development. Her work with husband, Kenneth Clark, played important role in 1954 Brown vs. Board of Education. Clark Doll Test.

Martha E. Bernal1931-2001

1st Latina (Mexican) to achieve Ph.D. in Psychology: Indiana University Bloomington, 1962. Research on childhood developmental disorders e.g. Autism, Conduct Disorder, etc. Helped recruit more Hispanics in field. Pioneer encouraging more minority content in Clinical & Counseling Psychology programs across the nation.

Alice F. Chang

1st ethnic minority female member of the APA Board of Directors. Recently, a nominee for APA President-elect. Author of "A Survivor's Guide to Breast Cancer" Ph.D. 1973 University of Southern California (USC). Founder of the 'Academy for Cancer Wellness'. Established Marana Community Mental Health Clinic. Serves Yaqui Indians, Migrant Workers, Indigent people in the rural communities around Tucson, Arizona.

Margaret Floyd Washburn1871-1939

1st woman in America to receive a Ph.D. in psychology: 1894. Head of Psychology at Vassar College.

Survey

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Mary Whiton Calkins1863-1930

American psychologist who conducted research on memory, personality and dreams. First woman president of the American Psychological Association. Developed theory of self-psychology and a technique for studying verbal learning.

G. Stanley Hall1846-1924

American psychologist. Established the first psychology research laboratory in the United States. Founded the American Psychological Association.

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology

Application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces--including, but not limited to: selecting and training personnel, productivity improvement, working conditions, impact of automation on workers, etc.

Sigmund Freud1856-1939

Austrian neurologist who originated psychoanalysis (1856-1939). Said that human behavior is irrational. Behavior is the outcome of conflict between the Id (irrational unconscious driven by sexual, aggressive, and pleasure-seeking desires), Ego (rationalizing conscious, what one can do) and Superego (ingrained moral values, what one should do).

John B. Watson1878-1958

Behaviorist. Emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation. Famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat.

B. F. Skinner1904-1990

Behaviorist. Pioneer in Operant Conditioning. Behavior is based on an organism's reinforcement history. 'Skinner Box'. Also, worked with pigeons.

Counseling Psychology

Branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

Community Psychology

Branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments, and how social institutions affect individuals and groups.

Psychodynamic Psychology

Branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders. Behavior results from forces within the individual, often at unconscious level. Important in the history of psychotherapy. Childhood experiences play a large role.

Biological Psychology

Branch of psychology that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes.

Clinical Psychology

Branch of psychology that studies, assesses and treats people with psychological disorders.

Christine Ladd-Franklin1847-1930

Completed requirements Math/Logic for Ph.D. 1883: Johns Hopkins University. Not awarded Ph.D. until 1926. Became leading theorist in color vision. Daughter, Margaret, became prominent member of Suffrage movement.

Case study

Detailed description and analysis of one or a few people. Prominent in psychology. Observer bias is a problem. Unable to make generalizations past person being studied.

Anna Freud1895-1982

Developed field of child psychoanalysis. Influenced other thinkers, including Erik Erikson. Introduction of Defense Mechanisms. Expanded interest in field of Child Psychology.

Mary Ainsworth1913-1999

Developmental psychologist. Best-known for her early childhood attachment: Attachment theory. Played important role in our understanding of child development.

Level of Analysis

Differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.

Structuralism

Early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind.

Charles Darwin1809-1882

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882).

John Locke1632-1704

English philosopher. Advocated the idea of a "social contract" in which government powers are derived from the consent of the governed and in which the government serves the people. Also said people have natural rights to life, liberty and property.

Francis Bacon1561-1626

English politician and writer. Advocated that new knowledge was acquired through an inductive reasoning process (using specific examples to prove or draw conclusion from a general point) called empiricism. Rejected Medieval view of knowledge based on tradition, believed it's necessary to collect data, observe and draw conclusions. This was the foundation of the scientific method.

Testing Effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

Carl Rogers1902-1987

Field: humanistic; Contributions: founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person.

William James1842-1910

Founder of functionalism. Studied how humans use perception to function in our environment. First to offer Psychology course in U.S.

Jean Piaget1896-1980

Four stage theory of cognitive development: 1. sensorimotor, 2. preoperational, 3. concrete operational, and 4. formal operational. He said that the two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth assimilation and accommodation.

Rene Descartes1596-1650

French scientist and philosopher. Argued for free will. Proponent of dualism. Argued that "threads" within the body control movement and that some behaviors occur without thought. Believed in the existence of innate natural abilities. Dissected animals. Among first to understand that nerves control muscles. Addressed relationship between mind (the mental aspects of life) and body (the physical aspects of life).

Wilhelm Wundt1832-1920

German physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science. 'Father of Psychology'. Created approach of structuralism. Wanted to know structure of mind. Introspection. Opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879.

Rosalie Rayner1899-1935

Graduate student of Watson and co-researcher for the famous Little Albert demonstration of classically conditioned emotion.

Socratesc. 470-399 B.C.E.

Greek philosopher. 'Socratic Method': questioning at an increasingly deeper level to allow students to develop their ideas and knowledge. Sentenced to death for corrupting Athens youth.

Platoc. 428-348 B.C.E.

Greek philosopher. Knowledge based on consideration of ideal forms outside the material world. Proposed ideal form of government based on abstract principles in which philosophers ruled.

Aristotle384-322 B.C.E.

Greek philosopher. Pupil of Plato. Tutor of Alexander the Great. Author of works on logic, metaphysics, ethics, natural sciences, politics and poetics. Profoundly influenced Western thought. In his philosophical system, which led him to criticize what he saw as Plato's metaphysical excesses, theory follows empirical observation and logic, based on the syllogism, is the essential method of rational inquiry.

Humanistic Psychology

Historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth. Recognizes importance of love, self esteem, belonging, and self-actualization.

Abraham Maslow1908-1970

Humanistic psychology. Hierarchy of needs: needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied. Self-actualization. Transcendence.

Alfred Adler1870-1937

Inferiority Complex: fixation on feelings of personal inferiority that can lead to emotional and social paralysis. Compensation: our efforts to overcome real or perceived weaknesses. Birth Order.

Biopsychosocial Approach

Integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

Cognitive Neuroscience

Interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

Introspection

Method of self-observation in which participants report their thoughts and feelings.

Natural Selection

Principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival with most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

Karen Horney1885-1952

Prominent psychoanalyst. Known for important contributions: i.e. Neurosis, Feminine Psychology, Self Psychology.

Gestalt Psychology

Psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts. Emphasized total experience of the individual and not just parts of the mind or behavior. Lacked scientific rigor and was displaced. Major influence in sensation and perception.

Dorothea Dix1802-1887

Reformer and pioneer in the movement to treat the insane as mentally ill, beginning in the 1820's. She was responsible for improving conditions in jails, poorhouses and insane asylums throughout the U.S. and Canada. Succeeded in persuading many states to assume responsibility for the care of the mentally ill. Served as Superintendent of Nurses for the Union Army during the Civil War.

Leta Stetter Hollingworth1886-1939

Research on exceptional children. Psychology of Women. Clinical & Educational Psychology.

Correlational Research

Research technique based on the naturally occurring relationship between two or more variables. Often used to make predictions, such as the relation between SAT scores and school success. Cannot be used to determine cause and effect

Ivan Pavlov1849-1936

Russian physiologist who observed conditioned salivary responses in dogs (1849-1936).

Functionalism

School of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function; how they enable us to adapt, survive and flourish. A protest to Structuralist private mental events. Focus on the process of conscious activity. Roots with evolution. Not what mind does, but why it does it.

Cognitive Psychology

Scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating. Study of mental processes. Computer largely influenced theories. Some areas of study: thinking, learning, feeling, memory, decision-making, etc.

Social Psychology

Scientific study of how we think about, influence and relate to one another--including, but not limited to: first impressions, prejudice, behavior in a group, attitude formation, interpersonal attraction, etc.

Positive Psychology

Scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities thrive.

Behavioral Psychology

Scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning.

Developmental Psychology

Scientific study of physical, cognitive and social change throughout the life span. Subfields may include: child psychology, adolescent psychology, life-span psychology, aging, end-of-life, etc.

Psychometrics

Scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes and traits.

Carl Jung1875-1961

Shared Freud's emphasis on unconscious processes. Personal Unconscious: part of unconscious mind containing an individual's thoughts & feelings. Collective Unconscious: part of the unconscious inherited & common to all members of a species. Five main Archetypes.

E. B. Titchener1867-1927

Student of Wundt. Introduced experimental psychology to the United States.

SQ3R

Study method incorporating five steps Survey, Question, Read, Rehearse, Review.

Personality Psychology

Study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting--including, but not limited to: anxiety, sociability, self-esteem, need for achievement, aggressiveness, etc.

Experimental Psychology

Study of behavior and thinking using the scientific method.

Human Factors Psychology

Study of how people and machines interact and the design of safe and easily used machines and environments.

Educational Psychology

Study of how psychological processes affect, and can enhance, teaching and learning.

Social-Cultural Psychology

Study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking.

Feminist Psychology

Study of the psychology of women. Term 'Feminist Psychology' originally coined by Karen Horney. Her book, 'Feminine Psychology', a collection of articles Horney wrote on the subject from 1922-37. Argued that: much research based on all-male samples; reports of sex/gender differences focus too much on extremes & ignore similarities; and, psychologists only study what they consider important.

Evolutionary Psychology

Study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection.

Naturalistic observation

Systematic observation in natural setting. The main drawback is observer bias.

Empiricism

View that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation.

Behaviorism

View that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). Rejected mental events. Should only study observable, verifiable events. Dominated psychology for 50+ years.

Operational Definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

Case Study

a descriptive technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Confounding Variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

Sampling Bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample. (collected in such a way that some members of the intended population are less likely to be included than others, resulting in a biased, non-random sample)

Correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors (variables) change together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Random Sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1.0 to +1.0).

Statistical Significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Population

all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. Note: Except for national studies, this does NOT refer to a country's whole population.

Double-Blind Procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or the placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Placebo Effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent. Latin for "I shall please."

Inferential Statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize - to infer from sample data the probability of something being true to a population.

Naturalistic Observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

Applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

Validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

Illusory Correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. Also known as the "I knew it all along" phenomenon.

Critical Thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.