elementary surveying

Plane Surveying

. A type of surveying which does not take into account the curvature of the earth, and the surface of the earth is treated as a plane surface.

Geodetic Surveying

. A type of surveying which takes into account the curvature of the earth's surface for achieving high precision using principles of geodesy. It generally extends over large areas.

Field work operation 5 Field Survey Party

1) Chief of Party - The person who is responsible for the overall direction, supervision, and operational control of the survey party. He is also responsible for its logistical and technical requirements, and problems of a field survey operation. Prior to the execution of a survey project, he consults or confers with superiors regarding the project to be undertaken. He is responsible for submitting survey reports and records. He prepares cost estimates of survey projects. 2) Assistant Chief of Party - The person whose duty is to assist the chief of party in the accomplishment of the task assigned to the survey party. He takes over the duties of the chief of party during the absence of the chief. He conducts ground reconnaissance and investigates sites of a proposed project to gather necessary data prior to the start of a survey work. He is primarily responsible for the employment of surveying equipment, instruments and accessories used in the survey operation. He prepares field and office reports and survey plans for submission to the chief of party. 3) Instrumentman - The person whose duty is to set up, level, and operate surveying instruments such as the transit, engineer's level, theodolite, sextant, plane table and alidade, etc. He also assists the technician in the operation of electronic surveying equipment. 4) Technician - The person who is responsible for use and operation of all electronic instruments required in a field work operation. It is his duty to see to it that these equipment's are functioning properly, are regularly calibrated, and are in proper adjustment. 5) Computer - The person whose duty is to perform all computations of survey data and works out necessary computational checks required in a field work operation. 6) Recorder - The person whose duty is to keep a record of all sketches, drawings, measurements, and observations taken or needed for a field work operation. He keeps table of schedules of all phases of work and the employment of the members of the survey party. 7) Head Tapeman - The person responsible for the accuracy and speed of all linear measurements with tape. He determines and directs the marking of stations to be occupied by the surveying instruments and directs the clearing out of obstructions along the line of sight. He inspects and compares tapes for standard length prior to their use in taping operations. 8) Rear Tapeman - The person whose duty is to assist the head tapeman during taping operations and in other related work. 9) Flagman - The person whose duty is to hold the flagpole or range of pole at selected points as directed by the instrumentman. He helps the tapeman in making measurements and assists the axeman in cutting down branches and in clearing other obstructions to line of sight. 10)Rodman - The person whose primary duty is to hold the stadia or leveling rod when sights are to be taken it. 11)Pacer - The person whose duty is to check all linear measurements made by the tapeman. He assists the tapeman in seeing to it that mistakes and blunders in linear measurements are either reduced or eliminated. He may also perform the job of a rodman. 12)Axeman/Lineman - The person whose duty is to clear the line of sight of trees, bush, and other obstructions in wooded country. 13)Aidman - The person whose duty is to render first aid treatment to members of the survey party who are involved in snake and insects' bites, accidents, and other cases involving their health, safety, and wellbeing. 14)Utilityman - The person whose duties are to render other forms of assistance needed by the survey party or as directed by the chief of party.

Surveying Measurements

1) Direct Measurements - A direct measurement is a comparison of the measured quantity with a standard measuring unit or units employed for measuring a quantity of that kind. Some common examples of direct measurements are applying a wire or tape of a line, determining a horizontal or vertical angle with a transit, or fitting a protractor between two intersecting lines to determine the intersection angle. 2) Indirect Measurements - When it is not possible to apply a measuring instrument directly to a quantity to be measured an indirect measurement is made. In this type of measurement, the observed value is determined by its relationship to some other known values. For example, the total length of a line would be an indirectly observed distance if it is determined by a summation of a series of directly measured short segments. There are numerous indirect measurements made in surveying operations such that it is important for surveyors and students of surveying to have a good working knowledge of trigonometry and geometry. The usual surveying type of measurement entail both angular and linear measurements. When using SI, all linear measurements are based upon the meter. Larger and smaller units are derived from it in decimal steps, and their names are formed by adding prefixes. In SI a total set of 18 prefixes are used to form multiples and submultiples of different units. The following more commonly used prefixes are added to basic names: mega- = 1,000,000 centi- = 0.01 kilo- = 1,000 milli- = 0.001 hecto- = 100 micro- = 0.000001 deca- = 10 nano- = 0.000000001 deci- = 0.1 7.1 Linear, Area, and Volume Measurements. The common units for length are the kilometer, meter, centimeter, and the millimeter. Length may also refer to other linear dimensions such as width, depth, thickness, height, or distance. The kilometer is used for long distances and in measuring the sides of large tracts of land. For the measurement of objects such as buildings, structures, residential lots, heights of mountains, tides, pipes and cables, the meter is used. The centimeter and millimeter are not commonly used in surveying. They are suitable for small dimensions needed in laboratories where very precise but minute measurements are required. The unit of area in SI is the square meter. For very small areas, square millimeters or square centimeters is used. Areas of small tracts of land, floor areas of buildings and structures are measured in square meters. The hectare (ha), although not an SI unit, is commonly used for the measurement of large tracts of land such as cities, provinces, sugar cane plantations, ricefields and forests. The square kilometer is the appropriate SI unit for this purpose. NOTE: 1 ha = 10,000 sq. m., 1 sq. km. = 1,000,000 sq. m. or 100 ha. The common metric units for volume are the cubic meter, liter, and the millimeter. Precise volumes, actual physical volumes, and the volumes of solids and liquids should be expressed depending on magnitude, in cubic meters, cubic centimeters, or cubic millimeters. The cubic meter is used for larger volume which are common in engineering constructions and in measuring various quantities in surveying. 7.2 Angular Measurements. The SI unit for plane angles is in radian. The radian is defined as an angle subtended by an arc of a circle having a length equal to the radius of the circle. The steradian is the supplementary unit of a solid angle (one which has its vertex in the center of a sphere which cuts off an area of the surface equal to that of a square with sides of length equal to the radius of the sphere). In the Philippines the sexagesimal units are used with SI for angular measurements because of their practical importance and our familiarity with it. 7.2.1 Sexagesimal Units - The sexagesimal units of angular measurement are the degree, minute, and second. The unit of angle used in surveying is the degree which is defined as 1/360th of a circle. One degree equals 60 minutes, and 1 minute equals 60 seconds. Divisions of seconds are given in tenths, hundredths, and thousandths. 7.2.2 Centesimal Units - Many countries in Europe and the Middle East use the centesimal system where the grad is the angular unit. In this system the circumference of a circle (360 degrees) is divided into 400 grads. The grad is divided into 100 centesimal minutes or 0.9 degrees, and the minute is subdivided into 100 centesimal seconds or 0 degree 00 min 32.4 sec. Grads are usually expressed in decimals.

The Work of the Surveyor Consists of

1) Decision Making - selecting method, equipment and final point locations. 2) Fieldwork & Data Collection - making measurements and recording data in the field. 3) Computing & Data Processing - preparing calculations based upon the recorded data to determine locations in a useable form. 4) Mapping or Data Representation - plotting data to produce a map, plot, or chart in the proper form. 5) Stakeout - locating and establishing monuments or stakes in the proper locations in the field.

Fieldwork Operations

1Surveying Field Notes .2The Field Notebook 3 Types of Notes 4 Information Found in Field Notebooks 5 Field Survey Party

Surveying

The science and art of determining the relative positions of points above, on, or beneath the earth's surface and locating the points in the field.

1. Types of Surveying

geodetic and plane

5.1 Plane Surveying

Ø The shape of the earth is spherical. Thus, the surface is obviously curved. But in plane surveying the curvature of earth is not taken into account. Ø This is because plane surveying is carried out over a small area, so the surface of the earth is considered as a plane. Ø The degree of accuracy required in this type of surveying is completely low. Plane surveying is done on an area of less than 250 sq.km.

Fieldwork Operations: 1Surveying Field Notes

➢ Surveying field notes constitute the only reliable and permanent record of actual work done in the field. ➢ Before any survey is made, the necessary data to be collected should be considered carefully and in the field all such required data should be obtained. ➢ The field notes become the official record of the survey. It is for this reason that notes must be complete, legible, concise, and comprehensive, and logically arranged according to recognized practice. ➢ Field notes are usually worked over in the office into some more advanced form of presentation, such as map, a report, or a computation. ➢ A need to rerun, extend, or otherwise make use of previous surveys may be required for a related project. In such case it would be most logical that the old field notes will be only available reference, and their value will depend largely upon the completeness and clarity with which they have been recorded. ➢ In many engineering applied surveys the field notes are used or referred to by office personnel who have not seen the field site or who are not familiar with conditions on the project site. They rely entirely only upon what has been recorded. ➢ A completed record written in a disorderly and confused manner often causes more mistakes and erroneous information ➢A need to rerun, extend, or otherwise make use of previous surveys may be required for a related project. In such case it would be most logical that the old field notes will be only available reference, and their value will depend largely upon the completeness and clarity with which they have been recorded. ➢ In many engineering applied surveys the field notes are used or referred to by office personnel who have not seen the field site or who are not familiar with conditions on the project site. They rely entirely only upon what has been recorded. ➢ A completed record written in a disorderly and confused manner often causes more mistakes and erroneous information. ➢ The notes should be recorded in the conventional and generally used format and not according to whims of the field surveyor. ➢ It is essential that notes be intelligible to others without verbal explanations. ➢ Field work observations should be recorded directly in the notebook at the time observations are made. ➢ In court, field notes may be used as evidence.

1. Specialized Types of Surveying

1) Cadastral Surveys are usually closed surveys which are undertaken in urban and rural locations for the purpose of determining and defining property lines and boundaries, corners, and areas. These surveys are also made to fix the boundaries of municipalities, towns, and provincial jurisdictions. 2) Construction Surveys. These are surveys which are undertaken at a construction site to provide data regarding grades, reference lines, dimensions, ground configuration, and the location and elevation of structures which are of concern to engineers, architects, and builders. 3) Forestry Surveys. A type of survey executed in connection with forest management and mensuration, and the production and conservation of forest lands. 4) Hydrographic Surveys. Refer to surveying streams, lakes, reservoirs, harbours, oceans, and other bodies of water. These surveys are made to map shore lines, chart the shape of areas underlying water surfaces, and measure the flow of streams. They are of general importance in connection with navigation, development of water supply and resources, flood control, irrigation, production of hydroelectric power, subaqueous constructions, and recreation. 5) Industrial Surveys. Sometimes known as optical tooling. It refers to the use of surveying techniques in ship building, construction and assembly of aircraft, layout and installation of heavy and complex machinery, and in other industries where very accurate dimensional layouts are required. 6) Mine Surveys are surveys which are performed to determine the position of all underground excavations and surface mine structures, to fix surface boundaries of mining claims, determine geological formations, to calculate excavated volumes, and establish lines and grades for other related mining work. 7) Photogrammetric Surveys. A type of survey which makes use of photographs taken with specifically designed cameras either from airplanes or ground stations. Measurements are obtained from the photographs which are used in conjunction with limited ground surveys. 8) Route Surveys. Involves the determination of alignment, grades, earthwork quantities, location of natural and artificial objects in connection with the planning, design, and construction of highways, railroads, pipelines, canals, transmission lines, and other linear projects. 9) TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS are those surveys made for determining the shape of the ground, and the location and elevation of natural and artificial features upon it. The features shown include such natural objects as hills, mountains, rivers, lakes, relief of the ground surface, etc; and works of man, such as roads, buildings, ports, towns, municipalities, and bridges.

Field work operation 3 Types of Notes

1) Sketches - A good sketch will help to convey a correct impression. Sketches are rarely made to exact scale, but in most cases, they are made approximately to scale. They are drawn freehand and of liberal sizes. Please note that a sketch crowded with unnecessary data is often confusing. 2) Tabulations - A series of numerical values observed in the field are best shown in a tabulated format. Tabular forms should be used wherever possible. This format prevents mistakes, allows easy checking, saves time, makes the calculation legible to others, and simplifies the work of the person checking the field notes. 3) Explanatory Notes - Explanatory notes provide a written description of what has been done in the field. These are employed to make clear what the numerical data and sketches fail to do. Usually, they are placed on the right-hand page of the field notebook in the same line with the numerical data that they explain. 4) Computations - Calculations or one kind or another form a large part of the work of surveying. Most surveying-type computations are made algebraically using simple arithmetical steps and trigonometric functions. Electronic hand-held calculators, desk calculators, or digital computers are now used for calculating values. 5) Combination of The Above - The practice used in most extensive surveys is a combination of the above. The surveyor should be able to determine for himself which type of combination would be most logical to use in portraying the type of data gathered in the field.

Field work operation 4 Information Found in Field Notebooks

1) Title of the Fieldwork or Name of Project - The official name of the project or title of thefield work should always be identified. The location of the survey and preferably its nature or purpose should always be stated 2) Time of the Day and Date - These entries are necessary to document the notes and furnish a timetable, as well as to correlate different surveys. 3) Weather Conditions - Temperature, wind velocity, typhoons, storms, and other weather conditions, such as in surveying operations. 4) Names of Group Members and Their Designations - The chief of party, instrument man, tape man, and other members of the survey of the survey party must be identified. This information will be necessary for documentation purposes and other future reference. 5) List of Equipment - All survey equipment used must be listed, including its make, brand, and serial number. The type of instrument used, and its adjustment, all have a definite effect on the accuracy of the survey.

1. Importance of Surveying

to mark boundaries and divide land. (1) map the Earth above and below sea level; (2) prepare navigational charts for use in the air, on land, and at sea; (3) establish property boundaries of private and public lands; (4) develop data banks of land-use and natural resource information that aid in managing our environment; (5) determine facts on the size, shape, gravity, and magnetic fields of the earth; and (6) prepare charts of our moon and planets.

Surveying

which has recently also been interchangeably called geomatics has traditionally been defined as the science, art, and technology of determining the relative positions of points above, on, or beneath the Earth's surface, or of establishing such points.

5.1 Geodetic Surveying

Ø In geodetic surveying the curvature of the earth is taken into consideration. Ø It is extended over a large area greater than 250 sq.km. Ø The line joining any two points considered as a curved line. Very refined methods and instruments are used in this type of surveying. In this method very high precision or accuracy is required

1. Objective of Surveying

Ø The primary objective of survey is the preparation of plan of estate or buildings roads, railways, pipelines, canals, etc. Or to measure area of field, state, nation. Ø Objective of geodetic surveying is to determine precise positions on the surface of the earth of widely distant points.

1. Uses of Surveying

Ø To prepare a topographical map this shows the hills, valley, rivers, villages, town, etc, of a country. Ø To prepare a cadastral map showing the boundaries of fields houses, and other properties. Ø To prepare an engineering map to show details like roads, railways, canals, etc. Ø To prepare a topographical map this shows the hills, valley, rivers, villages, town, etc, of a country. Ø To prepare a cadastral map showing the boundaries of fields houses, and other properties. Ø To prepare an engineering map to show details like roads, railways, canals, etc. Ø To prepare military map showing roads and railways, communication with different parts of country. To prepare contour map and to determine capacity of a reservoirs and ton find the best possible route for roads, railways etc. Ø To prepare archeological map including places where ancient relics exist. Ø To prepare a geological map showing areas including underground resources.

surveyor

• to determine, measure and represent the land, three-dimensional objects, point-fields, and trajectories; • to assemble and interpret land and geographically related information; • to use that information for the planning and efficient administration of the land, the sea and any structures thereon; and • to conduct research into the above practices and to develop them.

Field work operation 2The Field Notebook

➢ In practice the field notebook should be of good quality rag paper, with stiff board or leather cover made to withstand hard usage, and of pocket size. ➢ The field notebook may be bound in any of three ways: conventional, ring, or loose-leaf. ➢ In some technical schools' students are asked to use bond paper instead of field notebooks when preparing and submitting their field notes.