Earth Science Final Exam Vocab
El Nino
a band of anomalously warm ocean temperatures that occasionally develops off the western South America and can cause short-term changes felt worldwide
cave
a natural underground opening connected to Earth's surface, usually formed when groundwater dissolves limestone
plateau
a relatively flat-topped area
key bed
a rock or sediment layer that serves a time marker in the rock record and results from volcanic ash or meteorite-impact debris that spread out and covered large areas of Earth
conduit
a tube-like structure that allows lava to reach the surface
abrasion
Process of erosion in which wind-blown or waterborne particles, such as sand, scrape against rock surfaces or other materials and wear them away
carrying capacity
The ability of a stream to transport material
composite volcano
generally cone-shaped with concave slopes; built by violent eruptions of volcanic fragments and lava that accumulate in alternating layers
continental rise
gently sloping accumulation of sediments deposited by a turbidity current at the foot of a continental margin
stream bank
ground bordering each side of a stream that keeps the moving water confined
solution
homogenous mixture whose components cannot be distinguished and can be classified as liquid, gaseous, solid, or a combination; the method of transport for materials that are dissolve in a stream's water
flood basalt
huge amounts of lava that erupt from fissures
Pangaea
ancient landmass made up of all the continents that began to break apart about 200 mya
source region
area over which an air mass forms
continental margin
area where edges of continents meet the ocean; represents the shallowest part of the ocean that consists of the shelf, slope, and rise
crater
bowl-shaped depression that forms around the central vent at the summit of a volcano
shield volcano
broad volcano with gently sloping sides built by non-explosive eruptions of basaltic lava that accumulates in layers
floodplain
broad, flat, fertile area extending out from a stream's bank that is covered with water during floods
reverse faults
caused by compression of tectonic plates which move forward and cause the hanging wall to raise above the other
elastic deformation
causes materials to bend and stretch; proportional to stress, so if stress is reduced or returns to zero the strain or deformation is reduced or disappears
Koppen classification
classification system for climates, divided into 5 types, based on the mean monthly values for temperature and precipitation ad types of vegetation
orographic lifting
cloud formation that occurs when warm, moist air is forced to rise up the side of a mountain
intrusive rock
coarse-grained igneous rock that is formed when molten rock cools slowly and solidifies in Earth's crust
batholith
coarse-grained, irregularly shaped, igneous rock mass that covers at least 100 sqkm, gennerally froms 10-30 km below the surface, snd is common in the interior of major mountain chains
estuary
coastal area of lowest salinity often occurs where the lower end of a freshwater river or stream enters the ocean
breaker
collapsing wave that forms when a wave reaches shallow water and becomes so steep that the crest topples forward
isostasy
condition of equilibrium that describes the displacement of Earth's mantle by Earth's continental and oceanic crust
stalactite
cone-shaped or cylindrical dripstone deposit of calcium carbonate that hangs like an icicle from a cave's ceiling
longshore current
current that flows parallel to the shore moves large amounts of sediments, and is formed when breakers spill over a longshore bar
meander
curve or bend in a steam formed when a stream's velocity decreases, water builds up in the stream channel, and moving water erodes the side of the streambed
orogeny
cycle of processes that form all mountain ranges, resulting in large, linear regions of deformation that are known as orogenic belts
strain
deformation of materials in response to stress
sinkhole
depression in Earth's surface formed when a cave collapses or bedrock is dissolved b acidic rain or moist soil
bed load
describes sediments that are too heavy or large to be kept in suspension or solution and are pushed or rolled along the bottom of a streambed
magnetometer
device used to map the ocean floor that detects small changes in magnetic fields
drawdown
difference between the water level in a pumped well and the original water table level
spring tide
during full or new moon, the Sun, the Moon, and Earth are all aligned; this causes solar tides to enhance lunar tides, causing high tides to be higher than normal and low tides to be normal than lower
Coriolis effect
effect of a rotating body that influences the motion of any object or fluid; on Earth, air moving north or south from the equator appears to move right or left, respectively; the combination of this and Earth's heat imbalance creates the trade winds, polar easterlies, and prevailing easterlies
divide
elevated land that divides one watershed from another
deep-sea trench
elongated, sometimes arch-shaped depression in the seafloor that can extend for thousands of kilometers, is the deepest part of the ocean basin, and is found primarily in the Pacific Ocean
radioactive decay
emission of radioactive particles and its resulting change into other isotopes over time
relative-age dating
establishing the order of past geologic events
geyser
explosive hot spring that erupts regularly
extrusive rock
fine-grained igneous rock that is formed when molten rock cools quickly and solidifies on Earth's surface
cast
fossil formed when an earlier fossil of a plant of animal leaves a cavity that becomes filled with minerals or sediment
mold
fossil that can form when a shelled organism decays in sedimentary rock and is removed by erosion or weathering, leaving a hollowed out impression
artesian well
fountain of water that spurts above the land surface when a well taps a deep, confined aquifer containing water under pressure
fault
fracture or system of fractures in Earth's crust that occurs when stress is applied too quickly or stress is too great; can form as a result of horizontal compression, horizontal shear, or horizontal tension
crest
the highest point of a wave
climate
the long-term average of variation of weather for a particular area
trough
the lowest point on a wave
suspension
the method of transport for all particles small enough to be held up by the turbulence of a stream's moving water
trace fossil
the only indirect fossil evidence of an organism; traces of worm trails, footprints, and tunneling barrows
isochron
imaginary line on a map that shows points of the same age; formed at the same time
aquiclude
impermeable layer that is a barrier to groundwater such as silt, clay, and shale
seismometer
instrument used to measure vertical and horizontal movement during an earthquake
karst topography
irregular topography with sinkholes, sinks, and sinking streams caused by groundwater dissolution of limestone
stock
irregularly shaped pluton that is similar to a batholith but smaller, generally forms 5-30 km beneath Earth's surface, and cuts across older rocks
caldera
large crater, up to 50 km in diameter, that can form when the summit or side of a volcano collapses into the magma chamber during or after an eruption
stromatolite
large mat or mound composed of billions of photosynthesizing cyanobacteria that dominated shallow oceans during the Proterozoic
air mass
large volume of air that has the characteristics of the area over which it forms
guyot
large, extinct, basaltic volcanoes with flat, submerged tops
mesosphere
layer of Earth's atmosphere above the stratopause
thermosphere
layer of Earth's atmosphere that is located above the mesopause; oxygen atoms absorb solar radiation causing the temperature to increase in this layer
stratosphere
layer of Earth's atmosphere that is located above the troposphere and is primarily made up of concentrated ozone
troposphere
layer of the atmosphere closest to Earth's surface, where most of the mass of the atmosphere is found and in which most weather takes place and air pollution collects
microclimate
localized climate that differs from the surrounding regional climate
fissure
long cracks in the earth
rift valley
long, narrow depression that forms when continental crust begins to separate at a divergent boundary
discharge
measure of a volume of stream water that flows over a specific location in a particular amount of time
magnitude
measure of energy released during an earthquake, which can be described using the Richter scale
salinity
measure of the amounts of salts dissolved in seawater
stream channel
narrow pathway carved into sediment or rock by the movement of surface water
jet stream
narrow wind band that occurs above large temperature contrasts and can flow as fast as fast as 185 km/h
spring
natural discharge of groundwater at Earth's surface where an aquifer and an aquiclude come in contact
lake
natural or human-made body of water that can form when a depression on land fills with water
mass extinction
occurs when an unusual amount of organisms disappear form the rock layer at the same time
exosphere
outermost layer o Earth's atmosphere that is located above the thermosphere with no clear boundary at the top; transitional region between Earth's atmosphere and outer space
porosity
percentage of open spaces between grains of a material
albedo effect
percentage of sunlight that is reflected by the surface of a planet or a satellite such as the moon
ice age
period of extensive glacial coverage, producing long term climatic changes, where average global temperatures decreased by 5 C
half-life
period of time it takes for a radioactive isotope to decay to one half of its original amount
plastic deformation
permanent deformation caused by strain when stress exceeds a certain value
seismic gap
place along an active fault that has not experienced an earthquake in a long time
divergent plate boundary
place where two of Earth's tectonic plates are moving apart; is associated volcanism, earthquakes, and high heat flow, and is found primarily on the seafloor
convergent plate boundary
place where two tectonic plates are moving toward each other; is associated with trenches, island arches, and folded mountains
transform boundary
place where two tectonic plates slide horizontally past each another; is characterized by long faults and shallow earthquakes
temperature profile
plots changing water temperatures against depth, which varies, depending on the location and season
dike
pluton that cuts across preexisting rocks and often forms when magma invades cracks in surrounding rock bodies
sill
pluton that forms when magma intrudes parallel rock layers
focus
point of the initial fault rupture where an earthquake originates what usually lies at least several kilometers beneath Earth's surface
epicenter
point on Earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake
flood
potentially devastating natural occurrence in which water spills over the sides of a stream's banks onto adjacent land areas
soil liquefaction
process associated with seismic vibrations that occur in areas of sand that is nearly saturated; resulting in the ground acting like a liquid
infiltration
process b which precipitation that has fallen on land surfaces enters the ground and becomes groundwater
sublimation
process by which a solid slowly changes to a gas without becoming a liquid first
eutrophication
process by which lakes become rich in nutrients from the surrounding watershed, resulting in a change in the kinds of organisms in the lake
subduction
process by which one tectonic plate slips beneath another tectonic plate
recharge
process by which water from precipitation and runoff is added to the zone of saturation
coalescence
process that occurs when cloud droplets collide and form larger droplets, which eventually becomes too heavy to remain aloft and can fall to Earth as precipitation
radiometric dating
process used to determine the absolute age of a rock or fossil by determining the ratio of parent nuclei to daughter nuclei within a given sample
eccentricity
ratio of the distance between the foci to the length of the major axis; defines the shape of a planet's elliptical orbit
seismogram
record produced by seismometer that can provide individual record of each type of seismic wave
laccolith
relatively small, mushroom shaped pluton that forms when magma intrudes into parallel rock layers close to Earth's surface
index fossils
remains of plants or animals that were abundant, widely distributed, and existed briefly that can be used by geologist to correlate or date rock fossils
tephra
rock fragments, classified by size, that are thrown into the air during a volcanic eruption and fall to the ground
dendrochronology
science of using tree rings to determine absolute age; helped to date relatively recent geologic events and environmental changes
primary wave
seismic wave that squeezes and pushes rocks in the same direction that the wave travels, known as P-wave
continental shelf
shallowest part of the continental margin, with an average depth of 130 m and an average width of 60 km, that extends into the ocean from the shore and provides a nutrient-rich home to large numbers of fish
continental slope
sloping oceanic region found beyond the continental shelf that generally marks the edge of the continental crust and may be cut by submarine canyons
isostatic rebound
slow process of Earth's crust rising as the result of the removal of overlying material
condensation nucleus
small particle in the atmosphere around which cloud droplets can form
compressional stress
squeezing force that can cause the intense deformation- folding, faulting metamorphism and igneous intrusions- associated with mountain building
normal
standard value for a location, including rainfall, wind speed, and temperatures, based on meteorological records from the last 30 years
cinder cone volcano
steep-sided, generally small volcano that is built by the accumulation of tephra around the vent
latent heat
stored energy in water vapor that is not released to warm the atmosphere until condensation takes place
paleomagnetism
study of Earth's magnetic record using data gathered from iron-bearing minerals in rocks that have recorded the orientation of Earth's magnetic field at the time of their formation
base
substance that produces hydroxide ions (OH-) in water
pyroclastic flow
swift-moving, potentially deadly clouds of gas, ash, and other volcanic material produced by a violent eruption
slab pull
tectonic process associated with convection currents in Earth's mantle that occurs as the weight of the subducting plate pulls the trailing lithosphere into a subduction zone
ridge push
tectonic process associated with convection currents in Earth's mantle that occurs when the weight of an elevated ridge pushes an oceanic plate towards a subduction zone
dew point
temperature to which air is cooled at a constant pressure to reach saturation, at which point condensation can occur
stress
the total force acting on crustal rocks within an area
conduction
the transfer of thermal energy between objects in contact by the collisions between the particles in the objects
convection
the transfer of thermal energy by the movement of heated material from one place to another
radiation
the transfer of thermal energy electromagnetic waves; the transfer of thermal energy from the Sun to Earth
hot spring
thermal spring with temperatures higher than that of the human body
root
thickened area of continental material, detected by gravitational and seismic studies
period
third-longest time unit in the geologic time scale; measured in tens of millions of years
neap tide
tide that occurs during first or third quarter moon, when the Sun, the Moon, and Earth form a right angle; this causes solar tides to diminish lunar tides, causing high tides to be lower than normal and low tides to be higher than normal
thermocline
transitional ocean layer that lies between the relatively warm, sunlight, surface layer and the colder, dark, dense bottom layer and is characterized by temperatures that decrease rapidly with depth
delta
triangular deposit, usually made up of silt and clay particles, that forms where a stream enters a larger body of water
hotspot
unusually hot area in Earth's mantle where high temperature plumes of mantle material rise to the surface
heat island
urban area where climate is warmer than the surrounding countryside due to factors such as numerous concrete buildings and large expanses of asphalt
evaporation
vaporization- change of state from a liquid to a gas, involving thermal energy
runoff
water that flows downslope on Earth's surface and may enter a stream, river, or lake; its rate is influenced by the angle of the slope, vegetation, rate of precipitation, and soil composition
point source pollution
water-pollution source that generates pollution from a single point of origin, such as an industrial site
nonpoint source pollution
water-pollution source that generates pollution from widely spread areas, such as runoff from roads
magnetic reversal
when Earth's polarity switches between normal and reversed
surface current
wind-driven movement of ocean water that primarily affects the upper few hundred meters of the ocean
permeability
ability of a material to allow water pass through, is high in materials that have large, well-connected pores and low in materials with small, poorly-connected pores
precipitation
all solid and liquid and solid forms of water; including rain, snow, sleet, and hail; that fall from the clouds
isotope
an atom of an element that has a different mass number as the element but ahs the same chemical properties
front
boundary between two air masses if differing densities; can be cold, warm, stationary, or occluded and can stretch over large areas of Earth's surface
absolute-age dating
method that enables scientists to determine the actual age of certain rocks and other objects
phytoplankton
microscopic organisms that are the basis of marine food chains; abundant during the Cretaceous and the remains of their shell-like hard parts are found in chalk deposits worldwide
stalagmite
mound-shaped dripstone deposit of calcium carbonate that forms on a cave's floor beneath a stalactite
density current
movement of ocean water that occurs in depths too great to be affected by surface winds and is generated by differences in water temperature and salinity
evolution
the change in species over time
amplitude
the size of the seismic waves; an increase of 1 in the scale represents an increase in amplitude of a factor of 10
climatology
the study of Earth's climate in order to understand and predict climatic change, based on past and present variations in temperature, precipitation, wind, and other weather variables
meteorology
the study of the atmosphere, which is the air surrounding Earth