developmental psych 3

What are primary and secondary sexual characteristics? Give examples of each for both genders.

Primary and secondary sexual characteristics refer to specific physical traits that differentiate males and females in sexually dimorphic species; that is, species in which males and females look different. Primary sexual characteristics are there from birth (for example, penises vs. vaginas). Secondary sexual characteristics emerge at puberty (such as low voices and beards in men, and high voices and no facial hair in women).

Briefly describe Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence, including its components.

Sternberg's theory, in which intelligent behavior involves balancing three broad, interacting intelligences—analytical, creative, and practical—to achieve success in life according to one's personal goals and the requirements of one's cultural community.

Briefly describe the characteristics of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa.

Stressful transitions or life changes History of abuse or trauma Negative body image Poor self-esteem Professions or activities that focus on appearance/performance

Describe the formal operational stage of development. How does it differ from the concrete operational stage? Does everyone reach the formal operations stage?

The formal operational stage is the fourth and final stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development. The emerging abstract thought and hypothetical reasoning mark this phase of development. no

What is puberty? How does it impact adolescents? Briefly describe the characteristics of physical growth and sexual maturity that occur during puberty

The period during which adolescents reach sexual maturity and become capable of reproduction. height

According to Marcia, what are the four identity statuses?

1) Achievement: crisis exploration, but teen is already committed. yes and yes. 2) moratorium: there is a crisis exploration without a commitment. yes to crisis, no to commitment 3) foreclosure: not exploration of options, but there is a commitment. no crisis, yes commitment 4) diffusion: not exploration of options and no commitment. no and no.

What is the secular trend?

A change from one generation to the next in an aspect of development, such as body size or pubertal timing.

Briefly describe the typical characteristics of children who exhibit attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Describe the benefits of drug therapy and environmental interventions.

A childhood disorder involving inattention, impulsivity, and excessive motor activity, resulting in academic and social problems. Drugs seem to increase activity in prefrontal cortex

What is coregulation?

A form of supervision in which parents exercise general oversight while letting children take charge of moment-by-moment decision making.

1. What is intelligence quotient (IQ)?

A score that permits an individual's performance on an intelligence test to be compared to the performances of other individuals of the same age.

What is dynamic assessment? Why is it useful?

An approach to testing consistent with Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, in which purposeful teaching is introduced into the testing situation to find out what the child can attain with social support.

What are peer groups, and why are they influential? Illustrate with examples.

Collectives of peers who generate unique values and standards for behavior and a social structure of leaders and followers.

What are menarche and spermarche?

m:First menstrual period s:Period during which makes achieve first ejaculation

Describe Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, including its components.

Gardner's theory, which identifies at least eight independent intelligences—linguistic, logico-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalist, interpersonal, and intrapersonal—defined in terms of distinct sets of processing operations that permit individuals to engage in a wide range of culturally valued activities.

Briefly describe the typical characteristics of children who exhibit learning disorders.

Hyperactivity • Impulsivity • Perceptual-motor impairments • Disorders of memory and thinking • Emotional labiality • Academic difficulties • Coordination problems • Language deficits • Disorders of attention • Equivocal neurological signs

What does IQ predict?

mental abilities

Briefly describe Gilligan's view of moral development. How does it differ from Kohlberg's?

Kholberg's view: rights and justice orientation Gilligan's view: caring for others orientation (ethic of care) both sexes use both orientation, but females may stress care more because they have a greater experience as care givers.

Describe Kohlberg's three general levels (including six stages) of moral development. Describe the characteristics of moral reasoning at each stage. How did Kohlberg assess moral development? What are the general developmental trends?

KOHLBERG'S SIX STAGES Level 1. Preconventional Morality Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. Kohlberg's stage 1 is similar to Piaget's first stage of moral thought. The child assumes that powerful authorities hand down a fixed set of rules which he or she must unquestioningly obey. To the Heinz dilemma, the child typically says that Heinz was wrong to steal the drug because "It's against the law," or "It's bad to steal," as if this were all there were to it. When asked to elaborate, the child usually responds in terms of the consequences involved, explaining that stealing is bad "because you'll get punished" (Kohlberg, 1958b). Although the vast majority of children at stage 1 oppose Heinz's theft, it is still possible for a child to support the action and still employ stage 1 reasoning. For example, a child might say, "Heinz can steal it because he asked first and it's not like he stole something big; he won't get punished" (see Rest, 1973). Even though the child agrees with Heinz's action, the reasoning is still stage 1; the concern is with what authorities permit and punish. Kohlberg calls stage 1 thinking "preconventional" because children do not yet speak as members of society. Instead, they see morality as something external to themselves, as that which the big people say they must do. Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints. "Heinz," they might point out, "might think it's right to take the drug, the druggist would not." Since everything is relative, each person is free to pursue his or her individual interests. One boy said that Heinz might steal the drug if he wanted his wife to live, but that he doesn't have to if he wants to marry someone younger and better-looking (Kohlberg, 1963, p. 24). Another boy said Heinz might steal it because maybe they had children and he might need someone at home to look after them. But maybe he shouldn't steal it because they might put him in prison for more years than he could stand. (Colby and Kauffman. 1983, p. 300) What is right for Heinz, then, is what meets his own self-interests. You might have noticed that children at both stages 1 and 2 talk about punishment. However, they perceive it differently. At stage 1 punishment is tied up in the child's mind with wrongness; punishment "proves" that disobedience is wrong. At stage 2, in contrast, punishment is simply a risk that one naturally wants to avoid. Although stage 2 respondents sometimes sound amoral, they do have some sense of right action. This is a notion of fair exchange or fair deals. The philosophy is one of returning favors--"If you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours." To the Heinz story, subjects often say that Heinz was right to steal the drug because the druggist was unwilling to make a fair deal; he was "trying to rip Heinz off," Or they might say that he should steal for his wife "because she might return the favor some day" (Gibbs et al., 1983, p. 19). Respondents at stage 2 are still said to reason at the preconventional level because they speak as isolated individuals rather than as members of society. They see individuals exchanging favors, but there is still no identification with the values of the family or community. Level II. Conventional Morality Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. At this stage children--who are by now usually entering their teens--see morality as more than simple deals. They believe that people should live up to the expectations of the family and community and behave in "good" ways. Good behavior means having good motives and interpersonal feelings such as love, empathy, trust, and concern for others. Heinz, they typically argue, was right to steal the drug because "He was a good man for wanting to save her," and "His intentions were good, that of saving the life of someone he loves." Even if Heinz doesn't love his wife, these subjects often say, he should steal the drug because "I don't think any husband should sit back and watch his wife die" (Gibbs et al., 1983, pp. 36-42; Kohlberg, 1958b). If Heinz's motives were good, the druggist's were bad. The druggist, stage 3 subjects emphasize, was "selfish," "greedy," and "only interested in himself, not another life." Sometimes the respondents become so angry with the druggist that they say that he ought to be put in jail (Gibbs et al., 1983, pp. 26-29, 40-42). A typical stage 3 response is that of Don, age 13: It was really the druggist's fault, he was unfair, trying to overcharge and letting someone die. Heinz loved his wife and wanted to save her. I think anyone would. I don't think they would put him in jail. The judge would look at all sides, and see that the druggist was charging too much. (Kohlberg, 1963, p. 25) We see that Don defines the issue in terms of the actors' character traits and motives. He talks about the loving husband, the unfair druggist, and the understanding judge. His answer deserves the label "conventional "morality" because it assumes that the attitude expressed would be shared by the entire community—"anyone" would be right to do what Heinz did (Kohlberg, 1963, p. 25). As mentioned earlier, there are similarities between Kohlberg's first three stages and Piaget's two stages. In both sequences there is a shift from unquestioning obedience to a relativistic outlook and to a concern for good motives. For Kohlberg, however, these shifts occur in three stages rather than two. Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. Stage 3 reasoning works best in two-person relationships with family members or close friends, where one can make a real effort to get to know the other's feelings and needs and try to help. At stage 4, in contrast, the respondent becomes more broadly concerned with society as a whole. Now the emphasis is on obeying laws, respecting authority, and performing one's duties so that the social order is maintained. In response to the Heinz story, many subjects say they understand that Heinz's motives were good, but they cannot condone the theft. What would happen if we all started breaking the laws whenever we felt we had a good reason? The result would be chaos; society couldn't function. As one subject explained, I don't want to sound like Spiro Agnew, law and order and wave the flag, but if everybody did as he wanted to do, set up his own beliefs as to right and wrong, then I think you would have chaos. The only thing I think we have in civilization nowadays is some sort of legal structure which people are sort of bound to follow. [Society needs] a centralizing framework. (Gibbs et al., 1983, pp. 140-41) Because stage 4, subjects make moral decisions from the perspective of society as a whole, they think from a full-fledged member-of-society perspective (Colby and Kohlberg, 1983, p. 27). You will recall that stage 1 children also generally oppose stealing because it breaks the law. Superficially, stage 1 and stage 4 subjects are giving the same response, so we see here why Kohlberg insists that we must probe into the reasoning behind the overt response. Stage 1 children say, "It's wrong to steal" and "It's against the law," but they cannot elaborate any further, except to say that stealing can get a person jailed. Stage 4 respondents, in contrast, have a conception of the function of laws for society as a whole--a conception which far exceeds the grasp of the younger child. Level III. Postconventional Morality Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. At stage 4, people want to keep society functioning. However, a smoothly functioning society is not necessarily a good one. A totalitarian society might be well-organized, but it is hardly the moral ideal. At stage 5, people begin to ask, "What makes for a good society?" They begin to think about society in a very theoretical way, stepping back from their own society and considering the rights and values that a society ought to uphold. They then evaluate existing societies in terms of these prior considerations. They are said to take a "prior-to-society" perspective (Colby and Kohlberg, 1983, p. 22). Stage 5 respondents basically believe that a good society is best conceived as a social contract into which people freely enter to work toward the benefit of all They recognize that different social groups within a society will have different values, but they believe that all rational people would agree on two points. First they would all want certain basic rights, such as liberty and life, to be protected Second, they would want some democratic procedures for changing unfair law and for improving society. In response to the Heinz dilemma, stage 5 respondents make it clear that they do not generally favor breaking laws; laws are social contracts that we agree to uphold until we can change them by democratic means. Nevertheless, the wife's right to live is a moral right that must be protected. Thus, stage 5 respondent sometimes defend Heinz's theft in strong language: It is the husband's duty to save his wife. The fact that her life is in danger transcends every other standard you might use to judge his action. Life is more important than property. This young man went on to say that "from a moral standpoint" Heinz should save the life of even a stranger, since to be consistent, the value of a life means any life. When asked if the judge should punish Heinz, he replied: Usually the moral and legal standpoints coincide. Here they conflict. The judge should weight the moral standpoint more heavily but preserve the legal law in punishing Heinz lightly. (Kohlberg, 1976, p. 38) Stage 5 subjects,- then, talk about "morality" and "rights" that take some priority over particular laws. Kohlberg insists, however, that we do not judge people to be at stage 5 merely from their verbal labels. We need to look at their social perspective and mode of reasoning. At stage 4, too, subjects frequently talk about the "right to life," but for them this right is legitimized by the authority of their social or religious group (e.g., by the Bible). Presumably, if their group valued property over life, they would too. At stage 5, in contrast, people are making more of an independent effort to think out what any society ought to value. They often reason, for example, that property has little meaning without life. They are trying to determine logically what a society ought to be like (Kohlberg, 1981, pp. 21-22; Gibbs et al., 1983, p. 83). Stage 6: Universal Principles. Stage 5 respondents are working toward a conception of the good society. They suggest that we need to (a) protect certain individual rights and (b) settle disputes through democratic processes. However, democratic processes alone do not always result in outcomes that we intuitively sense are just. A majority, for example, may vote for a law that hinders a minority. Thus, Kohlberg believes that there must be a higher stage--stage 6--which defines the principles by which we achieve justice. Kohlberg's conception of justice follows that of the philosophers Kant and Rawls, as well as great moral leaders such as Gandhi and Martin Luther King. According to these people, the principles of justice require us to treat the claims of all parties in an impartial manner, respecting the basic dignity, of all people as individuals. The principles of justice are therefore universal; they apply to all. Thus, for example, we would not vote for a law that aids some people but hurts others. The principles of justice guide us toward decisions based on an equal respect for all.

According to information processing approaches, what changes during middle childhood?

working memory capacity continues to increase

Although adolescence tends to be a time of physical health and freedom from illnesses, adolescents are at risk due to higher rates of "risk-taking behavior." The top three causes of death among U.S. teens (accidents, homicides, suicides), and high rates of sexually transmitted infections and teen pregnancy seen among adolescents, are all highly preventable. What are some of the reasons that U.S. adolescents are so prone to take risks?

-adolescent lifestyle is risky: driving -social context factors: teenage smoking usually begin between 6th and 7th grade, more likely to smoke if parents or friends smoke -individual factors (e.g cognitive development) 1) decision making capacity 2) ability to plan --emotional/social network develops earlier than cognitive control network (prefrontal cortex) --illusion of invincibility. Erikson's view: risk behavior is an attempt to establish an identity. Negative identity might be reinforced by support from peers.

List and define the four categories of peer acceptance. Can you think of someone from when you were a child who falls into each of these categories?

Likability, or the extent to which a child is viewed by a group of agemates as a worthy social partner. neglet popular rejected controversial

How does self concept change in middle childhood? What cognitive changes influence self-concept? What are social comparisons?

More balanced, less all-or-none descriptions • Social comparisons • Ideal and real self • Describe self by competencies vs. specific behaviors. • Me-self as personal sense of self • I-self as observing self in a more detached way as through the eyes of others • Reference social groups • Cultural variations

1. What influences moral reasoning? How can we promote moral reasoning?

Parental practices: encourage pro-social behavior. promote: higher education: ability to think critically, take perspectives (diversity exposure), parents.

According to Erikson, what developmental stage occurs during middle childhood?

SCHOOL AGE CHILD: 6 TO 12 YEARS Industry vs. Inferiority - Competence ADOLESCENT: 12 TO 18 YEARS Identity vs. Role Confusion - Fidelity

Briefly describe the role of self-concept in adolescents' search for identity. What factors help adolescents achieve a sense of identity?

Self-concept (how you see yourself) help you build your identity. factors: changes in self-concept, self-esteem, cognitive development, personality, school, communities, peer groups, ethnicity, gender, family.

What influences a child's self-esteem? How does self-esteem typically change during middle childhood? What role does culture play in the development of self-esteem? What about parenting?

Self-esteem is the way individuals think and feel about themselves and how well they do things that are important to them. In children, self-esteem is shaped by what they think and feel about themselves. Their self-esteem is highest when they see themselves as approximating their "ideal" self, the person they would like to be. Children who have high self-esteem have an easier time handling conflicts, resisting negative pressures, and making friends. They laugh and smile more and have a generally optimistic view of the world and their life. Children with low self-esteem have a difficult time dealing with problems, are overly self-critical, and can become passive, withdrawn, and depressed. They may hesitate to try new things, may speak negatively about themselves, are easily frustrated, and often see temporary problems as permanent conditions. They are pessimistic about themselves and their life.

Describe the impact of divorce and blended families on children.

adjustment problems

What are some criticisms of Kohlberg's theory?

applies more to men than women. there is a bias against women. does not address cultural differences dilemmas are unrealistic stage 6? what would be ideal not what it is. individualistic cultures bias

Briefly describe intelligence tests used with children. What types of items are included?

bayley scale cognitive attention to objects language understanding expression motor

What is a clique? A crowd? How do they differ?

clique: 2-12 members (average 5-6). share similar activities crowd: larger than a clique and membership is based on reputation.

List the characteristics of adolescent friendships.

companionship relative lack of conflict intimacy and loyalty (exclusivity, disclosure, sharing, trust) reassurance of worth friends are similar offer opportunities to explore and increase understanding, help deal with stress, positive associations with well-being, provide base for other relationships.

Describe the concrete operational stage of development.

concrete operational stage Piaget's third stage of cognitive development, extending from about 7 to 11 years, during which thought becomes logical, flexible, and organized in its application to concrete information, but the capacity for abstract thinking is not yet present.

According to Piaget, what are the key characteristics of concrete operational thought and how does it differ from preoperational thought? (e.g., decentration, reversibility, classification, seriation, etc.)

conservation- reverse think, classification-can compare two speficic categories, seriation-order items and spatial reasoning- mental representation

Briefly describe the effects of drugs, depression, and delinquency during adolescence.

depression: more likely in adolescence than childhood. girls have higher rates. -due to family factors, poor peer relations -often begins with experiencing a situation in which adolescent feels helpless (learned helplessness) -leads to suicide -low self-esteem, blame themselves delinquency: behavior that has a potential for loss risk markers: factors that represent actual risk for loss (pregnancy, jail) risk factors: factors that contribute to risk (poor parenting) drugs: cancer, health issues, risk taking behavior, depression.

Briefly describe the characteristics, importance, and typical development of romantic relationships during adolescence.

develop from mixed group activities shared by several pairs of boys and girls and then converts into a well defined couple changes in adolescence: -goals change throughout adolescence 1) early: recreation, group activities, shallow intimacy that gradually look for more intimacy -internal working models

How does self-esteem change during adolescence? What factors are important in shaping this trajectory?

evaluate ourselves in new subjects -early adolescence: low due to school transitions but then it rises because you become more independent (you develop a sense of mastery), you feel more in control, you do things for yourself. parenting style-authoritative parents predict self-esteem in adolescence.

When does puberty typically occur for females and males? What are the effects of early and late maturation for girls and boys? How can we explain these effects?

females before males May be more popular with boys. This can make them more popular with other teens, leading to early dating and a more active social life. May have an easier time coping with the stresses of adulthood. These girls have more social experiences. Often do well in sports because of their physical maturity. May seem more attractive to girls because girls usually mature earlier than boys. Are often seen as leaders by other

What is hypothetico-deductive reasoning? Proposition thought?

h: model or method is a proposed description of scientific method. According to it, scientific inquiry proceeds by formulating a hypothesis in a form that could conceivably be falsified by a test on observable data. p: A type of formal operational reasoning involving the ability to evaluate the logic of propositions without referring to real-world circumstances.

What are imaginary audience, personal fable, and illusion of invulnerability? How do these characteristics of adolescent thought influence teen behavior? Illustrate with examples.

i: Adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern. P: Adolescents' inflated opinion of their own importance—a feeling that they are special and unique. illusion:a perception Invul: incapable of being wounded, injured, or harmed. 2 :immune to or proof against attack

How do relationships with parents change during adolescence?

increase conflict during adolescence but is fairly mild. family as arena for exploring autonomic issues conflict: not a big increase renegotiation rather than rupture

What are some of the causes and consequences of obesity in middle childhood? What roles do nature and nurture play in obesity? What types of interventions have the most success?

moving toward a sedentary lifestyle, high diets of meat and high energy food, heredity, parents, insufficent sleep nature is parents and heredity while nuture is lack of physical acitivity family based focusing on weight related behavior

How does IQ vary across ethnicity and socioeconomic status?

not accounted for

Briefly describe the characteristics of friendships in middle childhood. What characteristics do friends typically share?

psychologically based

Briefly describe the development of memory strategies, including rehearsal, organization,

r: A memory strategy that involves repeating information to oneself. O:n Piaget's theory, the internal rearrangement and linking of schemes to create a strongly interconnected cognitive system. In information processing, a memory strategy that involves grouping related items together to improve recall.

1. How might we explain differences in IQ? What is test bias, and how can it be minimized?

take into account standarized english

According to your textbook, what is creativity? What are convergent and divergent thinking? Which type of thinking do most IQ tests measure?

takes new forms as we age. D: only ingredients of creativity c:the whole thing

What are operations? Why have they considered a major turning point in cognitive development?

the performance of some composite cognitive activity; an operation that affects mental contents because it marks the beginning of logical or operational thought. The child is now mature enough to use logical thought or operations

Evaluate Piaget's theory. What did he get right? What did he get wrong?

underestimated the development in young children