EDC 235 Midterm
Baumrind's 4 types of parenting
-Authoritative -Authoritarian -Neglectful -Permissive
Social Learning Theory
-Bandura -learning through social consequences (rewards, punishments on self and other) -- watching to learn socially appropriate behavior central issues: continuous (happens always), plasticity, nurture(it's a social thing. You learn how to behave appropriate by watching how others behave and wha they are rewarded for)
Ecological Systems Theory
-Broffenbrenner -children develop within mulitple interacting environmental contexts (school, family, peer group, religion etc) that all impact each other and the child -central issues: nature v nurture (some aspects of development will be biologically based and others will be changed by their environments, plasticity (essential in any theory that a child is changing, if you can't do that you're in trouble!)
Pyschosocial
-Erikson -personality, sense of identity -"crisises" of identity/purpose drive development -discontinuous, plastic, nature social learning, constructivism. Under the category of psychodymanic theory (psychosocial). About your mind and unconscious stuff. Different stages for different ages.
Psychosexual
-Freud -personality structures (id, ego, superego) -biologically driven behaviors drive development -discontinuous, not plastic, nuture
Social Constructivism
-Piaget different stages of learning -developing knowledge structures (schemas) and adjusting these schemas to include new knowledge (disequilibrium/equilibrium) -sensorimotor (birth-2) -> sensory learning. babies put things in their mouth -operational (2-7) --> using imagination. -concrete operational (7-11) --> thinking through problems -formal operational (11+) --> abstract thinking -focuses on cognition -central issues: discontinuous learning, plasticity, nurture v nature
Operant Conditioning
-Skinner/Watson -learning behavior through reinforcers/punishments -positive reinforcement= applies desired stimulus (giving someone $ for good grades) -negative reinforcement=takes away unwanted stimulus (turning off loud buzzing alarm if the rat completes the task) -positive punishment= applying something unwanted (yelling at someone until they do the thing) -negative punishment= taking away desired thing (taking away cell phone bc a kid got suspended) -most effective conditioning= combines punishment and reinforcement -reinforcement schedule +intermittent reinforcement-- irregularly applying stimulus (since subject doesnt know when stimulus will be applied, they are more likely to repeat the behavior that will get them what they want) +continuous-- constantly/regularly applying stimulus (less effective bc the subject figures out WHEN they need to preform the task in order to get the response they want) -can ONLY learn by doing/conditioning Only can learn by doing it yourself. vs social where you have to watch others.
Three types of peer interaction
-Sociable -Withdraw -Against/Agression
Socio-Cultural
-Vygotsky -zone of proximal development- space between what you can do on your own and what you cannot-- developmental learning by getting assistance so that you can complete those tasks. (Woodstar, kid tried to fill up the cup of water. Mom helped the child hold the cup, she assisted so in the future he can do it by himself) example: swim lessons -can learn from watching
Autoritarian
-high demandigness, low responsiveness -uses coercion -don't express warmth even if they feel it (expression does not equal inner emotion) outcomes -do well in school -high levels of anxiety, unhappiness -poor reaction to frustration/emotion -low participation in anti-social behavior (drinking, drugs, sex, gangs)
Authoritative
-high demandingness, high responsiveness -use induction (guilt) -preferred in white middle class households outcomes for child -lively and happy -self confident and able to master tasks -good emotional regulation and developed social skills -less rigid gender types -talk back more
Permissive
-low demandingness, high responsiveness -more of a friendship relationship outcomes -underregulated emotions --> express emotions in inappropriate amounts/situations -rebellious -low persistence to challenges -higher participation in anti-social behaviors
What does correlation mean? Give an example of positive, negative and zero correlation
-positive= when one thing goes up the other goes up (height and weight) -negative= when one thing goes up the other goes down (altitude and temperature) -zero= one thing changing does not effect the other (rate of wearing shoes and intelligence)
stages of attachment
-preattachment (birth-6 weeks) --> infants remain in close contact
Explain the process of friendship formation/dissolution (what factors influence children forming friendship? dissolving?)
-proximity and similarity= #1 and #2 predictors of friendship -has to be reciprocal -shared common interest -clear communication -exhange information-->confiding in -resolved conflicts--> social repair mechanisms (allow kids to be friends even when serious conflicts arise) -social repair mechanisms= negotiation, ability disengage, minimization of importance of conflict -behavioral similarities
Secure attachment + characteristics
1) seek (and make attempts/plans) to be near caregiver 2) show distress when separated from caregiver 3) happy/calm down when reunited 4) orient their actions to caregivers and watch/listen to their caregivers voice Future impact: -ability to make friends (close friends beginning in Middle Childhood); flexibile/resilient to stress. positive self esteem; able to form intimate relationships
State/describe 4 main ways formal education is different than apprenticeship
1.) Motivation: Apprentices: practice their craft and see the fruits of their labor. Formal Education: Students must work for years to perfect their skills because they can truly use them. It seems pointless since they do not see immediate results 2.) Social Relations Apprentices: Likely kin or family acquaintances Formal Education: Teachers are rarely related or friends, they may not even live in the same community. 3.) Social organization Apprentices: Learn in an environment with diverse skills and ages. Formal Education: Kids learn surrounded by those that are their same age, with one adult, and are expected to work individually (it's cheating if they do otherwise) 4.) Medium of Instruction Apprentices: Instruction is conducted orally in the context of production Formal Education: Also orally but it is different. Speech that uses written symbols as a means to acquire skills and knowledge
Ainsworth's contribution to attachment
4 types of attachment- measured through "strange situation/stranger" test. Mom and baby are in room. Stranger comes in room, baby is like wtf, and mom comes back and is like okay we cool
performance orientation
A way of approaching school tasks in which students are motivated by their level of performance, ability and incentives for trying. Most likely to give up. If they were to fail at a task they are likely to say "I can't do that"
mastery orientation
A way that children approach school tasks in which they are motivated to learn, to try hard, and to improve their performance. Students who adopt mastery orientation are more likely to succeed in the long run. If they fail, they think "If I try harder I will do better next time"
avoidance orientations
Adopted by those that have a fear of failing. They avoid situations in which they will be evaluated.
Avoidant attachment + characteristics
Avoidant Attachment --seems unresponsive to caregiver -slow to greet during reunion -result of child learning not to expect anything from caregiver--> learn their own self care/coping techniques (may not cry when hurt or in need of help bc have learned caregiver wont come)
top down v bottom up processing (describe each)
Both involves classroom instructional design. Top Down: An approach to education that focuses on using skills to accomplish specific, meaningful tasks. (instead of focusing on smaller tasks it allows growth towards a larger goal) Bottom-Up: An approach to education that starts with teaching basic skills and, once they have been mastered, moves on to more complex tasks. (Instruction begins more simply, then gets more and more complex as time goes on)
Top down v bottom up processing in learning to read
Bottom Up: A slower process. Start simply and learn more as time goes on. More traditional. Give students information based off of a curriculum and provide feedback Top Down: More complex. Alternative forms of classroom instruction. Teachers and children take turns reading, it allows decoding and comprehension skills Note* Both lead to skills in reading
Bowlby's contribution to attachment
Defined how/when attachement is formed--> Four phases -preattachment (birth-6 weeks) +can be passed around to various caregivers without noticeable emotional upset -attachment in the making (6 weeks-8 months) +begin to exhibit preference but still able to be passed around -clear cut attachment (8 months-24 months) +secure base +separation anxiety -reciprocal relationship (14 months+) Detached--> no stable relationships --> unfixable (after 2 years) can't form intimate relationships or demonstrate empathy (maltreated orphans) separation anxiety= most extreme if you've grown up with only one caregiver
Harlow's contribution to attachment theory
Defined what attachment is (monkey experiment) -comfort stems from love --> love/comfort and attachment allows us to comfort yourself and then go out and face fears -baby monkeys cuddle with cloth mom before turning around to face scary clown/go explore new environment
Disorganized/disoriented attachment + characteristics
Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment -at reunion shows contradictory behavior -reflects greatest insecurity in attachment --> result of attachment not forming in early childhood -often comes from fear of caregiver (abusive relationships or other extreme disruptions)
How does formal education differ from other methods of education (apprenticeships/observational learning?)
Education: a social process in which adults engage in explicit instruction of the young in order to transmit specialized knowledge and skills of their culture. Apprenticeships: Can be pursued when a certain level of specialization has been learned. Involves both learning through information and learning through formal education. Observational Learning: A form of social learning where you observe the behaviors of other. Learning from a parent, sibling, teacher, friend, etc.
compare/contrast entity model of intelligence with the incremental model of intelligence
Entity model of intelligence: Children see intelligence as a quality of which each person has a certain fixed amount Incremental Mode of Intelligence: Intelligence is something that can grow over time as one learns
How boys v girls form friendships (similarities and differences)
Girls= tend to have smaller group, tight knit and intimate relationships, validation, co-rumination +girls more at risk for fragile, unstable friendships Boys=larger crowds, less intimate/emotional self disclosure, based around physical activity
What is a high quality friendship? How do you make/keep one?
HQ Friendships= intimate (self-disclosure), loyal, pro-social, low levels of conflict, low levels of aggression -enhance development, provide buffer for other social interactions
Against/Aggression outcomes
Moving against the group--> Anti-social -overt aggression (hitting, yelling, starting fights)--> generally more male -relational aggression (emotional manipulation, gossip, blackmail)--> is common in male and females BUT is predominant way females display aggression Positive corr with: -popularity and social status (not well liked, but have high social status, especially in relational cases) -victimization Neg corr with: -low academic achievement -low peer acceptance -phsyco-social adjustment
Withdraw outcomes
Moving away from the group -prefer playing alone, cry easily, consistently shy -can be unsociable OR shy unsociable= doesn't want to play with others but isnt anxious about approaching others--> self selects to play alone shy=wants to play with others but is too anxious to approach them--> found on edge of group, watching but not engaging Shyness positive correlations (In US)= depression, peer rejection Shyness negative correlations (in US)= low self regard, low academic achievement, low social adjustment, low peer acceptance (not sure if its low self regard is the result of shyness or shyness is in negative correlation with self regard ??) In pre-western China, shyness was good and positively correlated with academic achievement and peer acceptance. post-westernization, shyness is becoming a neutral trait (in cities)
Sociability behaviors + outcomes
Moving towards the group--> Pro Social -friendliness, asking someone to play, volunteers, considered friendly, has positive things to say about others Positive Correlation with: -academic achievement -socially preferred -high self regard Negative Correlation with: -loneliness -aggression +++less valued in group focused cultures (China)
How does parenting practice relate to formal schooling success?
Parenting Practices: survival, economic and cultural goals Parents provide educational toys to promote learning math, reading and writing. The role of family in learning is equally important to the teachers roll.
Resistant attachment + characteristics
Resistant Attachement -seek closeness with caregeiver -distressed and angry when caregiver returns -usually a result of caregiver who wasnt consistent in care (depressed caregiver, addicted caregiver) --> child learns they can't count on caregiver --> high levels of anxiety bc they don't know what to expect
Four types of attachment (Ainsworth)
Secure Attachment Avoidant Attachment Resistant Attachement Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment
Four popularity statueses
Socially preferred, controversial, neglected, rejected
explain the difference between sociometric and percieved popularity (Cillessen and Rose)
Sociometric: How liked an individual is. Those who act in prosocial ways are deemed to be sociometrically popular. Empathetic, not aggressive. Perceived Popularity: Known among their peers are being popular. Often associated by aggression and non pro-social behaviors. Ex. Mean Girls- Regina George
Sociometric popularity v Percieved popularity
Sociometric= how well liked you are -associated with pro-social behaviors (cooperative, kind, not aggressive) -are well liked, but may only be known in a small circle Percieved= how "popular" you are --> highly seen and highly emulated -associated with aggression and dominance -pro social in order to keep power -two types--> "model" and "tough" +"Model"= leadership qualities, well liked +"Tough"= aggressive, not necessarily well liked
Explain how the formation of the classroom and the method of instruction can influence students motivation
Standard classroom format: Teacher standing in front of the students. Shows teacher as an authority figure. Initiation-reply-feedback sequence: calls on child when asking a question, teacher knows the answer. If the child hesitates they call on someone else. Reciprocal teaching: small group discussions that the time of reading with group leaders. Play world practice: enacting, discussing, making art, and playing with themes based on children's literature
What are cultural regularities? (Be able to identify 3) (rogoff)
Thinks in that culture that effect your behavior. Infant mortality- high rate, then that is a cultural regularity. Behavior: you don't name babies until you're sure they will live Low infant mortality rate- have fewer babies, invest a lot of money, name them -regularity= children kept separate from adult spheres --> babies sleeping in own rooms/cribs, self soothing, formal education instead of community activities/apprenticeship --> OUTCOME individualistic culture -regularity= high infant mortality rate--> babies aren't named right away --> OUTCOME: want to see if baby will make it regularity= low infant mortality rate--> buy new babies toys/clothes--> REASON/OUTCOME: survival isn't a concern, so focus is on cognitive development
compare traditional psychology methodology and the sociocultural historical perspective (unit of analysis, how culture is treated, and endpoint of development)
Traditional psych -unit of analysis= individual -development is unidirectional and universal -you are behind/ahead of "norm" --> no alternative routes Linear path- one path. born, 6 years old learning to read, start dating at 13... Socio-cultural- historical (Rogoff) -unit of analysis= cultural practices -cannot separate individuals from the cultural communities they are a part of -development is multidirectional and has no universal endpoint -Because everyone is influenced by all of these factors their is no universal way to progress through development.
what is a cohort effect
an effect on a group of people of similar age because of a shared life experience -prejudice higher in generation that grew up as kids in 9/11 world
what is the difference between a "critical period" and a "sensitive period"? (Is there a critical period for language development?)
critical period= have to learn that developmental skill in a set time frame or else ability to learn it is gone -eye sight has to develop in first few weeks of infancy, or tissue dies sensitive period= best time to learn certain developmental skill, but still possible afterwards
What is attachement?
emotional connection between subject and caregiver --> impacts future relationships and ability to form intimacy
primary intersubjectivity
emotional expressions of one partner eliciting similar responses in the other-- key for developing emotions and intimate relationships (mirror neurons= when we see someone preform an action, our mirror neurons fire which make us feel like we are doing the action) -allows us to communicate emotionally -baby pouting= signing to caregiver that they are upset BUT once they start crying any emotional intersubjectivity is lost mom smiles at baby, baby smiles back, they are able to communicate together through body language. If the mom stopped smiling the baby was like "woah, what? Come back mama"
Controversial +implications for development
high like, high dislike -more aggressive than the rejected group -compensate by joking etc --> using social and cognitive skills to keep partners from getting angry -not distressed by lack of popularity -usually liked by one person
Socially Preferred + implications for development
high like, low dislike -more physically attractive -skilled at initiating and maintaining positive relationships -good at compromise -most socially competent
Is attachment innate and does it have to occur before age 2 for kids to have healthy development?
innate-- survival and developmentally key has to happen before 2 or becomes impossible to form intimate relationships and demonstrate empathy
Permissive-Neglectful
low demandingness, low repsonsiveness--> absentee parenting -can be result of depression/addiction/general absentee parenting -worst outcomes for kids--> no solid base, less accountability etc
Rejected + implications for development
low like, high dislike -actively disliked -shy, withdrawn OR aggressive -aware of social failure -overestimate social skills, underestimate how disliked (try to join group bc they think they are sociable and are liked enough but are wrong--> fail to join) -higher levels of substance abuse, psychological disturbances WITHDRAWN rejected -withdrawn, wary, timid -not all withdrawn kids are rejected--> withdrawn behavior PLUS negative emotions= rejected AGGRESSIVE rejected -hostile/disruptive behavior -higher rates of delinquency -some are naturally aggressive and so their peers reject them; others are rejected first and become aggressive bc of anger.
Neglected + implications for development
low like, low dislike -ignored rather than disliked -less sociable -not aggressive or shy -not concerned about status -status likely to improve with age -does better academically than rejected -more compliant--> more liked by teacher
naturalistic observations vs experiements
naturalistic observations= watching, observing, not engaging experiments= controlled vs dependent variables, manipulating, control group
Selection v Socialization
selection= group is formed because of shared common interest. smoking- everyone smokes socialization= group is formed, one person participates in a behavior--> rest of group follows. smoking- you start smoking because your friend does
3 Parenting Goals + examples
survival= ensuring child's survival--> tying kids down so they don't fall in the open fire economic= ensuring they will be economically productive adults-->educational toys for babies to learn problem solving, curiosity cultural= ensuring they will share groups values--> raising them with dominant religion? saying prayers, going to church?
Describe the relationship between family (institution) and school (institution)-- Cultural communities
using Rogoff's socio-cultural-historical model, its important to remember that children are products of the interacting cultural communities they are involved in. The relationships, values, parenting styles used in their family impact their ability to succeed in a school setting. Depends if values, parenting/teaching styles are compatible, and if student has stable attachments--> ability to make friends, engage in pro social behaviors
