Earth Science Final Exam Vocab

El Nino

a band of anomalously warm ocean temperatures that occasionally develops off the western South America and can cause short-term changes felt worldwide

cave

a natural underground opening connected to Earth's surface, usually formed when groundwater dissolves limestone

plateau

a relatively flat-topped area

key bed

a rock or sediment layer that serves a time marker in the rock record and results from volcanic ash or meteorite-impact debris that spread out and covered large areas of Earth

conduit

a tube-like structure that allows lava to reach the surface

abrasion

Process of erosion in which wind-blown or waterborne particles, such as sand, scrape against rock surfaces or other materials and wear them away

carrying capacity

The ability of a stream to transport material

composite volcano

generally cone-shaped with concave slopes; built by violent eruptions of volcanic fragments and lava that accumulate in alternating layers

continental rise

gently sloping accumulation of sediments deposited by a turbidity current at the foot of a continental margin

stream bank

ground bordering each side of a stream that keeps the moving water confined

solution

homogenous mixture whose components cannot be distinguished and can be classified as liquid, gaseous, solid, or a combination; the method of transport for materials that are dissolve in a stream's water

flood basalt

huge amounts of lava that erupt from fissures

Pangaea

ancient landmass made up of all the continents that began to break apart about 200 mya

source region

area over which an air mass forms

continental margin

area where edges of continents meet the ocean; represents the shallowest part of the ocean that consists of the shelf, slope, and rise

crater

bowl-shaped depression that forms around the central vent at the summit of a volcano

shield volcano

broad volcano with gently sloping sides built by non-explosive eruptions of basaltic lava that accumulates in layers

floodplain

broad, flat, fertile area extending out from a stream's bank that is covered with water during floods

reverse faults

caused by compression of tectonic plates which move forward and cause the hanging wall to raise above the other

elastic deformation

causes materials to bend and stretch; proportional to stress, so if stress is reduced or returns to zero the strain or deformation is reduced or disappears

Koppen classification

classification system for climates, divided into 5 types, based on the mean monthly values for temperature and precipitation ad types of vegetation

orographic lifting

cloud formation that occurs when warm, moist air is forced to rise up the side of a mountain

intrusive rock

coarse-grained igneous rock that is formed when molten rock cools slowly and solidifies in Earth's crust

batholith

coarse-grained, irregularly shaped, igneous rock mass that covers at least 100 sqkm, gennerally froms 10-30 km below the surface, snd is common in the interior of major mountain chains

estuary

coastal area of lowest salinity often occurs where the lower end of a freshwater river or stream enters the ocean

breaker

collapsing wave that forms when a wave reaches shallow water and becomes so steep that the crest topples forward

isostasy

condition of equilibrium that describes the displacement of Earth's mantle by Earth's continental and oceanic crust

stalactite

cone-shaped or cylindrical dripstone deposit of calcium carbonate that hangs like an icicle from a cave's ceiling

longshore current

current that flows parallel to the shore moves large amounts of sediments, and is formed when breakers spill over a longshore bar

meander

curve or bend in a steam formed when a stream's velocity decreases, water builds up in the stream channel, and moving water erodes the side of the streambed

orogeny

cycle of processes that form all mountain ranges, resulting in large, linear regions of deformation that are known as orogenic belts

strain

deformation of materials in response to stress

sinkhole

depression in Earth's surface formed when a cave collapses or bedrock is dissolved b acidic rain or moist soil

bed load

describes sediments that are too heavy or large to be kept in suspension or solution and are pushed or rolled along the bottom of a streambed

magnetometer

device used to map the ocean floor that detects small changes in magnetic fields

drawdown

difference between the water level in a pumped well and the original water table level

spring tide

during full or new moon, the Sun, the Moon, and Earth are all aligned; this causes solar tides to enhance lunar tides, causing high tides to be higher than normal and low tides to be normal than lower

Coriolis effect

effect of a rotating body that influences the motion of any object or fluid; on Earth, air moving north or south from the equator appears to move right or left, respectively; the combination of this and Earth's heat imbalance creates the trade winds, polar easterlies, and prevailing easterlies

divide

elevated land that divides one watershed from another

deep-sea trench

elongated, sometimes arch-shaped depression in the seafloor that can extend for thousands of kilometers, is the deepest part of the ocean basin, and is found primarily in the Pacific Ocean

radioactive decay

emission of radioactive particles and its resulting change into other isotopes over time

relative-age dating

establishing the order of past geologic events

geyser

explosive hot spring that erupts regularly

extrusive rock

fine-grained igneous rock that is formed when molten rock cools quickly and solidifies on Earth's surface

cast

fossil formed when an earlier fossil of a plant of animal leaves a cavity that becomes filled with minerals or sediment

mold

fossil that can form when a shelled organism decays in sedimentary rock and is removed by erosion or weathering, leaving a hollowed out impression

artesian well

fountain of water that spurts above the land surface when a well taps a deep, confined aquifer containing water under pressure

fault

fracture or system of fractures in Earth's crust that occurs when stress is applied too quickly or stress is too great; can form as a result of horizontal compression, horizontal shear, or horizontal tension

crest

the highest point of a wave

climate

the long-term average of variation of weather for a particular area

trough

the lowest point on a wave

suspension

the method of transport for all particles small enough to be held up by the turbulence of a stream's moving water

trace fossil

the only indirect fossil evidence of an organism; traces of worm trails, footprints, and tunneling barrows

isochron

imaginary line on a map that shows points of the same age; formed at the same time

aquiclude

impermeable layer that is a barrier to groundwater such as silt, clay, and shale

seismometer

instrument used to measure vertical and horizontal movement during an earthquake

karst topography

irregular topography with sinkholes, sinks, and sinking streams caused by groundwater dissolution of limestone

stock

irregularly shaped pluton that is similar to a batholith but smaller, generally forms 5-30 km beneath Earth's surface, and cuts across older rocks

caldera

large crater, up to 50 km in diameter, that can form when the summit or side of a volcano collapses into the magma chamber during or after an eruption

stromatolite

large mat or mound composed of billions of photosynthesizing cyanobacteria that dominated shallow oceans during the Proterozoic

air mass

large volume of air that has the characteristics of the area over which it forms

guyot

large, extinct, basaltic volcanoes with flat, submerged tops

mesosphere

layer of Earth's atmosphere above the stratopause

thermosphere

layer of Earth's atmosphere that is located above the mesopause; oxygen atoms absorb solar radiation causing the temperature to increase in this layer

stratosphere

layer of Earth's atmosphere that is located above the troposphere and is primarily made up of concentrated ozone

troposphere

layer of the atmosphere closest to Earth's surface, where most of the mass of the atmosphere is found and in which most weather takes place and air pollution collects

microclimate

localized climate that differs from the surrounding regional climate

fissure

long cracks in the earth

rift valley

long, narrow depression that forms when continental crust begins to separate at a divergent boundary

discharge

measure of a volume of stream water that flows over a specific location in a particular amount of time

magnitude

measure of energy released during an earthquake, which can be described using the Richter scale

salinity

measure of the amounts of salts dissolved in seawater

stream channel

narrow pathway carved into sediment or rock by the movement of surface water

jet stream

narrow wind band that occurs above large temperature contrasts and can flow as fast as fast as 185 km/h

spring

natural discharge of groundwater at Earth's surface where an aquifer and an aquiclude come in contact

lake

natural or human-made body of water that can form when a depression on land fills with water

mass extinction

occurs when an unusual amount of organisms disappear form the rock layer at the same time

exosphere

outermost layer o Earth's atmosphere that is located above the thermosphere with no clear boundary at the top; transitional region between Earth's atmosphere and outer space

porosity

percentage of open spaces between grains of a material

albedo effect

percentage of sunlight that is reflected by the surface of a planet or a satellite such as the moon

ice age

period of extensive glacial coverage, producing long term climatic changes, where average global temperatures decreased by 5 C

half-life

period of time it takes for a radioactive isotope to decay to one half of its original amount

plastic deformation

permanent deformation caused by strain when stress exceeds a certain value

seismic gap

place along an active fault that has not experienced an earthquake in a long time

divergent plate boundary

place where two of Earth's tectonic plates are moving apart; is associated volcanism, earthquakes, and high heat flow, and is found primarily on the seafloor

convergent plate boundary

place where two tectonic plates are moving toward each other; is associated with trenches, island arches, and folded mountains

transform boundary

place where two tectonic plates slide horizontally past each another; is characterized by long faults and shallow earthquakes

temperature profile

plots changing water temperatures against depth, which varies, depending on the location and season

dike

pluton that cuts across preexisting rocks and often forms when magma invades cracks in surrounding rock bodies

sill

pluton that forms when magma intrudes parallel rock layers

focus

point of the initial fault rupture where an earthquake originates what usually lies at least several kilometers beneath Earth's surface

epicenter

point on Earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake

flood

potentially devastating natural occurrence in which water spills over the sides of a stream's banks onto adjacent land areas

soil liquefaction

process associated with seismic vibrations that occur in areas of sand that is nearly saturated; resulting in the ground acting like a liquid

infiltration

process b which precipitation that has fallen on land surfaces enters the ground and becomes groundwater

sublimation

process by which a solid slowly changes to a gas without becoming a liquid first

eutrophication

process by which lakes become rich in nutrients from the surrounding watershed, resulting in a change in the kinds of organisms in the lake

subduction

process by which one tectonic plate slips beneath another tectonic plate

recharge

process by which water from precipitation and runoff is added to the zone of saturation

coalescence

process that occurs when cloud droplets collide and form larger droplets, which eventually becomes too heavy to remain aloft and can fall to Earth as precipitation

radiometric dating

process used to determine the absolute age of a rock or fossil by determining the ratio of parent nuclei to daughter nuclei within a given sample

eccentricity

ratio of the distance between the foci to the length of the major axis; defines the shape of a planet's elliptical orbit

seismogram

record produced by seismometer that can provide individual record of each type of seismic wave

laccolith

relatively small, mushroom shaped pluton that forms when magma intrudes into parallel rock layers close to Earth's surface

index fossils

remains of plants or animals that were abundant, widely distributed, and existed briefly that can be used by geologist to correlate or date rock fossils

tephra

rock fragments, classified by size, that are thrown into the air during a volcanic eruption and fall to the ground

dendrochronology

science of using tree rings to determine absolute age; helped to date relatively recent geologic events and environmental changes

primary wave

seismic wave that squeezes and pushes rocks in the same direction that the wave travels, known as P-wave

continental shelf

shallowest part of the continental margin, with an average depth of 130 m and an average width of 60 km, that extends into the ocean from the shore and provides a nutrient-rich home to large numbers of fish

continental slope

sloping oceanic region found beyond the continental shelf that generally marks the edge of the continental crust and may be cut by submarine canyons

isostatic rebound

slow process of Earth's crust rising as the result of the removal of overlying material

condensation nucleus

small particle in the atmosphere around which cloud droplets can form

compressional stress

squeezing force that can cause the intense deformation- folding, faulting metamorphism and igneous intrusions- associated with mountain building

normal

standard value for a location, including rainfall, wind speed, and temperatures, based on meteorological records from the last 30 years

cinder cone volcano

steep-sided, generally small volcano that is built by the accumulation of tephra around the vent

latent heat

stored energy in water vapor that is not released to warm the atmosphere until condensation takes place

paleomagnetism

study of Earth's magnetic record using data gathered from iron-bearing minerals in rocks that have recorded the orientation of Earth's magnetic field at the time of their formation

base

substance that produces hydroxide ions (OH-) in water

pyroclastic flow

swift-moving, potentially deadly clouds of gas, ash, and other volcanic material produced by a violent eruption

slab pull

tectonic process associated with convection currents in Earth's mantle that occurs as the weight of the subducting plate pulls the trailing lithosphere into a subduction zone

ridge push

tectonic process associated with convection currents in Earth's mantle that occurs when the weight of an elevated ridge pushes an oceanic plate towards a subduction zone

dew point

temperature to which air is cooled at a constant pressure to reach saturation, at which point condensation can occur

stress

the total force acting on crustal rocks within an area

conduction

the transfer of thermal energy between objects in contact by the collisions between the particles in the objects

convection

the transfer of thermal energy by the movement of heated material from one place to another

radiation

the transfer of thermal energy electromagnetic waves; the transfer of thermal energy from the Sun to Earth

hot spring

thermal spring with temperatures higher than that of the human body

root

thickened area of continental material, detected by gravitational and seismic studies

period

third-longest time unit in the geologic time scale; measured in tens of millions of years

neap tide

tide that occurs during first or third quarter moon, when the Sun, the Moon, and Earth form a right angle; this causes solar tides to diminish lunar tides, causing high tides to be lower than normal and low tides to be higher than normal

thermocline

transitional ocean layer that lies between the relatively warm, sunlight, surface layer and the colder, dark, dense bottom layer and is characterized by temperatures that decrease rapidly with depth

delta

triangular deposit, usually made up of silt and clay particles, that forms where a stream enters a larger body of water

hotspot

unusually hot area in Earth's mantle where high temperature plumes of mantle material rise to the surface

heat island

urban area where climate is warmer than the surrounding countryside due to factors such as numerous concrete buildings and large expanses of asphalt

evaporation

vaporization- change of state from a liquid to a gas, involving thermal energy

runoff

water that flows downslope on Earth's surface and may enter a stream, river, or lake; its rate is influenced by the angle of the slope, vegetation, rate of precipitation, and soil composition

point source pollution

water-pollution source that generates pollution from a single point of origin, such as an industrial site

nonpoint source pollution

water-pollution source that generates pollution from widely spread areas, such as runoff from roads

magnetic reversal

when Earth's polarity switches between normal and reversed

surface current

wind-driven movement of ocean water that primarily affects the upper few hundred meters of the ocean

permeability

ability of a material to allow water pass through, is high in materials that have large, well-connected pores and low in materials with small, poorly-connected pores

precipitation

all solid and liquid and solid forms of water; including rain, snow, sleet, and hail; that fall from the clouds

isotope

an atom of an element that has a different mass number as the element but ahs the same chemical properties

front

boundary between two air masses if differing densities; can be cold, warm, stationary, or occluded and can stretch over large areas of Earth's surface

absolute-age dating

method that enables scientists to determine the actual age of certain rocks and other objects

phytoplankton

microscopic organisms that are the basis of marine food chains; abundant during the Cretaceous and the remains of their shell-like hard parts are found in chalk deposits worldwide

stalagmite

mound-shaped dripstone deposit of calcium carbonate that forms on a cave's floor beneath a stalactite

density current

movement of ocean water that occurs in depths too great to be affected by surface winds and is generated by differences in water temperature and salinity

evolution

the change in species over time

amplitude

the size of the seismic waves; an increase of 1 in the scale represents an increase in amplitude of a factor of 10

climatology

the study of Earth's climate in order to understand and predict climatic change, based on past and present variations in temperature, precipitation, wind, and other weather variables

meteorology

the study of the atmosphere, which is the air surrounding Earth