Diversity Psych Final Exam

discrimination in the healthcare system

- unequal access to healthcare - different treatment by health professionals - fear of discrimination can lead to delayed medical care

overcompensation for concern over appearing prejudice can lead to..

inappropriate behavior such as citing moral credentials, such as number of minority friends

sticky floor

traditionally female jobs do not offer many advancements

hyper-masculinity

- Extreme form of masculine gender expectations - Men are expected to be strong, tough and even violent, not feminine

regressive prejudice

unintended expressions of prejudice by people who are otherwise low in prejudice

shifting standards in the workplace

People are evaluated relative to stereotypic expectations of their group

masculinity, more than femininity, is viewed as something that has to be...

earned (as a result, it can be lost)

Attractiveness has a ... effect on well-bing and life satisfaction

marginal effect

men who violate gender roles punished ... strongly than women

more

executive function/cognitive demands

- Executive function: cognitive processes involved in controlling behavior - Cognitive demands deplete executive function: makes it more difficult to control the effects of prejudice in judgments and behavior

why does personal/group discrimination discrepancy occur?

- A function of the way people process info: group examples more readily come to mind b/c group info is more easily processed than individual info - People use different comparison standards to judge their own vs. group's level of discrimination: people consider their experiences in comparison with own group members, while they compare their whole ingroup's discriminatory experiences to the dominant group - people are motivated to minimize/deny personal experiences with discrimination b/c they may feel responsible for any poor treatment they receive, deny discrimination to justify not taking action against unfair treatment, view their own situation as relatively harmless compared to others, or not want to acknowledge they do not fit in with social group

normalization of intergroup aggression motivation for hate crimes

- Accepts behaviors that facilitate hate crimes - does not strongly condemn behavior - does not try to prevent or punish the behavior

Media Portrayal of older adults

- Appear relatively rarely in print media or on television - Are generally portrayed positively in prime-time programming - In news or documentaries, the focus is usually on negative events or problems

communication b/w PWDs and the Nondisabled

- As with older adults, people sometimes infantilize PWDs, modifying language: stems from belief that PWDs need help - Belief is based on good intentions: but PWDs find it patronizing - Can lead to the problem of "over-helping": Can lead to greater dependence and reduced self-confidence - Nondisabled often have little experience with PWDs: created anxiety, uncertainty, both PWDs and Nondisabled feel awkward

awareness of contradiction in their unprejudiced beliefs with their prejudiced behaviors leads people to:

- Ask themselves what caused them to act the way they did - Develop cues which can warn them when they might be about to act in a prejudiced manner · Can use cues to: o Suppress any prejudiced responses o Choose unprejudiced responses to use instead

group dynamics motivation for hate crimes

- Attacks carried out in response to real or perceived peer pressure - Offenders may exhibit little animosity toward victim's group, but also little respect - Many are unwilling participants in the crime: go along with the group to maintain approval of their friends - Sometimes acknowledge the victim was harmed: but tend to minimize their personal responsibility

Discrimination

- Behaving differently toward people based on their membership in a social group - Usually refers to acting in an unfair and demeaning manner toward a disliked group, but also can refer to giving undeserved advantage to a liked group

drawbacks of common social identity method of improving intergroup relations

- Can increase prejudice towards a new common outgroup - Dominant group members might define common ingroup in terms of themselves - Minority group members may resist joining a common identity with the majority group

why are people unwilling to confront discrimination?

- Claiming discrimination has social costs people may prefer to avoid - Dominant groups may view those claiming discrimination as: whiners, taking advantage of discrimination for personal gain

attitudes toward PWDs

- College students' explicit attitudes are generally positive - attitudes vary by type of disability - however, PWD's actual experiences don't match these reported positive attitudes

Group-level strategies for coping with disabilities

- Community or cultural pride: disability culture is alive and well - valuing the disability experience: My disability is a strength - Supporting social change: I am a disability rights activist

important dimensions of stigma

- Concealability: can the stigma be hidden or is it always visible?, ex: sexuality - Origin/controllability: is the onset perceived to be under the control of the stigmatized person?, ex: religion - Course: is the stigma reversible?, ex: weight - Disruptiveness: does the stigma affect interaction or communication?, ex: stutter, physical/mental disabilities - Aesthetic qualities: is the stigma considered to be unattractive?, ex: physical deformity, weight - Peril: is the group stereotyped to be dangerous?, ex: mental illness, muslims

Individual-level strategies for coping with disabilities

- Concealing one's disability status - Minimizing the importance of disability: I am not disabled - Overcoming limitations

hate crimes

- Criminal offenses in which there is evidence that victims were chosen b/c of group membership: race, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, gender, gender identity, or disability - most severe form of discrimination - Usually have no motivation other than attacking a member of a particular group - Perpetrators disproportionately young and male - Hate crimes based on race/ethnicity make up the most amount of hate crimes, next largest is sexual orientation

workplace discrimination

- Employer's policies, practices, or behaviors result in different outcomes for members of different groups - 2 aspects: Employment discrimination at the organization level, and discriminatory behavior by individuals - discrimination can occur in hiring, job performance, and promotions

how do subtypes and intersectionality come into play with stereotype threat hypothesis?

- Employers can create subcategories within stereotypes: some subtypes "fit" better than others, ex: mothers face more discrimination than women in general in workplace - intersectionality: Ethnic groups stereotypes as feminine seen as better fit for "feminine" jobs (such as white women being ballerina's), ethic groups stereotypes as masculine seen as better fit for "masculine" jobs

the effects of self-stereotyping oneself with ageist beliefs

- Endorsing ageist beliefs about oneself can lead to: Stereotype threat affecting performance on memory tests, Higher levels of loneliness and worse subjective health, Shorter life expectancy - Endorsing positive stereotypes can improve older adults self-perceptions and behaviors

how does fear of death and dying impact ageism

- For younger people, fear of death makes aging threatening - Thus, younger people cope with this threat by distancing themselves from older adults

positive subtypes of older adults

- Golden ager (adventurous, healthy, sociable) - Perfect grandparent (kind, loving, generous)

expanded intergroup indirect contact

- Having an ingroup friend who has outgroup friend(s) is associated with lower prejudice - Operates through four interrelated processes: · Reduces intergroup anxiety · Cognitive dissonance · Demonstrated intergroup relationships are permissible · Shows outgroup members are open to such relationships - Effective in reducing many types of prejudices - Has strongest effect for people with little opportunity for intergroup contact - But does not substitute for face-to-face contact

intergroup attitude motivation for hate crime

- Having prejudice attitudes - May be carried out b/c of a person's commitment to a bigoted ideology - But relationship to prejudiced attitudes is not strong: "mission-motivated" hate crimes less than 1% of hate crimes (like I hate people from this group, I want to exterminate them from society)

conformity to perceived norms in the workplace and its influence on discrimination

- Individuals make discriminatory decisions b/c they believe it's consistent with company norms - Ex: black workers put in back of restaurant, white put in front

stigma by association

- Members if the dominant group can receive a courtesy stigma when they associate with members of a stigmatized group: can have neg social consequences - being friends with a stigmatized person can affect how people evaluate you

glass escalator effect

- Men in female dominated professions may find themselves on the fast track to promotion - Majority group men (e.g., white men) most likely to experience glass escalator

Consequences of mental health stigma

- Mental illness is usually concealable and people often choose not to disclose it - Stigma decreases the chances that people who need help will seek treatment

imagined indirect intergroup contact

- Mentally practicing having an interaction with an outgroup member associated with prejudice reduction - Mentally practicing a "positive, relaxed, and comfortable" first meeting with an outgroup member: · Rehearsal plays a key role in self-regulation of emotions and planning of behavior · Allows people to develop a script for the interaction - Reduces: · Negative intergroup emotions · Physiological arousal in response to intergroup contact - Increases perspective-taking

what is high disability identification associated with?

- More likely to use group-level strategies - Less likely to use individual-level strategies - Related to higher personal and collective self-esteem

thrill-seeking motivation for hate crimes

- Most common motivation - Committing crime out of a desire for excitement or an antidote for boredom - Lack of respect (more than animosity) might be the emotional facilitator - choose easy and safe targets - Justify action by minimizing crime's impact ("harmless fun")

workplace discrimination for older adults

- Most common type of economic discrimination against older people - The case is particularly negative for older workers who lose their jobs: they often have difficulty securing a new one and often take a greater earnings loss than younger workers in the same situation - Workplace discrimination is rooted in inaccurate beliefs: People over 55 are unable to meet the physical demands of the workplace, High rates of absenteeism, Productivity declines with age - evidence has failed to support any of these claims

Interpersonal discrimination

- One person treating another differently b/c of the person's group membership - Modest correlations b/w prejudiced attitudes and discrimination

reaction to confrontation about prejudiced behavior

- People tend to feel threatened when confronted for prejudiced/discriminatory behavior - low prejudiced = high guilt - high prejudices = anger - discomfort and guilt can lead to motivation to reaffirm unprejudiced image, also to change --> more of a self-focus rather than focus on group they have harmed, this motivation doesn't always lead to actual change

Why are some diversity training programs ineffective?

- People with pre-existing positive attitudes dilute overall results - Resistance on the part of trainees: Change creates anxiety, Pressure to change may cause boomerang effect, Training may be seen as irrelevant o Poorly conducted training: - Trainers selected on basis of group memberships, not expertise - Training not grounded in research - Training is too short

stereotype fit hypothesis

- Perceptions of fit influence perceptions of suitability for managerial jobs - If the stereotype of a person's group does not fit the skills/characteristics associated with the job, they are less likely to get the job - characteristics associated with effective managers are similar to cultural stereotypes of men and different from cultural stereotypes of women, so men seen as more fit for the job - can also explain racial/ethnic group differences: whites and asians perceived as better managerial fits than blacks and latinos (effects extend to lower level jobs as well)

defense of the intergroup motivation for hate crimes

- Perpetrators see themselves as protecting their group's territory from invasion by outsiders - goals: coerce outsiders into leaving, vicarious retribution (revenge for real or rumored attack on ingroup, targets any available member of the outgroup), send message that members of the victim's group are not wanted in the offender's neighborhood

coping with stigma by psychological disengagement

- Psychological disengagement: defensive detachment of self-esteem from outcomes in a particular domain - feelings of self-worth are not dependent on successes or failures in that domain - can result in distancing of self from areas in which group expected to perform poorly

reactions of ingroups members towards claims of discrimination towards one of their own

- Reactions can depend on strength of evidence of discrimination - Tend to be more supportive when there's stronger evidence - When evidence isn't very strong, people can face backlash from ingroup

minority stress model

- Situational factors unrelated to group membership are sources of general stress that affect well-being, ex: job loss, illness - Minorities experience additional stressors: chronic experience of prejudice or major individual incidences of prejudice can produce chronic stress associated with disease

internal motivation

- Stems from a personal belief that prejudice is wrong - associated with lower prejudice - Exposure to members of outgroups implicitly reminds people of their commitment to egalitarianism - Even if prejudiced association are activated: people high in internal motivation are more likely to recognize conflict b/w value systems and prejudices - comes from: Parental emphasis on egalitarian values, for white people, pos contact with racial minority group members during childhood

accuracy of gender-associated beliefs

- Stereotypic beliefs generally mirror the characteristics that women and men describe as their own traits - People are relatively accurate at estimating average differences "between" groups - People underestimate variability "within" genders

employment audit

- Technique to study discrimination - Members of 2 groups are matched on appearance, education, and relevant experience - Then sent to apply for the same job - Black people less likely to get called back - Discrimination did not improve over time

why is anti-fat bias socially acceptable?

- The attribution-value model was developed to explain anti-fate prejudice - · b/c people believe being fat is a choice, they derogate the overweight - no legal protections for this group, people often openly derogate the group

"women are wonderful" effect

- The basic category "woman" is viewed more positively than the basic category "man" - Women are viewed positively but still experience discrimination

control over behavior

- To avoid responding in a certain way, people must have control over their behavior - Prejudice may "leak out" through nonverbal behavior when trying to control its effects on behavior

role congruity theory

- Two types of prejudice prevent women from pursing high-level positions: belief that women are less likely than men to be successful in leadership roles (prevents women from seeking and being selected for high-level jobs) and that female leaders violate expectations about what leaders should be like and what women should be like

intergroup contact theory

- Under the proper conditions, interaction b/w ingroup and outgroup members leads to pos change - need: 1. Equal status b/w groups a. Not good to have doctor patient, teacher student, etc à not optimal b/c not equal status 2. Cooperation in achieving common goals 3. Acquaintance potential (ideally friendship) a. Not just about sharing same space with other people, should have opportunity to get to know each other better on personal level when interacting as individuals 4. Institutional support a. You need to believe that authorities think that prejudice is wrong and needs to be changed

Four areas in which discrimination against older adults is particularly acute:

- Under-representation in the media - Discrimination in the workplace - Language people use in conversation with older people (baby talk) - Treatment of older adults in the health care system

Covert discrimination

- Unequal and harmful treatment that is hidden, purposeful, and often maliciously motivated - behavior that attempts to assure failure in certain situations

effects on victims of hate crimes

- Victims suffer more severe psychological consequences: lasts longer compared to victims of similar crimes not motivated by bias - Feelings of control and ability to prevent future victimization can help victims cope, but victims of hate crimes less likely to feel ability to prevent future attacks - Secondary victimization: hate crimes have effects on members of the victim group --> even if not themselves victims of hate crime, can reduce intergroup harmony and trust

3 perceptual tendencies that affect tokens

- Visibility: tokens capture awareness b/c of their uniqueness - Contrast: differences b/w token and dominant group are exaggerated - Assimilation: members of dominant group distort token's characteristics to fit the stereotype

in a study examining interactions b/w black and white students, white students who were motivated to avoid prejudice compared to unmotivated white students:

- Were better liked by Black interaction partners - Enjoyed the interaction less - Felt more anxious - Maybe due to: The effort required to control responses, Students' concern about the success of their efforts

how are ethnic groups ranked in regard to inferiority and cultural foreigness?

- White americans most likely to be perceived as both superior and American in a stereotypical sense - Black americans and native americans were often treated as inferior but American (not foreign) - Asian americans were stereotypes as superior but foreign - Latinx and arab americans stereotypes as being both foreign and inferior

the double standard of aging

- Women are believed to enter middle and old age about 2 years earlier than men - Perceived physical attractiveness declines with age for men and women, but the decline is seen as greater for women - Women are more likely to conceal signs of aging

how have stereotypes changed and stayed the same over time?

- Women seen as having more agentic characteristics today than 20 years ago - however, women's association with communal traits have not changed, and men's association with both agentic and non-association with communal traits haven't changed

Group differences in Promotion

- Women, despite pos performance ratings: are rated as having less promotional potential, wait longer for promotion, need higher performance ratings to be promoted, receive fewer promotions the higher they move within organizational structure - racial minority workers are: less likely to be promoted, wait longer for promotions

how do young people often communicate with older adults

- Younger people often use patronizing speech when interacting with older adults - patronizing speech: change in conversational strategies to reflect age stereotypes: simplifying one's speech, using a demeaning emotional tone, keeping the conversation at a superficial level -

Stigma

- an attribute that extensively discredits an individual, reducing him or her from a whole and usual person to a tainted, discounted one - dominant group has power to define who is stigmatized

Common, inaccurate stereotypes of bisexual men and women

- bisexuality is transitory or curiosity rather than distinct sexual orientation - bisexual people are gay but in denial and afraid to come out, sexually promiscuous, confused - heterosexual people, gay men, and lesbian women all hold negative attitudes toward bisexuality, but heterosexual people hold most neg attitudes

how can stereotype threats be reduced?

- by providing individuating information that sets you apart from just a member of your group - effect may be fading over time

how does concealment and disclosure of sexual orientation impact a person?

- concealment is sometimes (although not always) harmful - disclosure is sometimes (not always) beneficial

what dimensions of stigma are desires for social distance correlated with?

- disruptive, aesthetically unappealing, onset controllable, perilous (not visibility or course)

moderators of stereotype threat

- domain identification: most people most vulnerable for experiencing stereotype threat when they care about the domain the most , ex: women who is math major more concerned about stereotypes that women are bad at math, more vulnerable - group identification: the stronger you are associated with your social group, the more likely you are to fall victim to stereotype threat

ageism

- evaluative judgments about someone simply due to their age - linked to broader cultural devaluation of old people

rejection identification model

- experiences of rejection/discrimination lead to stronger identification with the stigmatized group and less impact on self-esteem - Perceived discrimination, if no coping (not increasing group identification), then leads to lower self-esteem

How to improve women's chances for success

- expose girls to role models - Teach girls about gender-based occupational discrimination - let women know they can speak out against gender bias

stereotypes of lesbian women and gay men

- gay men stereotypes as possessing feminine traits - lesbian women stereotyped as possessing masculine traits - gay men are rated as more similar to heterosexual women than to heterosexual men: especially on physical characteristics and social roles - lesbian women are seen as more similar to heterosexual men than to heterosexual women

gender differences in anti-gay prejudice

- heterosexual men more intolerant than heterosexual women - men show a higher intolerance for gay men than for lesbian women - men and women held similar attitudes towards lesbian women

Self-affirmation intervention for stereotype threat

- if members of the minority group undergo self-affirmation excersizes reminding themselves of their own self-worth and abilities, then they will be less likely to feel stereotype threat and will perform better (african american students) - self-affirmation did not impact white students performance

How perceived discrimination can impact mental and physical health

- if someone has low social support, strong stigma identification, and bad coping styles, perceived discrimination can lead to both a heightened stress response and unhealthy behaviors (alcohol, eating too much, etc) that can impact mental and physical health - if you have healthy coping mechanisms and strong social support, might not have such negative impacts on health - mental health: depression, anxiety, poor well-being - physical health: cardiovascular disease, cancer

attitude-behavior correspondence

- implicit prejudice predicts automatic behaviors - explicit prejudice predict deliberative behaviors

external motivations

- is a result of social pressure - associated with higher prejudice - feel pressured to appear unprejudiced: feel irritated and resentful as a result, these negative emotions are expressed as prejudice

Key features of Stereotype Threat

- it can affect everyone, even high status groups - stems from situational pressures, not internalization of the stereotype - reduces working memory capacity - most likely to occur when tasks are difficult or frustrating

college women with higher BMIs report:

- less financial support from parents, especially if parents are conservative - this effect is not seen for men

hostile sexism

- negative beliefs about women - punishes nontraditional women - thoughts of man with hostile sexism: most women interpret innocent remarks or acts as being sexist, women are too easily offended

job performance ratings and discrimination

- overall, gender is not related to job performance ratings - White employees generally receive better job performance evaluations b/c evaluations are biased and discrimination affects racial minorities job performance - Low opportunities effect: chilly climate, micro-aggression - Minority workers who perceive a pos diversity climate perform at a higher level

stigma by mere proximity study

- participants evaluate a male job applicant - viewed photo of him seated next to a thin or fat woman - man rated as less likable, less professional, and less recommended for the job when he was seated next to fat woman compared to thin - didn't matter if they were told he knew the overweight woman are not

forgetfulness stereotype of ageism

- people believe memory declines with age, starting around 40 - not all memory failures are seen as equally serious: younger people saw identical acts of forgetfulness are more serious for 70-yr-olds than for 30-yr-olds, while older people saw little difference in seriousness based on age

gender polarization

- people believe what is masculine is not feminine and what is feminine is not masculine - person who is masculine (or feminine) on one trait is seen as masculine (or feminine) on other characteristics

disability

- physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities of an individual, a record of such an impairment, or being regarded as having such an impairment - disability is a social construct

transgender children similar to cisgender children on their expressed gender on:

- preference for gendered toys - gender identity (both implicit and explicit) - preference for same-gender playmates

4 perspectives of how to fix prejudice

- racial color-blindness - assimilation - multiculturalism - polyculturalism

negative subtypes of older adults

- severely impaired (senile, shakey, incompetent) - shrew/curmudgeon (stubborn, bitter, complaining)

stereotype threat

- situational predicament in which people feel themselves to be at risk for confirming a negative stereotype - evidence that stereotype threat interferes with task performance - especially likely in achievement settings - any group that experiences a neg stereotype can experience this

Aspects of Group Identity

- solidarity: I feel solidarity with black people - centrality: I often think about the fact that I'm black - ingroup homogeneity: black people have a lot in common with each other - self-stereotyping: I have a lot in common with the average black person - satisfaction: it is pleasant to be black

effects of sexual stigma on relationship functioning in the LGBTQ community

- stigma had a neg impact on passion, satisfaction, intimacy, social support, commitment, trust, and strain - effects of internalized stigma (internalizing neg attitudes of others) are stronger than perceived stigma - effects present for men and women - regional differences: effects were stronger in south and midwest than northeast and west coast

effects of stigma on self-esteem (how each group ranks on self-esteem)

- stigmatized groups do not always have lower self-esteem - in US, black people have higher self-esteem than white people - Latino/as and Asian americans have lower self-esteem than black and white people, but may be due to cultural differences, not stigma - stigma doesn't have a straightforward effect on self-esteem due to different coping strategies

benevolent sexism

- subjectively positive beliefs that reward women for conforming to traditional gender roles - ex: no matter how accomplished he is, a man is not truly complete as a person unless he has the love of a woman (intimacy) - many women have a quality of purity that few men possess (gender differentiation)

what is one of the most common stereotypes for older adults concerning healthcare?

- that illness is normal and irreversibly - healthcare providers just as likely to hold this belief as the general pop - these beliefs may affect the care older adults receive, but research is mixed on that

people are more likely to recognize discrimination if:

- the behavior comes from an outgroup - It occurs in a context where they are negatively stereotyped - It is not masked by humor or flattery - they are highly identified with their group (there are many protective benefits of group identity) - they are high in stigma consciousness

fear of invalidity

- the extent to which a person is concerned with the cost of committing errors - "I can be reluctant to commit myself to something b/c of the possibility that I might be wrong" - this fear is uniquely related to prejudice against bisexual and transgender people, not gay men and lesbian women

stigma consciousness

- the extent to which people expect to be stereotyped - People high in stigma consciousness more likely to perceive discrimination in ambiguous situations - Associated with higher levels of depression, poorer academic outcomes

ambivalent sexism theory

- there exists both benevolent and hostile sexism towards women that can negatively impact them - Most people high on benevolent sexism are also high on hostile sexism - Women endorse benevolent sexism in some contexts, but don't endorse hostile sexism

tokenism

- token status occurs when there is a majority of one group over another, and only a few members from the "other" group are represented - actions of tokens are seen as representative of the entire group - tokens may feel isolated but often feel they must ignore differences and not let them affect their work - can lead to a chilly climate: tokens not feel welcome or supported in the environment

factors influencing reaction to confrontation

- type of bias (gender, race, etc) - person doing the confronting (ingroup vs. outgroup member): people tend to respond more positively when its ingroup doing the confronting, when outgroup confronts, they are seen as being self-interested

coping with stigma by behavioral compensation

- when people expect to be discriminated against, can compensate by changing behavior to disconfirm stereotype, ex: someone working extra hard to disconfirm stigma - members of stigmatized groups must overcome added burdens - As levels of prejudice increase, higher levels of compensation are required - Ability to compensate depends on: demands of the situation and acquiring skills needed to compensate

Spencer and Colleagues Performance and Stereotype Threat study

- when women and men are reminded that no gender differences exist b/w ability to do math before they do a math test, they do the same - when they were primed with gender difference, men do better than women (women's score decrease and men's score increases)

how does intergroup contact change attitudes?

3 important processes: personalization, attitudes generalization, common social identity

at what age is age-based discrimination illegal?

40

moral credentials

Acting in a non-prejudiced way can establish moral credentials: behavior indicates that the person is not prejudiced, reinforces person's own beliefs that this is true, reduced concern that future behavior will be seen as prejudiced, stops trying so hard to reduce prejudice

disinhibitors

Factors can reduce motivation to control expressions of prejudice, they include: anonymity (like in a crowd), strong emotions, alcohol consumption, implied approval of authority figure, other people's behavior (if everyone else is doing it, you can too)

historic limitations of stigma/disability research

Historically, research has: - Focused on those with visible impairments that are relatively permanent - Based findings primarily on self-reports - Employed confederates to gauge people's reactions to PWDs: but they often aren't disabled themselves - Focused on one-time interactions

"labyrinth" metaphor over glass ceiling

Paths to the top exist, but can be difficult to discover or circuitous for women compared to an easy straight path for men

personal stereotypes

People discriminate more against group members that fit personal stereotypes

Perceived social support

People discriminate more when they think social norms support it

motivation to control prejudice

People will sometimes feel an impulse to behave in a prejudice way but will restrain their behavior

personal/group discrimination discrepancy (PGDD)

People's belief that their group, as a whole, is more likely to be discriminated against than they, themselves, are as individuals

valueing diversity

Programs that aim to establish quality interpersonal relationships through: understanding, respecting, and valueing differences among groups

racial position model

Racial/ethnic minority groups within the U.S. are perceived along 2 dimensions: inferiority & cultural foreignness

how can expectations about roles with certain jobs affect career paths for women

STEM careers are seen as agentic and women want careers that require communal traits - women more interested in STEM careers when it is framed as affording communal goals

Micro-aggressions

Small-scale, everyday behaviors that demean other social groups or members of those groups, behavior can be verbal or nonverbal

Subtle discrimination

Unequal and harmful treatment that is internalized as normal, natural, or customary typically less visible and obvious, often goes unnoticed

Blatant discrimination

Unequal and harmful treatment that is typically intentional and quite visible

contemporary prejudice in the workplace

Workplace microaggressions, "subtle" prejudice

3 kinds of workplace interventions

affirmative action, valuing diversity, managing diversity

glass ceiling

an invisible barrier that prevents women from reaching the highest levels

how does heteronormative culture view sexuality?

as a dichotomy: a person is viewed as either gay OR straight, bisexual and pansexual people challenge this view

how does heteronormative culture view gender?

as discrete and unambiguous

why does regressive prejudice occur?

b/c controlling prejudiced responses requires attention and mental resources, when these resources are reduced, people regress from controlling prejudice to expressing it

prescriptive stereotypes

beliefs about the traits that a certain group should have

Knowledge of Stereotypes intervention for stereotype threat

by teaching people about stereotype threat and stereotypes, you can reduce stereotype threat

agentic traits

competence cluster that represent men's traits - eg: independent, strong, and self-confident

the stigma of the disability depends on whether the disability is:

concealable, aesthetically appealing, controllable, perceived as dangerous

influencing factors of regressive prejudice

control over behavior, executive function/cognitive demands, disinhibitors, moral credentials

prejudice towards transgender people predicted by:

education, gender, conservatism, religiousity, RWA, attitudes towards gay people, gender binary beliefs ("there is not enough respect for natural divisions between the sexes")

stereotype lift

enhanced performance due to a positive stereotyp

elderspeak

extreme patronizing talk; the tendency to use baby talk in conversations with older people: higher pitched voice, slow speech rate, shorter utterances

why do some sexual minority people choose to conceal their sexual identity?

fear of social rejection, loss of employment, or physical violence

Role model intervention for stereotype threat

if a member of a social group is shown a real-life example of an ingroup member that is defying stereotypes and is successful, then stereotype threat will impact that person less - person will behave not according to their stereotypes

when could you use colorblindness?

in high conflict situations

Motivations for Hate Crimes

intergroup attitudes, thrill-seeking, defense of the ingroup, group dynamics, normalization of intergroup aggression

when evaluating others, people distinguish between...

liking and respect, housewives are liked and businessmen are respected

is there a relationship b/w hiring and gender discrimination?

little evidence of gender discrimination at hiring stage, exception is pregnant women

3 forms of indirect contact that could improve intergroup attitudes

media contact (pos portrayals of outgroups in media), expanded contact, imagined contact

why are there racial/ethnic differences in promotion?

minority managers: often supervise minority employees who are found in lower organization levels, are tracked into jobs that have fewer promotion opportunities, have less influential mentors, and receive less pos narrative reviews

people who endorse traditional gender roles are more likely to have...

negative attitudes toward sexual minorities

the stigma of being overweight is..

not concealable, perceived as controllable

problems with multiculturalism

o Associated with stronger perceptions of group differences and stereotyping o White people can be resistant to multiculturalism if they feel excluded by it - This problem can be fixed by creating a multiculturalism that is inclusive of the dominant culture - Sometimes white people think that multiculturalism is saying we need to value minority cultures but can't value European cultures o Can be used as a moral credential to dismiss allegations of prejudice - Same thing with color-blindess - If an organization strongly endorses this, if someone comes forward with discrimination claim, organization might say no that's not true we value multiculturalism

effects of affirmative actions on intergroup attitudes

o Dominant groups may hold negative attitudes toward beneficiaries of affirmative action: - These attitudes can generalize to entire outgroups o But other research finds more positive intergroup attitudes in organizations that use affirmative action

problems with colorblindness

o Inconsistent with people's inability to ignore basic social categories o Suppression can have rebound effects - Making you notice thoughts even more o Can desensitize majority-group members to racial bias o Makes majority-group members less willing to mention race: - Based on concerns about appearing to be prejudices

physically attractive people more likely to have:

o More friends o Better social skills o A more active sex life o Economic advantages

Limiting factors of intergroup contact

o Pre-existing intergroup attitudes - May not be effective for people already low or very high in prejudice o Intergroup anxiety: - People high in intergroup anxiety are more likely to avoid contact with members of outgroups o Normative climate outside the contact situation - Might have very pos experiences with people in a certain context, but your living in a dif context, may not have big effect

disability porn

objectifying people with a disability, making them look so heroic for overcoming their disability instead of seeing them as a person

external discrimination stressors

objective events which a stigmatized group member may or may not identify as acts of discrimination, ex: micro-aggressions, bullying, violence

benevolent ageism

older adults are thought to be kind, but also in need of care

coping by group identification

people can cope with discrimination by increasing their identification with stigmatized grop

Stereotypes of PWDs

people with disabilities are often perceived as asexual

factors that influence the prejudice/discrimination relationship

personal stereotypes, attitude-behavior correspondence, perceived social support, and motivation to control prejudice

attitudes towards lesbian women and gay men

public opinion of gay men and lesbian women is rapidly changing: clear shift toward greater acceptance, does not necessarily translate toward acceptance of gays and lesbian women as individuals

how do men feel in women-dominated professions?

rarely have neg experiences like women do in male dominated professions

stereotype content model for older adults

seen as low in competence, but high on warmth

psychological processes that lead to discrimination in the workplace

shifting standards, contemporary prejudice, conformity to perceived norms, and stereotype fit hypothesis

internal discrimination stressors

stigmatized group members' expectation that they will be rejected b/c of group membership, ex: vigilance for threats, etc - external and internal stressors are interdependent

Rejection ID model

tested how associations with various aspects of group identity influenced a group member's rating on life satisfaction after being exposed to a perceived discrimination

Sexual Orientation Hypothesis

the prediction that people are more likely to believe feminine men are gay than to believe that masculine women are lesbian

communal traits

warmth-expressive cluster that represents women's trait - e.g., emotional, helpful, and kind

when do women tend to endorse benevolent sexism more strongly?

when there is greater gender inequality in their country b/c it provides them some protection and security

Stereotypes about people with mental illness

withdrawn, depressed, tense, unpredictable, dangerous, aggressive

people are more accepting of gay and lesbian men and women if:

younger, education, female, less conservative, lower RWA

anti-fat bias

· A negative attitude toward, belief about, or behavior against people perceived as being overweight · Stereotypes of fat people include being: Lazy, sloppy, unattractive, unhappy, sad, powerless

stereotype suppression

· Attempt to push unwanted thoughts out of mind and replace them with more acceptable thoughts · Technique is effective in the short-run: While focusing on suppressing the unwanted thought · Rebound effect: Enhanced return of suppressed thoughts that follow an attempt to suppress

perceptions of physical attractivness

· Attractiveness is perceived to be more important for girls and women than boys and men · Older people's physical appearance is judged harshly · Negative associations between age and physical appearance are stronger for women than men · Perceptions of physical attractiveness also racialized, people of color held to Eurocentric standards

polyculturalism

· Different cultural groups impact one another, even if members of those groups are not completely aware of the impact · Holds that there is no such thing as pure culture: o People of all cultures are interconnected by history and mutual interaction and influence · Appreciation for interconnectedness leads to understanding of and respect for all cultures · Has negative correlation with prejudice

self-regulation model

· Having acted in a prejudiced manner: o Sensitizes people who see themselves as unprejudiced to cues for future unwanted self-behavior o These cues warn them when they might respond in a prejudiced manner o Warning allows them to avoid prejudices behavior and act appropriately in the future · Awareness of contradiction is important: o People do not always realize their behavior contradicts their beliefs - Self-regulation of prejudice can become automatic over time - affirming counter-stereotypes has even larger effect

multiculturalism

· Hold that race and ethnicity should be given attention rather than ignored · Based on belief that prejudice develops from a lack of knowledge about and respect for other groups · Negatively correlated with prejudice - low in prejudice more likely to endorse multiculturalism

Types of changes produced Intergroup contact produces

· Increases: o Knowledge about outgroups o Empathy for outgroup o Interest in other cultures o Motivation to control prejudice · Reduced: o Stereotyping o Expectations that intergroup interaction will have negative outcomes o Perceptions of intergroup threat o Intergroup anxiety

common social identity

· Ingroup and outgroup members recategorize themselves into a single group that shares a common identity - Is effective in improving intergroup relations

why is prejudice resistant to change?

· Intergroup attitudes and prejudices are resistant to change b/c they: Are often rooted in values and beliefs important to the person, Involve the person's social and personal identities, Are reinforced by a social network of family and friends

personalization

· Intergroup contact reduced prejudice by leading people to see members of the outgroup as individuals · Makes group categories less useful as a source of information about individuals · Intergroup contact should be structured to emphasize similarities · Shortcoming - increased liking may not generalize to entire outgroup

why might minority members be resistant to joining a common identity with the majority group?

· May believe that doing so required them to give up current valuded identity · Resistance greater for people who" o Strongly identify with their groups Feel pressured to join the common identity - Dual identity as possible solution: o Retain valued current identity while taking on higher-order common identity

how might one regulate the rebound effect?

· Might not occur if person is low in prejudice · Some norms proscribe certain prejudices and could reduce rebound effects: o But people must have enough cognitive resources available · People from collectivist cultures may be less prone to rebound effect: o May have more practice at suppressing unwanted thoughts of all types · All these suggest idea that increased suppression practice over time in the long run might lead people to be more successful

Assimilation

· Minority groups should give up their own cultures and replace them with majority culture o If everyone has the same culture, then group differences and prejudice will appear · Implicit assumption à minorities should adapt to white, middle-class culture · Positively correlated with prejudice; perceived by minority groups as prejudices

colorblindness

· People should ignore racial and ethnic group membership, acting as if these distinctions do not exist - Appeals to value of individualism (treating people as individuals, not as group members)

stereotype rebound

· People who suppress stereotypes later show: - More use of suppressed stereotype - Stereotype comes to mind more easily - Greater desire to avoid member of stereotyped group - Better memory for stereotype - Decreased memory for individuating information - Greater use of stereotypes in general

attitude generalization

· Positive attitudes generated by contact will generalize to the group only if the outgroup members are seen as typical of their group · Categories must remain salient for generalization to occur · Attitude generalization required intergroup contact situation to balance competing processes: o Outgroup members must be seen as non-stereotypical terms o But must also perceived as typical of their group

why do stereotypes rebound?

· Priming - to be able to keep unwanted thoughts suppressed, must be aware of those thoughts: Unwanted thoughts are more readily available when suppression is lifted · Cognitive effort - suppressing stereotype depletes cognitive resources needed to control it · Motivation - suppression of stereotype creates a desire to use it

managing diversity in organizations

· Programs aimed at analyzing and changing organizational systems to create an environment appropriate for utilization of a diverse workforce · Focus on changing politics and procedures not just intergroup attitudes and behaviors · Two mains thrusts: o Making organizational systems more responsive to needs of women and minority groups: -Targeting groups for recruitment - Provide training for success o Changing organizational culture to create climate where diversity is normative and valued: - Making diversity compliance part of performance reviews - making people accountable - For women, provide spaces for like pumping breast-milk

affirmative action

· Programs designed to combat discrimination and provide equal opportunity in employment · Not intended to reduce prejudice or improve intergroup relations - focuses on creation of a diverse workforce

stigmatizing obesity as a public health tool

· Some health policy scholars have explicitly advocated for stigma · Assumptions: Stigmatizing and shaming excess weight motivates healthy behavior among the overweight people, Stigma is "for their own good" and justified · Some evidence, that stigmatizing obesity tends to backfire and make it more likely that people will gain weight

social consequences of anti-fat bias

· obese people are more likely to experience depression and low self-esteem · experiences of anti-fate prejudice is linked to eating disorders and obesity · overweight people report experiences of employment discrimination, earn lower salaries