Developmental Theories II: Erikson, Piaget, Kohlberg, and Gilligan

Sensorimotor (Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development)

-Ages 0 to 2 -Infants learn to coordinate their sensory input with their motor output

Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (Erikson's Stages of Development)

-Ages 1 to 3 -"Terrible twos" -Independence and self-assertion increase ("I do it!!!") -Corresponds to Freud's "Anal Stage" -Ideally, parents structure environment to foster mastery and avoid excess control

Identity vs Role Confusion (Erikson's Stages of Development)

-Ages 11 to 21 -"Who am I?" -Period of trying on a variety of roles and identities -A DIFFICULT PERIOD with high baseline rates of emotional distress -Problem if you commit but never explore or if you explore but never commit

Formal Operational (Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development)

-Ages 12 to 19 -Development of the capacity for abstract thought and formal-deductive reasoning -Will solve problems systematically and thoroughly -Interest in abstract ideas and process of thinking itself -Reason based on ABSTRACT PRINCIPLES; interested in universal ethical principles -AS FEW AS 30-40% OF WELL-EDUCATED AMERICANS REACH THIS BY THEIR EARLY 20s

Preoperational (Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development)

-Ages 2 to 6 -Ability to mentally represent things in the world that are not currently present -Egocentrism (everything is about them) -Ability to use symbols to represent reality (e.g. play with dolls) -Object permanence is mastered -"Theory of mind" = difficulty distinguishing their own viewpoint from others -Confuse appearance and reality -Confused about causation; as well as intent determining morality

Intimacy vs Isolation (Erikson's Stages of Development)

-Ages 21 to 40 -The ability to develop deep, longlasting, emotionally intimate relationships rather than the need to find and commit to a spouse

Initiative vs Guilt (Erikson's Stages of Development)

-Ages 3 to 5 -Enjoy joining peers/adults in carrying out activities -Begin to see self as a member of a community -Try to emulate a significant person in their life -Sex role identity develops (boys are boys, girls are girls)

Generativity vs Stagnation (Erikson's Stages of Development)

-Ages 40 to 60 -Choice to raise the next generation -Capacity to contribute meaningfully in the world of work

Industry vs Inferiority (Erikson's Stages of Development)

-Ages 5 to 11 -Marked comparison of self to others -Challenge is to establish a sense of competence -Development of self-esteem -Praise EFFORT not ACHIEVEMENT -Want a balance of clear limits and praise/care, as well as a respect for individuality and independence -Corresponds to Freud's "Latent" phase

Concrete Operational (Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development)

-Ages 6 to 12 -Ability to use logic to mentally manipulate objects (e.g. addition/subtraction) -Objects and events under consideration need to have been experienced directly -Can consider more than one attribute of an object at a time -Development of conservation -Declining egocentrism -Play rule-based games (take INTENT into account and punish appropriately)

Integrity vs Despair

-Ages 60 to Death -Review of life with the need to make sense of one's own story and find meaning in it

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development (General)

-Basic unit of cognitive function is the "schema" -Accommodation and assimilation -"Equilibration"

Stage 3: Good-child morality

-Begins around 10 to 11 -Right is determined by LIVING UP TO EXPECTATIONS, having good motives, and being pro-social (rather than individualistic) -Reason to do right is to be a good person and to care for others

Stage 2: Instrumental morality

-Begins around ages 7 to 8 -Right is determined by one's own interest; interest in fairness -Reason for doing right is to serve one's own needs, includes awareness that others have separate needs -NO LONGER dependent on external authority to determine right and wrong

Stage 1: Heteronomous morality

-Begins around the end of preschool -Right is determined by adherence to external rules -Only reason to do right is to avoid punishment

Stage 4: Law-and-order mentality

-Begins between adolescence and early 20s -Right is determined by following THE LAW and helping the society or group as a whole -Reason to do right is to PROMOTE THE RULES OF THE SOCIAL GROUP as a whole (as opposed to relationships between individuals)

Stage 5: Social-contract reasoning

-Begins early adulthood -Right is determined by UPHOLDING UNIVERSAL VALUES AND RIGHTS; awareness that people hold a variety of values and beliefs -Reason to do right is TO ABIDE BY THE SOCIAL CONTRACT THAT PROMOTES EVERYONE'S WELFARE

Trust vs Mistrust (Erikson's Stages of Development)

-Birth to 1 year -Has to learn if world is safe for exploration and play or unpredictable and threatening -If in mistrust, will be unable to let down their guard, follow advice, or have emotionally intimate connections

Carol Gilligan's Critique of Kohlberg

-Kohlberg's original participants were ALL BOYS -A morality of care, with a focus on relationships and individual needs (rather than principles), can also be a key dimension of moral reasoning -Gilligan argued: woman tend to reason more out of a MORALITY OF CARE, and that girls are socialized to be NURTURANT, COMPASSIONATE, and NON-JUDGMENTAL and are RELUCTANT TO JUDGE RIGHT AND WRONG IN ABSOLUTE TERMS -Subsequent research has NOT UPHELD strong gender difference in moral reasoning

Stage 6: Universal Principles

-More an ideal than a reality -Right is determined by FOLLOWING ETHICAL PRINCIPLES THAT WERE SELF-CHOSEN (rather than societal) because they are UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES OF JUSTICE -Principles override law in the case of conflict -Reason to do right is A BELIEF IN THE VALIDITY OF UNIVERSAL MORAL PRINCIPLES (no reference to societal connection)

Schema

A general framework that provides a model for understanding some aspect of the world

Equilibration

Back-and-forth process of experiencing the world and adjusting understanding

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning

Level I: Preconventional -Stage 1: Heteronomous morality -Stage 2: Instrumental morality Level II: Conventional -Stage 3: Good-child morality -Stage 4: Law-and-order mentality Level III: Postconventional or Principled -Stage 5: Social-contract reasoning -Stage 6: Universal Principles

Assimilation

Adding new things to an existing schema

Accommodation

Change the schema

In what stage is object permanence mastered?

Preoperational (ages 2-6)