E.1.2 Use convention of standard english punctuation
objective
demonstrate knowledge of sentence punctuation pattern use a comma to clarify meaning use direct and indirect quotations following standard english rules use end marks to clarify meaning
Comma: Interrupters or Parenthetical Elements
*Interrupters* are little thoughts that pop up in the middle of a sentence to show emotion, tone, or emphasis. *A parenthetical element* is a phrase that adds extra information to the sentence but could be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence. Both interrupters and parenthetical elements should be set off with commas. The weather I was happy to see was beginning to clear.(wrong) The weather,,,, I was happy to see,,,, was beginning to clear.(correct) Geoff's cooking skills if you can call them skills left something to be desired.(wrong) Geoff's cooking skills,,,, if you can call them skills,,, left something to be desired.(correct) It was sadly the last day of camp.(wrong) It was,,, sadly,,,, the last day of camp.(correct) Mary unlike Anne is very organized.(wrong) Mary,,,, unlike Anne,,,, is very organized.(correct)
slash: and or
*and* The slash sometimes serves as shorthand for and, as in: He is enrolling in the JD/MBA program at Harvard. *or* The slash sometimes serves as shorthand for or, as in: Each guest must present his/her ticket prior to entry. Once the new president is elected, he/she will have little time to waste. The deficit reduction will be achieved by spending cuts and/or tax increases.
Comma: Between Two Nouns in a Compound Subject or Object
-Don't separate two nouns that appear together as a compound subject or compound object. EX : Cleo, and her band will be playing at Dockside Diner next Friday. (wrong) Cleo and her band will be playing at Dockside Diner next Friday.(correct) Cleo will wear a sparkly red blazer, and high heels.(wrong) Cleo will wear a sparkly red blazer and high heels.(correct) When a subject or object is made up of two items and the second item is parenthetical, you can set off the second item with commas—one before it and one after it. But you don't need a comma when you're simply listing two items.
For most singular nouns, *add apostrophe+s:*
-The dog's leash -The writer's desk -The planet's atmosphere
For most plural nouns, add only an apostrophe:
-The dogs' leashes (multiple dogs) -The writers' desks (multiple writers) -The planets' atmospheres (multiple planets)
double quotation marks: to set off a direct (word-for-word) quotation.
Correct: "I hope you will be here," he said. Incorrect: He said that he "hoped I would be there." (The quotation marks are incorrect because hoped I would be there does not state the speaker's exact words.)
Periods and commas ALWAYS go inside quotation marks.
Examples: The sign said, "Walk." Then it said, "Don't Walk," then, "Walk," all within thirty seconds. He yelled, "Hurry up."
How Many Dots?
How many dots are in an ellipsis? The answer is three. But, if the ellipsis comes immediately after a grammatically complete sentence, that sentence still needs its own period. So you would end up with a period, plus an ellipsis, which looks like four periods in a row. For instance: "Call me Jonah. My parents did, or nearly did. They called me John." might be shortened to: "Call me Jonah. . . . They called me John."
Hyphen: Compound Words
Hyphenated compound words are the ones (obviously) with a hyphen between the words. Over time, many hyphenated compounds become closed compounds—teen-ager became teenager for instance. Check a dictionary if you're not sure whether to use a hyphen or not. Here are a few examples of common hyphenated compound words: Mother-in-law Master-at-arms Editor-in-chief Ten-year-old Factory-made Twelve-pack
Comma: Inside Quotation Marks
In American English, commas always go before closing quotation marks. "Pass me that thesaurus,,,,," said Matthew. "If you knew what was good for you, you'd sit down and finish that essay right now,,,,," my roommate said. "We're going down to the soup kitchen to help serve dinner,,,," her mother called. (correct) In British English, however, the convention is the opposite. If you are writing for a British audience, put the comma after the closing quotation mark.
Hyphen: Numbers
Numbers between twenty-one and ninety-nine should be hyphenated when they're spelled out. Fifty-six bottles of pop on the wall, fifty-six bottles of pop... No, I won't party "like it's nineteen ninety-nine." I've got a hundred and twenty-two of these gizmos to sell.
slash: To Form Abbreviations
Slashes can also be used to form some abbreviations or shortened forms of words or phrases, although these shouldn't be used in formal writing. w/o = without w/ = with c/o = care of (used when posting a letter or parcel) a/c = air conditioning Notice that in these cases, no space is necessary after the slash.
Semicolons: Serial List
You can use semicolons to divide the items of a list if the items are long or contain internal punctuation. In these cases, the semicolon helps readers keep track of the divisions between the items. I need the weather statistics for the following cities: London, England; London, Ontario; Paris, France; Paris, Ontario; Perth, Scotland; Perth, Ontario. My plan included taking him to a nice—though not necessarily expensive—dinner; going to the park to look at the stars, which, by the way, are amazing this time of year; and serenading him with my accordion. Let's recap: so far we've got semicolons for linking two independent clauses; replacing a conjunction (whether showing similarity, like "and," or opposition, like "but"); and long, comma-loving lists. Yup, that was one now.
Shorter Works
The first poem in the book is called "Athena's Birth." Here's an anthology: find the story called "The Sky and the Sea."
Comma: a Question Tag
A question tag is a short phrase or even a single word that is added to the end of a statement to turn it into a question. Writers often use question tags to encourage readers to agree with them. A question tag should be preceded by a comma. These willow trees are beautiful, aren't they? You didn't actually write a 600-page vampire romance novel, did you? I know, right?
period : If a sentence otherwise ends with a question mark or exclamation point, the period is omitted.
Correct: I've never seen Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? Incorrect: I've never seen Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?. Correct: He used to work at Yahoo! Incorrect: He used to work at Yahoo!.
period : at the end of a complete sentence that is a statement.
I know him well.
Hyphen: Compound Expression With a Noun and Past Participle
Compound modifiers that contain a past participle also follow the same rules as any other compound modifier. Use a hyphen when the compound goes before the verb it modifies: The municipal government is funding a community-based education system. Wind-powered generators can be excellent sources of electricity. Many veterinarians find meat-fed cats to be quite healthy. A well-known local singer will perform tonight. Don't use a hyphen when the compound comes after the noun it describes. The singer performing tonight is well known.
Longer Works:
Have you read To Kill a Mockingbird? Her dissertation is titled Feminism in Shakespeare's Tragedies.
slash: To Denote Dates and Fractions
One of the most commonly recognized usages of the forward slash is to indicate dates and fractions: ½ 11/17/16
Parentheses
are punctuation marks that are used to set off information within a text or paragraph. Outside the realm of emoticons, parentheses always come in pairs. They can enclose a single word, a phrase, or even an entire sentence. Typically, the words inside the parentheses provide extra information about something else in the sentence. Curators from the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH) have announced a new dinosaur exhibit. While walking down the street (paying more attention to her phone than to her feet), Catherine tripped over the curb and sprained her ankle.
brackets
sometimes called square brackets, are most often used to show that words have been added to a direct quotation. Sometimes, when quoting a person or document, adding a word or two is necessary to provide enough context for the quote to make sense. For example, the original sentence you want to quote might read "We went and had a great time." Out of context, this sentence doesn't mean much. But you can add bracketed information to make the context clear. "We went [to the new dinosaur exhibit] and had a great time." It's extremely important to use brackets when you change a direct quote—forgetting to add them results in a misquote.
ellipsis: spacing
Whether you put spaces between the dots or not is a matter of style. The Chicago Manual of Style calls for spaces between each ellipsis point. The AP Stylebook says to treat the ellipsis as a three-letter word, with spaces on either side of the ellipsis but no spaces between the dots. You can use either style; just be consistent throughout your document.
period: If the last item in the sentence is an abbreviation that ends in a period, do not follow it with another period.
Incorrect: This is Alice Smith, M.D.. Correct: This is Alice Smith, M.D. Correct: Please shop, cook, etc. We will do the laundry.
comma *Subjects and Verbs* With few exceptions, a comma should not separate a subject from its verb.
EX : My friend Cleo, is a wonderful singer. (wrong) My friend Cleo is a wonderful singer. (correct) complex sentence EX : The things that cause me joy, may also cause me pain. (wrong) The things that cause me joy may also cause me pain. (correct)
Comma: Restrictive Clauses
A restrictive clause *adds necessary information* about something you have mentioned in a sentence. Restrictive clauses are often introduced by that or who and should never be set off by commas. The cafe, that Chester recommended, is a fantastic restaurant.(wrong) The cafe that Chester recommended is a fantastic restaurant.(correct) The clause "that Chester recommended" is essential information in the sentence above. If you removed it, there would be no way to tell which restaurant you were talking about
Em Dashes: to Set Off Parenthetical Information
- often used to set off parenthetical information. - puts the focus on the information between the em dashes. Putting spaces before and after an em dash is a matter of preference; just be consistent. While I was shopping—wandering aimlessly up and down the aisles, actually—I ran into our old neighbor. An etymological dictionary is one of the few books—no, it's the only book—you'll ever need. There has recently been an increase—though opposed fiercely by many people—in alternative education practices. He was going to call off the project—or was he?—when the client increased the payment. Traveling—that is, traveling by public transit—can be a relaxing activity if you bring music and reading material along with you.
Style guides vary in their recommendations of what to do when you have a singular proper noun that ends in s. Some recommend adding only an apostrophe:
-Charles Dickens' novels -Kansas' main airport ----------------------------------------- Others say to add apostrophe+s: -Charles Dickens's novels -Kansas's main airport No matter which style guide you use, *add only the apostrophe to plural proper nouns that end in s:* -The Harrises' house -The Smiths' vacation Use whichever style matches the style guide you use for your writing. If you don't have a style guide, it's OK to just pick one of the methods, as long as you don't switch back and forth within the same document.
For plural nouns that do not end in s, add apostrophe+s:
-The children's toys -The geese's migration route
Contraction Uncontracted Examples
-n't not Isn't (is not), hasn't (has not) -'re are They're (they are), we're (we are), you're (you are) -'d had, would She'd (she had, she would), I'd (I had, I would) -'ll will We'll (we will), you'll (you will) -'s is He's (he is), it's (it is) I'm I am — let's let us — Contractions are usually considered to be relatively casual. If you're writing something very formal, you may want to avoid using them except in cases like o'clock, where the full phrase (of the clock) truly is rare.
Colons: Separating Independent Clauses
A colon can be used to separate two independent clauses when a) the second clause is directly related to the first clause (not just vaguely related) and b) when the emphasis is on the second clause. While you can also use a semicolon or a period between two independent-yet-related clauses, the colon is a little softer than the period, but a little harder than the semicolon. A dolphin is not fish: it is a warm-blooded mammal. The research is conclusive: climate change is a reality. In British English, the word following a colon is not capitalized unless it is a proper noun or an acronym. In American English, styles differ, but it is best to capitalize the first word after a colon if what follows forms two or more complete sentences. I have several plans for my immediate future::::: First, I'm going to win the lottery. Second, I'm going to buy a unicorn. Third, I will marry Brad Pitt.
colon
A colon introduces an element or series of elements that illustrates or amplifies the information that preceded the colon. While a semicolon normally joins two independent clauses to signal a close connection between them, a colon does the job of directing you to the information following it. Many people are confused about using colons, but their function is actually quite straightforward. Think of it as a flashing arrow that points to the information following it. When a colon appears in a sentence, it usually gives the silent impression of "as follows," "which is/are," or "thus." There are three types of muscle in the body: cardiac, smooth, and skeletal. The colon in this sentence signals that you are about to learn the names of the three types of muscles the sentence already mentioned. We might silently read the sentence this way. There are three types of muscle in the body (and they are):::::: cardiac, smooth, and skeletal. Colons are often used with lists, as in the example above. They can also be used to signal further clarification. We have two options here::::: stay and fight, or run like the wind. One might silently read this as: We have two options here (and they are as follows): stay and fight, or run like the wind. Colons can also introduce a quotation: He ended with the immortal words of Neil Young::::: "Rock and Roll can never die."
Misuse of Colons
A colon should not separate a noun from its verb, a verb from its object or subject complement, a preposition from its object, or a subject from its predicate. To illustrate, here is one of our sentences from above rewritten incorrectly. The three types of muscle in the body are: cardiac, smooth, and skeletal. (wrong) Putting the colon here separates the verb are from its subject complements (cardiac, smooth, and skeletal).(wrong) When I graduate, I want to go to: Rome, Israel, and Egypt. (wrong) The colon should be removed from this sentence because it separates the preposition to from its objects (Rome, Israel, and Egypt). To write this sentence correctly, the colon should be removed. When I graduate, I want to go to Rome, Israel, and Egypt. (correct)
Comma: After Introductory Phrase
A comma normally follows participial phrases that introduce a sentence: Grabbing her umbrella, Kate raced out of the house. Confused by her sister's sudden change in mood, Jill stayed quiet. (correct) When an adverbial phrase begins a sentence, it's often followed by a comma but it doesn't have to be, especially if it's short. As a rule of thumb, if the phrase is longer than about four words, use the comma. You can also use a comma with a shorter phrase when you want to emphasize it or add a pause for literary effect. After the show, Cleo will be signing autographs. Behind the building there is enough space to park two limousines. Without knowing why, I crossed the room and looked out the window. In 1816 life was very different. Suddenly, an angry black cat sprang from the shadows. (correct) But, if there is a chance of misreading the sentence, use the comma: Before eating the family said grace. (wrong) Before eating, the family said grace.(correct)
Apostrophe Use: Contractions and Omissions
A contraction is a shortened form of a word (or group of words) that omits certain letters or sounds. In a contraction, an apostrophe represents missing letters. The most common contractions are made up of verbs, auxiliaries, or modals attached to other words: He would=He'd. I have=I've. They are=They're. You cannot=You can't. Some writers use less common contractions when they want to represent a particular style of speech. They might write somethin' to represent the way people often don't pronounce the final g of "something" in speech. Occasionally, you might see e'er (instead of ever) in poetry. And, of course, in the American South, you will probably encounter y'all (you all). Decade names are often contracted as well: the '60s (the 1960s).
Comma: Nonrestrictive Clause
A nonrestrictive clause *offers extra information* about something you have mentioned in a sentence, but the information *isn't essential* to identify the thing you're talking about. Nonrestrictive clauses are usually introduced by which or who and should be set off by commas. Posey's Cafe, which Chester recommended, is a fantastic restaurant.(correct) The clause "which Chester recommended" is nonrestrictive because "Posey's Cafe" is already specific. Identifying it as the restaurant recommended by Chester doesn't narrow it down any further. My wife, whom I love dearly, is a brilliant physicist.(correct) The clause "whom I love dearly" is nonrestrictive because you could remove it and it would still be clear that you're talking about the same person—"my wife" is already specific.
Delete the Conjunction When You Use a Semicolon
A semicolon isn't the only thing that can link two independent clauses. Conjunctions (that's your ands, buts, and ors) can do that too. But you shouldn't use a semicolon and a conjunction. That means when you use a semicolon, you use it instead of the ands, buts, and ors; you don't need both. Here's a hint: if you used a comma and an "and" to link two related ideas, think of the period (you know, the top part of the semicolon) as a replacement "and." I saw a magnificent albatross, and it was eating a mouse. (correct) I saw a magnificent albatross; it was eating a mouse.( correct) You need a comma plus something to avoid a comma splice. That something can either be the right conjunction or the period that turns a comma into a semicolon. If semicolons can link independent clauses that would otherwise have a period or a conjunction between them, that means they can demonstrate contrast, too. This is part of the same rule, but the conjunction in question is "but" instead of "and." In other words: This is part of the same rule; the conjunction in question is "but" instead of "and." (correct) ------------------------------------------------- To summarize, a semicolon links up two related ideas by narrowing the gap between the ideas of two separate sentences or by replacing a conjunction between two related ideas. That goes for showing contrast, too: just because two ideas are opposed or contradictory, that doesn't mean they aren't related closely enough to earn themselves a semicolon.
slash: To Separate Lines in Prose
A slash can show a line break in a poem, song, or play, usually if several short lines are being written together on one long line. Consider the two examples below: Mary had a little lamb/ little lamb, little lamb/ Mary had a little lamb/ whose fleece was white as snow. The quality of mercy is not strained/ it droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven/ upon the place beneath. It is twice blest:/ It blesseth him that gives and him that takes. Note that there is a space after each slash.
Apostrophes: Surrounding Punctuation
An apostrophe is part of the word it belongs to, so it should not be separated from the word by periods, commas, question marks, or any other punctuation mark. Can I ask you somethin'? "'Twas the night before Christmas," he said. In the second example, take note of the apostrophe at the beginning of 'Twas. Apostrophes that fall at the very beginning of a contraction are often mistyped as left-hand single quotation marks. Word processors tend to do this by default. Keep this in mind, especially when you are writing about specific decades, such as the '60s or the '90s.
Em Dash: to Set Off Appositives that Contain Commas
An appositive is a small section of extra information that is inserted into a sentence for clarification. Commas are usually used to offset the appositive, but if the appositive contains one or more commas, adding additional commas would be confusing for the reader. When using an appositive that contains a comma, offset it with dashes, instead. Four of us—Mike, Amanda, Katy, and I—went to the conference last week. Mr. M. glanced surreptitiously at his watch—his gold, diamond-encrusted watch—and suggested the meeting might adjourn for the day. If you need something, call my assistant—Catherine, not Margaret—and she'll help you. Materialism—always wanting something more, something different—is good for the economy but bad for the soul. The question words—who, what, when, where, why, and how—are used to retrieve information in English.
Comma: an Appositive
An appositive is a word or phrase that refers to the same thing as another noun in the same sentence. Often, the appositive provides additional information about the noun or helps to distinguish it in some way. If you could remove the appositive without changing the meaning of the sentence, it is said to be nonessential and should be set off with commas. If the appositive is necessary, it's said to be essential and it should not be set off with commas. Nonessential appositives: My mother, Angela, is a wonderful cook. (correct) The painter, one of the city's most promising young artists, began showing his work in galleries before he was sixteen. (correct) Chocolate, my favorite treat, always makes me feel better after a bad day. (correct) Essential appositives: Edgar Allan Poe's poem The Raven is a classic. (correct) Alec Baldwin's brother Stephen is the most underrated Baldwin.(correct) The detective Sherlock Holmes is one of literature's greatest sleuths.(correct)
Comma: Between Direct Quote and Attributive Tag
An attributive tag is a phrase like "he said" or "she claimed" that identifies the speaker of a quote or piece of dialogue. Attributive tags can come before, after, or even in the middle of a quote. Use commas to separate attributive tags from quotations. The professor remarked,,,, "How attentive you have been today!" (correct) "Once you know the solution,,,," Tiffany said,,,, "the whole problem seems very simple." (correct) "You have ice cream on your nose,,,," my friend snickered. (correct) "When you leave the house,,,,," my mother yelled, "don't slam the door!" (correct) If a quotation before an attributive tag ends in a question mark or exclamation point, however, there's no need for a comma. "You have a spider on your nose!", my friend yelled.(wrong) "You have a spider on your nose!" my friend yelled.(correct) "Where did that spider come from?", I asked.(wrong) "Where did that spider come from?" I asked.(correct)
Comma: Between Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are conjunctions that come in pairs (such as either/or, neither/nor, and not only/but also) and connect words or phrases in a sentence to form a complete thought. Typically, commas are unnecessary with correlative conjunctions. Either the blue shirt, or the red sweater will look good with your jeans.(wrong) Either the blue shirt or the red sweater will look good with your jeans.(correct) You can wear a pashmina not only for warmth, but also for fashion.(wrong) You can wear a pashmina not only for warmth but also for fashion.(correct)
Period: Direct and indirect questions -An indirect question ends with a period, not a question mark.
Direct question: What is she doing tonight? Indirect question: I wonder what she's doing tonight. Direct question: The question is, Does anyone support this legislation? Indirect question: The question was whether anyone supported the legislation.
Comma: Separating a Verb and Its Object
Don't separate a transitive verb from its direct object with a comma. I'm glad I trained, Charlie not to beg for scraps.(wrong) I'm glad I trained Charlie not to beg for scraps.(correct) Mary said, she likes chocolate.(wrong) Mary said she likes chocolate.(correct)
Comma: Within a Comparison
Don't use a comma before "than" when you're making a comparison. This box is lighter, than that box.(wrong) This box is lighter than that box. (correct) Hardcover books are more expensive, than paperback books.(wrong) Hardcover books are more expensive than paperback books.(correct)
Comma: Between an Article and Noun
Don't use a comma between an article and a noun. The company managers accidentally scheduled the, weekly meeting for Saturday. A, bouquet of flowers may be created using more than one type of flower. I'll have an, apple. The company managers accidentally scheduled the weekly meeting for Saturday. A bouquet of flowers may be created using more than one type of flower. I'll have an apple.
Em Dash: to Mark Sharp Turns in Thought
Em dashes can also signal an interruption or a sudden change in the direction a writer was heading with a particular sentence. This technique is best suited for creative or informal writing. If you use it in academic writing, you might look unsure of yourself. Mary, could you—no, Mikey, don't touch the sharp knife!—Mary, could you please set the table? Dinner is at 6:30—not 6:29 or 6:31. Where the heck is my—wait, what was I looking for? Would you please—oh, never mind.
Em Dash vs. En Dash
En dashes are slightly shorter than em dashes. They also have a different function. The two main uses of en dashes are - to indicate number ranges and -to act as a kind of super-hyphen for compound modifiers.
When quoted material runs more than one paragraph, start each new paragraph with opening quotation marks, but do not use closing quotation marks until the end of the passage.
Example: She wrote: "I don't paint anymore. For a while I thought it was just a phase that I'd get over. "Now, I don't even try."
If a quoted question ends in midsentence, the question mark replaces a comma.
Example: "Will you still be my friend?" she asked.
Use single quotation marks for quotations within quotations.
Example: Dan said: "In a town outside Brisbane, I saw 'Tourists go home' written on a wall. But then someone told me, 'Pay it no mind, lad.' " Note that the period goes inside both the single and double quotation marks. Also note that, as a courtesy, there is visible space between adjacent single and double quotation marks.
Do not capitalize quoted material that continues a sentence.
Example: Lamarr said that the case was "far from over" and that "we will win."
Always capitalize the first word in a complete quotation, even midsentence.
Example: Lamarr said, "The case is far from over, and we will win."
If the quotation comes before he said, she wrote, they reported, Dana insisted, or a similar attribution, end the quoted material with a comma, even if it is only one word.
Examples: "I don't care," he said. "Stop," he said.
Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations.
Examples: He said, "I don't care." "Why," I asked, "don't you care?" This rule is optional with one-word quotations. Example: He said "Stop."
If a quotation functions as a subject or object in a sentence, it might not need a comma.
Examples: Is "I don't care" all you can say to me? Saying "Stop the car" was a mistake.
Quotation marks are often used with technical terms, terms used in an unusual way, or other expressions that vary from standard usage.
Examples: It's an oil-extraction method known as "fracking." He did some "experimenting" in his college days. I had a visit from my "friend" the tax man.
The placement of question marks with quotation marks follows logic. If a question is within the quoted material, a question mark should be placed inside the quotation marks.
Examples: She asked, "Will you still be my friend?" The question Will you still be my friend? is part of the quotation. Do you agree with the saying, "All's fair in love and war"? The question Do you agree with the saying? is outside the quotation.
Closed Compound Words-hypenated?
Hyphenated words tend to become closed compounds (single words with no hyphens) over time. Email instead of e-mail, for example, is increasingly common. If you aren't sure whether a words is a closed compound or a hyphenated one, check your preferred dictionary. Notebook Superman Waistcoat Bookstore Fireman
Period : Proper placement of the period with parentheses
If a sentence ends with a parenthetical that is only part of a larger sentence, the period is placed outside the closing parenthesis. Hotel rooms are likely to be in short supply throughout August (the peak travel period). If the parenthetical is itself an entire sentence, the period is placed inside the closing parenthesis. Their house was the largest one on the block. (It also happened to be the ugliest.)
Period: Proper placement of the period with quotation marks
If a sentence ends with quoted material, the period is placed inside the closing quotation mark, even if the period is not part of the original quotation. The president's speech both began and ended with the word "freedom." Note, however, that if the quoted material itself ends with a question mark or exclamation point, the period is omitted. Correct: Yesterday he asked, "Why is it so cold on Mars?" Incorrect: Yesterday he asked, "Why is it so cold on Mars?".
Never use single quotation marks in sentences like the previous three.
Incorrect: I had a visit from my 'friend' the tax man. The single quotation marks in the above sentence are intended to send a message to the reader that friend is being used in a special way: in this case, sarcastically. Avoid this invalid usage. Single quotation marks are valid only within a quotation, as per Rule 7, above.
Quotation marks are used for components -chapter titles in a book, -individual episodes of a TV series, -songs from a Broadway show or -a music album, titles of articles or - essays in print or online, -and shorter works such as short stories and poems.
It is customary in American publishing to put the title of an entire composition in italics. Put the title of a short work—one that is or could be part of a larger undertaking—in quotation marks. A "composition" is a creative, journalistic, or scholarly enterprise that is whole, complex, a thing unto itself. This includes books, movies, plays, TV shows, newspapers, magazines, websites, music albums, operas, musical theater, paintings, sculptures, and other works of art. Example: Richard Burton performed the song "Camelot" in the 1960 Broadway musical Camelot. Although the word is the same, "Camelot" the song takes quotation marks because it's part of a larger work—namely, a full-length show called Camelot.
slash: Space Before and After Slash
Many people wonder whether to use a space before and after slashes in a sentence. The answer is typically no on both fronts. Spaces before slashes should be avoided. The only time it's acceptable to use a space after a slash is when breaking up lines of a poem, song, or play.
slash: To Indicate Or
Often, when a slash is used in a formal or informal text, it is meant to indicate the word or. The examples below illustrate this meaning of the forward slash: When leaving the classroom, the teacher noticed that a student had left his/her backpack. College freshmen should bring a mattress and/or cot to sleep on during orientation. If/when Mary ever shows up, we can all head out to the party together. Burgers or pizza for dinner? Yeah, either/or is fine with me.
Opened Compound Words-hypenated?
Open compounds are typically made up of two nouns that are used together to represent a single idea. "Open" means that there is a space between the two words and no hyphen. A good dictionary is the best place to check whether a compound is open or not. Living room Real estate Dinner table Coffee mug
Comma: Before Parenthesis
Parentheses are used to give additional information to the reader—information that would disrupt the flow of the sentence if written as a nonrestrictive clause. Commas may be placed after the closing parenthesis but not before either the opening or the closing parenthesis. If the sentence would not require any commas if the parenthetical statement were removed, the sentence should not have any commas when the parentheses are added. After opening the new cookie tin, Chester had a hard time replacing the lid. After opening the new cookie tin (and eating several of the cookies), Chester had a hard time replacing the lid. (correct) After opening the new cookie tin, (and eating several of the cookies), Chester had a hard time replacing the lid. After opening the new cookie tin (and eating several of the cookies,) Chester had a hard time replacing the lid. (wrong)
Apostrophes: Possessive Pronouns
Personal pronouns, unlike regular nouns, do not use apostrophes to form possessives. Most writers don't have trouble with the possessive pronouns my, mine, his, her, and our. It's your, yours, hers, its, ours, their, and theirs, that tend to cause the confusion. The relative possessive pronoun whose is also frequently the victim of apostrophe abuse. *Note that none of these forms uses an apostrophe.* In fact, for some of these pronouns, adding an apostrophe forms a contraction instead of a possessive (see the table above).
En Dash : to Denote a Connection
The en dash may also be used to indicate a connection between two words. Use an en dash when you need to connect terms that are already hyphenated or when you are using a two-word phrase as a modifier. When the dash is used in this way, it creates a compound adjective. The pro-choice-pro-life argument is always a heated one. The Nobel Prize-winning author will be reading from her book at the library tonight.
slash: -To Indicate Connecting -Conflicting Relationships
Slashes can also be used to note that there is a connection or conflict between two words or phrases in a sentence. Some examples include: The pro-life/pro-choice debate is a hot-button issue for many voters this election. The designer often works in his bonus room/home office.
En Dash: to Indicate Spans of Time or Ranges of Numbers
The en dash is often used -to indicate spans of time or ranges of numbers. In this context, the dash should be interpreted as meaning either "to" or "through." The teacher assigned pages 101-181 for tonight's reading material. The scheduled window for the cable installation is 1:00-3:00pm. The 2015-2016 fiscal year was the most profitable year for the new business.
semicolon
The most common use of the semicolon is to join two independent clauses without using a conjunction like and. Do you use a capital letter after a semicolon? The general answer is no. A semicolon should be followed by a capital letter only if the word is a proper noun or an acronym. We can go to the museum to do some research; Mondays are pretty quiet there. Remember, semicolons are not interchangeable with commas or periods. Instead, they're somewhere in between: stronger than a comma but not quite as divisive as a period.
Comma: As Well As
The phrase "as well as" usually doesn't require commas unless it's part of a nonrestrictive clause. Please proofread for grammatical mistakes as well as spelling. (correct) Spelling mistakes,,,, as well as grammatical errors,,,, are distracting to readers.(correct)
Comma: Such As
The phrase "such as" requires commas if it introduces a nonrestrictive clause. Coniferous trees,,,, such as pine and spruce, do not drop their needles in the winter. (correct) If "such as" introduces a restrictive clause, omit the commas. Trees such as pine and spruce do not drop their needles in the winter. (correct)
Apostrophe: Possessive Nouns
The rules about forming possessives probably cause the most apostrophe confusion. They vary a little bit, depending on what type of noun you are making into a possessive. Here are the rules of thumb: For most singular nouns, *add apostrophe+s:* -The dog's leash -The writer's desk -The planet's atmosphere For most plural nouns, add only an apostrophe: The dogs' leashes (multiple dogs) The writers' desks (multiple writers) The planets' atmospheres (multiple planets) For plural nouns that do not end in s, add apostrophe+s: The children's toys The geese's migration route Style guides vary in their recommendations of what to do when you have a singular proper noun that ends in s. Some recommend adding only an apostrophe: Charles Dickens' novels Kansas' main airport Others say to add apostrophe+s: Charles Dickens's novels Kansas's main airport No matter which style guide you use, add only the apostrophe to plural proper nouns that end in s: The Harrises' house The Smiths' vacation Use whichever style matches the style guide you use for your writing. If you don't have a style guide, it's OK to just pick one of the methods, as long as you don't switch back and forth within the same document
Italics and Underlining: Titles Of Works
The words that often get emphasized are names of ships or planes, words used as themselves, foreign words, and titles of books, movies, songs, and other titled works. Italics and underlining are used today to emphasize titles of works such as - books, -poems, -short stories, and - articles. In general, -titles of long, -full-length works should be italicized, although some style guides recommend putting them in quotation marks. Full-length works are things like -novels, -plays, -movies, -epic poems, and -textbooks. Shorter works -poems, - articles, -short stories, -chapter titles are typically put in quotation marks.
slash
There are two types of slashes: a backslash (\) and a forward slash (/). The backslash is used only for computer coding. The forward slash, often simply referred to as a slash, is a punctuation mark used in English. The only time it is appropriate to use a comma after a slash is when demonstrating breaks between lines of poetry, songs, or plays.
Ellipsis
Those three little dots are called an ellipsis (plural: ellipses). The term ellipsis comes from the Greek word meaning "omission," and that's just what an ellipsis does—it shows that something has been left out. When you're quoting someone, you can use an ellipsis to show that you've omitted some of their words. For example: Hamlet asked whether it was "nobler . . . to suffer the slings and arrows of outrageous fortune or to take arms against a sea of troubles." In the sentence above, the words "in the mind" have been omitted from the quote. Occasionally, you might need to leave out part of a quote because it's irrelevant or makes the quote hard to understand in the context of the sentence. The ellipsis shows that you have left something out. You can also use an ellipsis to show a pause in speech or that a sentence trails off. This technique doesn't belong in formal or academic writing, though. You should only use the ellipsis this way in fiction and informal writing. For example: Andrew, can you, um . . . never mind, I forgot what I was saying. So, do you think we should . . . ?
Parentheses or Brackets With Surrounding Punctuation
Treat parentheses or brackets and the words inside them as separate from the rest of the sentence. Any sentence that contains a parenthetical element should still make sense if the element is removed. Meena (studied all night for) the grammar test. Meena studied (all night) for the grammar test. Meena studied for the grammar test. Periods, question marks, and exclamation points should go before the closing parenthesis or bracket only if they belong to the words inside the parentheses or brackets. If the punctuation belongs to the surrounding sentence, put them outside the parentheses or brackets. Never put a comma immediately before a closing parenthesis. After dinner (an enormous, healthy salad,) Posey treated herself to ice cream. After dinner, (an enormous, healthy salad) Posey treated herself to ice cream. After dinner (an enormous, healthy salad), Posey treated herself to ice cream.
Comma: Before FANBOYS For And Nor But Or Yet So
Use a comma before the FANBOYS if it is joining two independent clauses Cleo is a good singer but she's an even better dancer.(wrong) Cleo is a good singer, but she's an even better dancer.(correct) If but is not joining two independent clauses, leave the comma out. My teacher is tough, but fair.(wrong) My teacher is tough but fair.(correct) Life is, but a dream.(wrong) Life is but a dream.(correct)
hyphen: Prefixes: Ex-, Self-, All-
Use a hyphen with the prefix ex- (meaning former). Don't sit Adam next to Martha! She's his ex-wife! Though he no longer held an official position, the ex-mayor still attended all the town's functions. *Use a hyphen with the reflexive prefix self-.* Lying on the floor beside the plant he had knocked over and chewed on, the cat looked extremely self-satisfied. Do you want a self-serve or a full-serve gas station? *Make sure you don't confuse the prefix self- with the noun self.* The self serves no other. *When using all as a prefix, add a hyphen.* It's a bad leader who thinks of himself as all-powerful
Apostrophes: Plurals
Using an unnecessary apostrophe to form the plural of a noun is a very common mistake. Sometimes, it's called the grocer's apostrophe because of how frequently it is spotted in grocery store advertisements -(3 orange's for a dollar!). Don't do it! With very few exceptions, apostrophes do not make nouns plural. The one notable exception to this rule is the plural form of lowercase letters, which are formed with an apostrophe to prevent misreading: Don't forget to dot all your is.(wrong) Don't forget to dot all your i's.(correct)
Hyphen: with Compound Modifiers(Two-Word Adjectives Before Nouns)
Using hyphens to connect words is easy. Picking the right words to connect is a little harder. Let's start with compound modifiers. A compound modifier is made up of two words that work together to function like one adjective. When you connect words with the hyphen, you make it clear to readers that the words work together as a unit of meaning. It's recommended you don't take down any load bearing walls when renovating. (wrong) In this sentence, it sounds like you shouldn't take down any load that is holding up a wall. A hyphen should be inserted between load and bearing to make it clear that we're talking about walls that are bearing a load. It's recommended you don't take down any load-bearing walls when renovating. (correct) This rock-hard cake is absolutely impossible to eat. (correct) We're looking for a dog-friendly hotel. (correct) Generally, you need the hyphen only if the two words are functioning together as an adjective before the noun they're describing. If the noun comes first, leave the hyphen out. This wall is load bearing. It's impossible to eat this cake because it is rock hard. Is this hotel dog friendly? You also don't need a hyphen when your modifier is made up of an adverb and an adjective. Do you expect me to believe this clearly-impossible story? (wrong) Do you expect me to believe this clearly impossible story?(correct)
How to Write Joint Possession
What do you do with the apostrophe when you're talking about things that belong to more than one person? When one thing belongs to two or more people, make only the final name possessive: -Bob and Jim's bait shop (Bob and Jim co-own the same bait shop) -Ryan, Jessica, and Elinor's parents (All three share the same parents) When you're talking about separate things that belong to different people, make all the names possessive: -Bob's and Jim's bait shops (Bob owns one bait shop and Jim owns a different one) -Ryan's, Jessica's, and Elinor's parents (Each has a different set of parents) Using possessive personal pronouns in joint constructions often sounds awkward -(You have their and my gratitude). Usually, the best solution is to rephrase the sentence to avoid the joint construction -(You have our gratitude or You have their gratitude and mine).
Em Dash: to Bring Focus to a List
When a sentence begins with an independent clause and ends with a list, you can use a colon between the clause and the list. *When the list comes first, it's better to use a dash to connect the list to the clause.* -This helps to take three potentially random things and focus them toward one idea<, which is easier for the reader to process. Dishes, laundry, dusting—they're all done now, and I need a rest. Crocodiles, alligators—they both look the same to me and they look equally dangerous! Chocolate, strawberry, vanilla—all ice cream tastes good, especially on a hot summer's day. Do this, do that, go here, go there—there's so much to do that I don't actually get much accomplished during the day.
Comma: Direct Address
When addressing another person by name, set off the name with commas. Mom, I can't find my shoes! Cleo, there's someone on the phone for you. Hello, Chester.
Comma: Between Coordinate Adjectives
When multiple adjectives modify a noun to an equal degree, they are said to be coordinate and should be separated by commas. One way to tell whether the adjectives are coordinate is to try switching the order of them. If the sentence still sounds natural, the adjectives are coordinate. That man is a pompous, self-righteous, annoying idiot. That man is a self-righteous, annoying, pompous idiot. The sweet, scintillating aroma of cinnamon buns filled the kitchen. The scintillating, sweet aroma of cinnamon buns filled the kitchen. If the adjectives are not coordinate, don't separate them with a comma. The adorable, little boy was eating ice cream. The adorable little boy was eating ice cream.
Hyphen: Compound Adjective With Numbers
When numbers are used as the first part of a compound adjective, use a hyphen to connect them to the noun that follows them. This way, the reader knows that both words function like a unit to modify another noun. This applies whether the number is written in words or in digits. The president of the company gave a 10-minute speech to the Board of Directors. He is knowledgeable in thirteenth-century politics. The boy threw a rock at the second-story window. However, a hyphen is not required if the number is the second word in the compound adjective. He is a victim of Type 2 diabetes. This elevator doesn't go down to Basement 3.
Hyphen: Compound Adjective With Fractions
When using a fraction (e.g. half or quarter) as part of a compound adjective, it should be hyphenated so the reader understands which fraction is modifying which noun. I half-wanted to commit a felony. A quarter-million dollars is still a large amount of money. You'll need one-third of a pound of flour and one egg. That's a half-baked idea if I ever heard one!
Hyphen: High or Low
When using high or low as part of a compound adjective, use a hyphen when the compound comes before the noun it's modifying. Some examples of compound adjectives using high and low include high-level/low-level and high-impact/low-impact Low-flying airplanes contribute to the noise pollution in the area. This car runs best on high-octane gasoline. Low-income families often face more stress than their higher-income counterparts. A high-interest savings account is one of the best ways to save money
Hyphen: -Noun, -Adjective Or -Adverb and a Present Participle
When we combine a noun or adjective and a present participle (a word ending in ‑ing) to form a unit of meaning that describes another word, use a hyphen to make that unit of meaning clear. There are some beautiful looking flowers in the garden.(wrong) Without the hyphen between beautiful and looking, your reader may stumble over the sentence. Perhaps there's a new type of daisy called the "looking flower"? There are some beautiful-looking flowers in the garden. Fast-acting medication can be useful when one has a headache. Don't use a hyphen when the modifier comes after the noun it's describing. This medication is fast acting. Don't use a hyphen when you are combining an adverb and a participle. The room was like a heavily-decorated chocolate box.(wrong) The room was like a heavily decorated chocolate box.(correct)
Comma: Dates
When writing a date in *month-day-year format,* set off the year with commas. July 4, 1776, was an important day in American history.(correct) I was born on Sunday, May 12, 1968.(correct) If you are using the *day-month-year* format, however, commas are unnecessary. Applications are due by 31 December 2016. If you are referencing a *day of the week and a date,* use a comma: On Tuesday, April 13, at three o'clock, there will be a meeting for all staff. Please join us on Saturday, June 14, 2010, for the marriage of Annie and Michael. When you are referencing only a *month and year*, you don't need a comma. The region experienced record rainfall in March 1999
Semicolons: Conjunctive Adverbs
When you have a conjunctive adverb linking two independent clauses, you should use a semicolon. Some common conjunctive adverbs include moreover, nevertheless, however, otherwise, therefore, then, finally, likewise, and consequently. I needed to go for a walk and get some fresh air; also, I needed to buy milk. Reports of the damage caused by the hurricane were greatly exaggerated; indeed, the storm was not a "hurricane" at all. The students had been advised against walking alone at night; however, Cathy decided walking wasn't dangerous if it was early in the evening. I'm not all that fond of the colors of tiger lilies; moreover, they don't smell very good. These words sometimes show up in other parts of a sentence; therefore, the semicolon rule only applies if it helps the conjunctive adverb join two independent clauses. (See what we did there?) This conjunctive adverb rule is similar to the conjunction rule. In both cases, check that the two ideas are independent clauses that could stand on their own as sentences. If so, then you're grammatically good to go as far as the semicolon is concerned.
Comma: Before And
When you have a list that contains only two items, don't use a comma before the and. My dog Charlie is cute, and smart. (wrong) My dog Charlie is cute and smart.(correct) Cleo's favorite activities are singing on stage, and relaxing in the sunshine.(wrong) Cleo's favorite activities are singing on stage and relaxing in the sunshine.(correct) When correcting a comma splice, that is when joining two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction, put the comma before and.
comma splice
When you want to join two independent clauses, you need a conjunction or a semicolon. -A comma alone isn't strong enough to join them. This kind of mistake is called a comma splice. We were out of milk, I went to the store. (wrong) You can fix a comma splice by adding : - a conjunction or -changing the comma to a semicolon. We were out of milk, so I went to the store. (correct) We were out of milk; I went to the store. (correct) Or, you can simply write the two independent clauses as separate sentences. We were out of milk. I went to the store. (correct)
Semicolons: Connect Related Independent Clauses
You can use a semicolon to join two closely related independent clauses. -the two sentences should share a close, logical connection: I ordered a cheeseburger for lunch;;;; life's too short for counting calories. Money is the root of all evil;;;; I don't believe the reverse is necessarily true. Martha has gone to the library;;;; Andrew has gone to play soccer. Notice that the letter following the semicolon is not capitalized. The examples above are both made up of two complete, grammatically correct sentences glued together. Yes, that means there are four total sentences up there—and thanks to the semicolon, only two capital letters. That's exactly why you can't substitute a comma for a semicolon. Using a comma instead of a semicolon in the sentences above would result in a comma splice. .
Comma: Between Two Verbs in a Compound Predicate
You get a compound predicate when the subject of a sentence is doing more than one thing. In a compound predicate that contains two verbs, don't separate them with a comma. Cleo will sing, and play the banjo. (wrong) Cleo will sing and play the banjo. (correct) This mistake is most common when the predicate is made up of long verb phrases. I meant to buy tickets for Cleo's show, but ran out of time. (wrong) I meant to buy tickets for Cleo's show but ran out of time.(correct) *Don't use a comma in compound predicates unless there is a chance of misreading:* Cleo spotted the man who entered the diner, and waved. -In the sentence above, you need the comma to make clear that it was Cleo who waved, not the man.
