ESS water midterm
Be able to describe and explain the steps required to make it rain:
1. Add water vapor to the air (i.e. increase vapor pressure) 2. Decrease the temperature of the air (How to): You can create saturated air by losing energy (absorption of energy) through conduction, radiation, or sensible heat Mix warm and cold air convection Change the phase of water (condensing water releases latent heat to surrounding molecules of air in a parcel and warms them up)
Be able to explain what is meant by a 100-year flood and how we use this for planning, and how human activities may affect the likelihood of floods
100-year flood: Flood that has a 1/100 (1%) chance of being equaled or exceeded in any given year. US FEMA uses the 100-year flood to restrict building near streams Limitations: Flow records are short and curve has limited data points at the upper end Doesn't take into account changes in the drainage basin through time Human activities in watersheds that increase risk of flooding: Urbanization Fires and logging removing vegetation Overgrazing Soil complications Mining Over-irrigation Draining wetlands Climate change increases risk of flooding by: Intensification of hydrologic cycle Warmer temperatures causing more winter rain and less snow Faster snowmelt in spring Changing vegetation and infiltration rates Sea level rise
state water project
30 percent ag districts 70 percent urban and industrial consumers Operated by Department of Water Resources in California 1960s beginning-- 700 miles of reservoirs and aqueducts and powerplants
groundwater
All the water contained in the spaces in bedrock and soil, 30% of freshwater on earth, very important source of water for society When rain falls or snow/ice melts: Infiltration - absorption by surface (soil, sediments, rock) to form groundwater
Be able to use the above knowledge to make recommendations for policy choices (between the four types of models in the case) for public service privatization.
Arm's length model/O&M contracts in US/pull system are recommended for more established processes such as pipeline maintenance for existing infrastructure Vertical integration/French model/pull is considered for bigger changes with higher risks and uncertainty
Bergeron Process
At the same air temperature/vapor pressure the air above supercool water droplets can be saturated with water vapor but the same air would be supersaturated over an ice crystal, so deposition of water vapor is greater than sublimation and the ice crystal grows, this reduces the water vapor content of the air so the air is now undersaturated over the supercool droplet and net evaporation occurs so the droplet grows smaller, the process repeats again with the ice crystal growing at the expense of the supercool droplet
Be able to explain how climate change may affect streamflow
Be able to explain what is meant by a 100-year flood and how we use this for planning, and how human activities may affect the likelihood of floodsClimate change causes much greater variability in streamflow Snow and snowmelt are a significant fraction of total precipitation at higher elevations and higher latitudes. Critical water resource for much of the world's population: Stores freshwater in the winter, acting as a natural reservoir, contributes to streamflow in spring and summer, and snowmelt allows for more infiltration and groundwater recharge Glaciers Nearly 2 billion people rely on rivers which get their water at least in part from snow and mountain glaciers Particularly important for countries around the Himalayas and Andes that are otherwise arid Melting of mountain glaciers could lead to water shortages Countries most at risk: Pakistan, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru (80% from snow) Overall effect of changing timing and intensity of glacial meltwater and changing timing and intensity of precipitation due to climate change = much greater variability in streamflow Greater variability causes problems for people
Be able to suggest ways that human activities could affect precipitation patterns
Buildings increase rainfall because air is forced up over buildings. Cities also create heat islands because concrete makes things hot Removal or addition of vegetation affecting transpiration and reduction of ponds and lakes reduces amount of water vapor Alteration of earth's surface affecting evaporation eg. paving over areas of soil or new lakes/ reservoirs Extra cloud condensation nuclei - intentional (cloud seeding) vs non intentional (pollution) Climate change Increasing evaporation and water content of the atmosphere Changing wind and weather patterns Water temperature so less snowfall and more rainfall Cloud seeding: introduce materials into clouds to stimulate precipitation by providing more condensation nuclei Dy ice/silver iodine act as cloud condensation or ice nuclei Legal and ethical issues?
Be able to identify the primary sources of water resources available to water managers and discuss challenges in their respective management and use (e.g., what environmental or logistical challenges do different water sources present)
California relies on snowpack, estimated levels of precipitation per year, and supplementation of groundwater and aquifers for what we cannot get from directing fresh water rivers 75 million acre feet per year from precipitation We have the capacity to hold about 850 MAF which is 20 times more than the surface water supply and less than half is unusable anyway due to quality issues Groundwater reliance: 38% in wet years, and 46% in dry years We are having a continuing depletion of groundwater in California and this is causing drastic issues with the sinking of the land and having to dig wells deeper and deeper Approximately 75 percent of the water supply comes from North of Sacramento We do have desalination in California too in Carlsbad but it makes about 56,000 acre feet per year
Identify overarching challenges associated with the Colorado River compact (e.g., historical context in negotiations and future water supply/demand)
California wanted to build dam to divert water and prevent floods Other states were like yo wtf, what if CA gets priority, so they got up and started a compact Arid states - water is important for agri, mining and industrial Shared and managed by six other states along the Colorado river watershed as well as Mexico through interstate and international compacts. Different jurisdictions share portion river flow Problems Arizona said nah because they believed it was inequitable division in their opinion CA said lol no, we used the water before AZ so we have prior appropriation Supreme court slaps CA, says only US can apportion water on trans-boundary river AZ gets their share, CA slightly reduces. Indian reservations get some water too Colorado river is over-allocated - every party is using its full share, worsened by climate change Rivers capacity was overestimated because records were drawn from an above average rainfall year.
Understand and be able to calculate the three KPIs (key performance indicators) covered in the lecture (capacity utilization, WIP inventory, and throughput time) if given a work flow chart.
Capacity utilization: active time for each station working/total time WIP Inventory: amount of unfinished inventory parts waiting to be processed Throughput time: time it takes to produce one item from start to finish Capacity utilization rate WIP inventory rate Throughput time Push HighHighLong PullLowLowShort
Groundwater Depletion
Caused by decentralized pumping by farmers and urban residents Drivers Lack of regulation or oversight over groundwater use and instream flow protections Lack of administration (reallocation, market based reallocation, collective negotiation, compacts) Decline in groundwater recharge because of paving and development
thermal pollution
Common where power stations or factories that use water for cooling return water to lakes and streams Less oxygen dissolves in warm water (harms ecosystems and makes it easier for parasites to survive)
Describe the rationales for initiating compacts and allocating interstate or international rivers
Compacts - interstate or international compacts are agreements allocating water resources across boundaries Provide interstate or international compacts are agreements allocating water resources across boundaries Based on prior uses and estimated future needs Established how much water is available for use and provide a mechanism for enforcing allocations Concern over water rights (i.e. if one state starts using it, then they will gain priority)
steady supply of water vapor
Constant supply of new moisture needed in order to form a cloud, grow droplets, and provide significant rainfall. Moisture comes from evaporation over the ocean (wind blows it inland and carries moisture with it), big lakes, rainforests (lots of plants transpiring - trees pull water from soil with roots and releasing it back to the atmosphere, removing vegetation limits rainfall!).
Understand the concept of contracting/arm's length and vertical integration in supplier management. Understand how different combinations of these two concepts give rise to different supplier management models and how they are related to the four water privatization models in the case.
Contracting/arm's length: seeks out most cost efficient alternative. Companies use short term contracts or flexibility terms to get cheap prices and can shift to less expensive supplier at a moment's notice Arm's length model (O&M contracts in US) are recommended for more established processes such as pipeline maintenance for existing infrastructure Vertical integration: end-to-end control/ownership across the entire supply chain (five fingers on customers and five fingers on your suppliers. Better control and coordination of flexibility across the entire supply chain. French model is considered for bigger changes with higher risks and uncertainty
non-point source pollution
EPA issues grants to help states, cities, tribes develop and implement nonpoint source pollution management Permits contain Limits on what can be discharged Monitoring and reporting requirements Permits essentially translate general requirements of CWA into specific requirements tailored to operations of each person discharging pollutants.
Safe Drinking Water Act: discuss the goals of the policy and challenges in implementation
EPA sets drinking water standards for public water systems to: Protect against contaminants (enforceable) Make recommendations for odor, taste, visual qualities (non enforceable) Applies to above ground and underground sources Problems with the SDWA: Many of the regulations are out of date Congress last reauthorized SDWA in 1996 Cost of compliance and monitoring has been challenging for certain communities Municipalities conduct their own monitoring and evaluation
Discuss possibilities in addressing these challenges.
Educate to change consumption practices Invent new water conservation technologies Improve irrigation and agricultural practices Appropriately price water Develop energy efficient desalination plants Encourage community based partnerships Develop and enact better water policies and regulations Holistically manage ecosystems Improve distribution infrastructure Shrink corporate water footprints Build international frameworks and institutional cooperation Address water pollution Improve equitable access to water as a public resource Research and development innovation Transfer low-tech water technologies to developing countries Mitigate climate change
Understand and be able to describe evaporation, condensation, saturation, and interpret graphs of vapor pressure
Evaporation: liquid to gas Condensation: gas to liquid Vapor pressure: pressure of gas above a liquid Equilibrium: rate of evaporation equals rate of condensation is equal to the rate of evaporation (usually evaporating off the surface of a liquid and condensing back to the surface of the liquid) Saturation: amount of water in gaseous phase is maximized Saturation vapor pressure: maximum vapor pressure at a given temperature Dew point temperature: temperature of saturation for a parcel of air What happens if temperature increases... Undersaturated: net evaporation (fewer water vapor particles in air than you can have at saturation) If temperature decreases... if you add more water vapor... Supersaturation: net condensation (more water vapor particles in air than you can have at saturation) {forms of condensation include dew, frost, fog and clouds) When energy increases in a system, you go from solid, liquid, to gas state. You can increase energy by either increasing pressure or increasing temperature Vapor pressure graph: vapor pressure increases when you are more saturated; under the line is undersaturated and above the line is supersaturated: the line is the dew point. If temperature changes you move horizontally back to line. If vapor pressure changes you move vertically back to line. If you increase water vapor, then you increase vapor pressure and push more towards the dew point if you are undersaturated, and then when you go above the dew point then condensation will occur to decrease the amount of water molecules and bring the water back down to equilibrium
Ecological Destruction
Expansion of centralized infrastructure to meet new growth in demand accompanied by industrial and/or sewage pollution Drivers No protection of instream flows and unrestrained expansion of surface water infrastructure No regulations in place to protect aquatic ecosystems or riparian habitats
Riming
Falling ice crystals collide with supercool droplets that freeze onto them (hexagon shape)
prior appropriation
First user has right to continue using water to exclusion of the rights of those who came later General requirements An intent to apply water to a beneficial use Diversion of water must be from a natural water course Water must be applied to a "beneficial use" Concept of "beneficial use" serves as the basis, measure and limit of an appropriative right Defined by the state as an appropriate use, serving some sort of benefit Ex. water for ag, municipal services and drinking water, oil and gas extraction, industrial uses, and recreational uses Based on seniority and priority Most senior rights holder has highest priority for use in times of shortages If junior water user impacting the water use of a senior user, the senior appropriator may enforce his rights by "calling the river" Disputes can be addressed in courts by state water agency or state engineer or through collaborative governance If you do NOT use water right to beneficial use, you can lose right Might encourage waste Right holders can sell or lease water rights Leasing maintains right ownership while allowing "beneficial use"
Be able to describe and explain the hydrologic cycle, including being able to construct a box model of the cycle
Fixed amount of water circulates between atmosphere, ocean, ice, land, life When viewed from space the hydrologic cycle is a closed system The water on earth is 3% freshwater and 97% in the oceans Of the freshwater on the surface less than 1% is in lakes rivers etc. 30% is groundwater and 69% is in the cryosphere The amount of freshwater compared to saltwater during the last ice age... there has been more freshwater during the last ice age because of large ice sheets in arctic and more glaciers = lower sea level by 120 m
Be aware of the UN sustainable development goals with a focus on goals 2 and 6:
Goal 2: zero hunger (includes improved nutrition and sustainable agriculture) Goal 6: clean water and sanitation Be able to explain why these are important Necessity for other goals to be achieved The basic necessity of water and food is preliminary to basically any of the other UN goals If you do not have food and water, then climate change and other important factors don't really matter to you
For our two case study diseases (guinea worm disease and Cryptosporidiosis), be able to describe and explain the differences in how people are infected and the scientific/tech/social/economic factors that affect how easy/difficult each disease is to prevent and eradicate
Guinea worm disease Filter water with a cloth so you don't drink water fleas Don't put infected foot in water Kill off water fleas with pesticides Nearly eradicated now (education and alteration of behavior) Difficult to eradicate in countries with civil war or other conflict Cryptosporidiosis Milwaukee outbreak Filtration Ozone UV exposure Boiling water Occurs globally with no vaccine
Resource Capture by Elite
Highly skewed initial distribution of water rights Drivers History of inequitable distribution of power
Be able to explain how human population growth, economic development, new technologies, and climate change will affect progress towards these goals
Human population growth occurring unevenly, with the most population growth in areas that already have problems with water access and food security Climate change: makes farming less reliable, more insects and loss of biodiversity in crops
Be able describe and explain the features of a hydrograph and how human activities, such as urbanization, would affect these features
Hydrograph: amount of water (discharge) which moves past a gauging station through time. Baseflow: typical streamflow as a result of long-term groundwater inputs Eventflow: extra streamflow from surface runoff and additional groundwater Urbanization: Effects the streamflow because these are impervious surfaces, decreasing levels of infiltration and increasing runoff. There are also affects on the water cycle. Overuse of surface water: Surface water often diverted and overused. Causes damage to ecosystems e.g. lakes, streams, migrating birds Dust and associated human health problems Loss of associated jobs e.g. fishing, tourism, farming
Condensation onto cloud condensation nuclei
In air >0oC, at dew point randomly colliding water-vapor molecules will form tiny droplets But... these tend to evaporate quickly because the number of molecules near the surface is high compared to the number below So... in order to form stable droplets, water-attracting particles (>0.001mm) must provide a surface for condensation to occur droplets formed from randomly colliding water-vapor molecules are rare Water-attracting particles must provide surface for condensation to occur Dust, volcanic ash, pollution, sea salt
Drought‐Driven Conflicts
Inability to reallocate water between stakeholders thus causing conflicts over how water should be allocated to satisfy human and natural needs Tends to occur in surface water dependent systems Drivers Inability of the aquifer to act as an effective buffer during drought Reallocation mechanisms and control over groundwater and surface water are weak Unclear priorities for water use Inadequate regulation or oversight
Los Angeles Aqueduct
Large amount goes to the residents in the Los Angeles city and counties (urban use) Managed by the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power Diverted water from the Owens Valley Eastern Sierra to city of La
where is water being diverted and from where?
Los Angeles Aqueduct System Diverted water from the Owens Valley Eastern Sierra to city of La State Water Project Supplies water to a huge amount of people in the Bay Area, San Joaquin Valley, Central Coast, and SoCal Central Valley Project- CVP dams and diverts water from the major rivers and brings it to industries and areas in the central valley and major urban centers in San Francisco Trinity Sacramento (Shasta Dam) American Stanislaus San Joaquin Hetch Hetchy System Originates in the Hetch Hetchy Valley Diverts from the Tuolumne River water to 2.3 million Colorado River Aqueduct Source for about 37 percent of the urban consumption Comes from the Colorado River
hetch hetchy system
Managed by the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission Originates in the Hetch Hetchy Valley Brings water to the people in San Francisco and the Bay Area, as well as Santa Clara, Alameda, and San Mateo counties Snow melt and gravity based system
hybrid systems
Modifies prior appropriation doctrine Use must be for beneficial purposes and through reasonable methods Shortage - riparian rights are priority Earlier appropriation rights holders have priority rights junior ones Habitat protection in CA is beneficial!
Be able to explain how most cases of water-related diseases are prevented in the US compared to the developing world
Monitoring water quality: Direct sampling of waters Sampling of soils Measuring contaminant levels in organisms (mussels, fish) What should we measure for? Dissolved oxygen Nutrients Pesticides Metals Pathogens using indicator species (fecal coliform bacteria like E. coli) Prevention Planning and regulation for sanitation systems Treatment of wastewater and municipal sanitation systems Reporting and investigation of the occurences Vector (insect) control Regular monitoring of water supply Treatment of water supply
What are the three things that are not explained by the coriolis effect? (exceptions to the three cell model)
Monsoons in China and India-- driven by differences in land and sea temperatures over the seasons Summer: the wet, cooler pressure air is near the ocean, and the land has higher pressure air that is warmed and pushed upwards, condenses, and then comes down to form rain Winter: weaker solar radiation on the land, which cools the land down, and the ocean stays warmer than the land (water holds in heat longer), and then the lower pressure out at sea forces the higher pressure air from the land Seasonal bands of cloud shifts in the North and the South Winds blow to the west and the warmer water is blown to the west, and because warm water creating warmer air to rise and makes rain, then there is warmer water
Be able to explain the unique challenges of water supply variability in California
Most of the water in the state comes from the northern portion, but the majority of the water need is in the southern part of the state 20 to 50 percent of the water each year will come from few but intense storm events throughout the cooler months usually October to April Precipitation is variable across the state from year to year Desert regions get less than 5 inches in a year but some regions on the north coast can get over 100 inches per year Socal might get 3 inches one year and 37 inches in the next year
The different types of convection
Orographic front: air deflected upwards towards mountains and that creates a rain shadow (c) Frontal lifting: buoyancy deflects the warm air masses over cold masses; "front" or transition of air masses-- when cold air comes in and is like no warm air, move over and the warm air is pushed up out of the way = condensation and RAIN (d) Convergence: winds converge and air is forced upwards like sea breezes and afternoon Florida Thunderstorms with low pressure systems (a) Localized Convection: buoyancy lifts warm air parcels, and there are smaller versions of this that can occur with an air mass (b)
pesticides pharmaceuticals and hormones
Pesticides are commonly used (grow food (kill pests) but it also kills pollinators and washes into lakes and streams) Not much is known about how pharmaceuticals and hormones are affecting human health but concerns are growing Other industrial organic compounds can be very toxic even in small quantities (PCBs, dioxins, benzene)
types of hazards
Physical hazards: floods, severe weather, droughts Biological hazards: bacteria, viruses, protozoa, worms Chemical hazards: chemicals/metals, pesticides, fertilizers
Be able to describe and explain the factors that cause water scarcity
Physical water scarcity: water resources don't match our need, supply does not equal demand Economic water scarcity: lack of infrastructure, human, institutional and financial limits to use the water available. How to adapt: Preserve/increase supply: Build dams, reservoirs, groundwater replenishment basins to store water when it falls/melts and to prevent flooding Conserve wetlands and forested areas to help infiltration and reduce runoff Redistribute the available water to where it is most needed Invest in alternative sources of freshwater (expensive) Reduce demand Act to conserve water wherever possible e.g. improve infrastructure, awareness and planning Change type of farming to less water-intensive crops and/or crops that would grow during the season of peak water flow Population??
Point vs. non point sources
Point Sources Factories Sewage treatment Nonpoint Sources Runoff from cities Runoff from farmland
Be able to suggest potential barriers and solutions in different regions
Political strife and civil war that does not let people be particular about where their water comes from. Money, political will, social stability, war
Be able to describe and explain how porosity and permeability of soil/sediment/rock affects infiltration, groundwater storage, and movement
Porosity- Percentage of rock or soil that is open space Permeability- A measure of how easily a solid allows fluid to pass through it (how connected the open space is) Need a combination of both for water to be stored properly and move Most concrete is impermeable Humans have mostly reduced infiltration due to... using impermeable surfaces and building materials - soil compaction due to intensive agriculture more frequent and intense wildfires removing vegetation What are the consequences of that for humans and ecosystems? - lack of replenishment of groundwater - less water in soils - less long-term streamflow available - increase in runoff during precipitation events leading to flooding and increased pollution
Be able to explain the precipitation patterns across the world (as the starting point for our traditional sources of water) using the 3-cell model
Precipitation patterns: more precipitation over oceans than over land, more precipitation at equators and 60N and 60S, more precipitation on the western side of ocean basins Atmosphere moves due to unequal heating across earth since the sun is more immediately overhead at equators instead of angled like at the poles. In these warmer areas, air rises, expands, then compresses and sinks. Coriolis effect: an apparent force due to Earth's rotation, that changes the direction of moving objects e.g. winds, water currents Stronger for fast moving objects over long distances Always look along the direction of movement Moving objects deflected: To the right in the Northern Hemisphere To the left in the Southern Hemisphere No coriolis effect at the equator
Understand the push/pull supply chain structure. What's their major difference? Understand how they are related to contracting and vertical integration.
Push: work according to a predetermined schedule based on forecast about what will happen in the future. Each component of the system optimizes its own operations for the highest efficiency according to that schedule Better for contracting/outsourcing Work flow chart: each station works as soon as they get required materials. Higher cost efficiency because less idle time Pull: work in reaction to what's needed from you. Better for vertical integration Work flow chart: station starts working on its part when its needed (ex. Station 1 starts working when WIP inventory at station 2 is zero, station 2 starts working when WIP inventory of station 3 is zero, station 3 starts working if customers continue to demand this product) More flexible and can respond to changes in customers' needs more quickly. Can quickly stop production if consumers don't need products anymore, suffers little loss from WIP inventory.
Water Reallocation to Nature
Reallocation of water from agricultural and urban to instream uses Drivers Decreasing demand for human uses and increasing demand for ecosystem uses Strong instream protections supported by adjudicated and enforced surface water rights and functioning surface water infrastructure
Organic material and fertilizers
Result in lower amounts of oxygen in water due to decay of organic material Produce dead zones where other animals can't live How to reduce: work with farmers to reduce amount of fertilizer (or when they use it so it doesn't get washed into water sources), stop animals from grazing close to these streams, work with sewage
Disease causing organisms
Septic system (leaks or it's not maintained) Livestock waste in intensive farming (dumped into lagoons)
sediment
Some sediment in water (turbidity) is normal Humans can affect this (deforestation or construction leads to more dirt and soil in rivers) Affects pumps and ability to clean water (too much sediment = UV becomes useless) Harms the ecosystem (clogs gills, blocks sunlight)
Be able to give examples and explain the ways that people can be exposed to water-borne contaminants and pathogens
Spread by drinking Using water to prepare food By eating aquatic plants/organisms By skin exposure Insect transmitted
Central Valley Project
State Bureau of Reclamation manages this Manages eight districts for farms and residential Provides about 5 million acre feet for ag uses enough to initiate about Delivers to agriculture, landowners, residential communities, and industries in the central valley 1 million households with their water needs each year Generates about 5. Billion kw hours of electricity 1930s extends approximately 400 miles from the Cascade Range
Be able to describe and explain the consequences of groundwater overuse
Subsidence: The ground starts sinking, destroys infrastructure and the compaction destroys porosity making replacement of groundwater impossible Subsidence results from groundwater removal and compaction of remaining rock/sediment - causes damage to infrastructure such as roads, bridges, aqueducts Compaction destroys porosity so we can't replace that groundwater The Leaning Tower of Pisa, Italy Sinking buildings in Venice, Italy The San Joaquin Valley, California Groundwater depletion: With drawdown, the water table near the well drops and forms a cone of depression Drawdown, from multiple wells in an area, is additive Competing users often conflict Near the coast, removal of groundwater can cause saltwater intrusion which poisons the aquifer OC seawater intrusion barrier (talbert alpha beta lambda main aquifer)
Be able to define and explain what is meant by "sustainable development"
Sustainable Development: development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs Includes: economic development that is conducted without depletion of natural resources
riparian doctrine
Tie the rights to use water with to the ownership of riparian land A riparian landowner owns a parcel of land that is adjacent to a watercourse (streams, rivers, lakes, and ponds) If you own a riparian parcel of land you control: Upland - area of watershed that does not receive regular flooding by stream Any structures in zone Bottomland offshore from lot (area of stream channel covered by water) Aquatic vegetation growing on your bottomland Rights to groundwater flowing into seepage zone Right to water for "reasonable use" Reasonableness is determined by comparing proposed use with the uses by other riparian water right holders Ex: residential or agricultural purposes. Industry Cannot interfere with another downstream riparian landowner Downstream users have to prove upstream user is causing harm Non-use does not extinguish the right Under riparian rights, landowners DO NOT have to use water to keep their water right If users want change their water use, the can so long as the new use is reasonable
heavy metals
Toxic to organisms in high concentrations (affects health and development) Lead comes from lead pipes when water erodes it Arsenic occurs naturally in groundwater but levels increase with mining Mercury is also naturally occurring but levels are raised by burning coal or trash
aggregation
Two ice crystals join together, works best close to 0C when there is a thin layer of water on the surface (snowflake shape)
Understand the four water privatization models described in the tale of two cities' case. Be able to describe their major differences in terms of whether it is the public or the private sector that owns the asset, is responsible for major investments, and manages the operations.
UK: everything is owned by the private sector with a monopoly. Government introduced regulation to check that monopoly (long term investment/contracts) French: ownership with the public sector and investment/operation is private. Instead of monopoly, there is a duopoly where two companies compete for concessions with the government through auctions. Take turns to have responsibility (short-to-medium term investments because companies might switch) US Model: full ownership of infrastructure is with the government. Many companies compete so even shorter term investments unlike UK and French Operations and maintenance: private company given full responsibility over an existing facility Design, build, and operate: contractors involved in designing, building, and operating facilities. Long term projects/contracts, capital funding requirement to ensure that company has enough money to invest. M= Municipal (government) C= Corporate (private)
Clean Water Act: discuss the goals of the policy and the ways regulations are implemented (e.g., how is pollution being managed and monitored)
Water quality regulations are set at the federal level Implementation and enforcement at state or local level CWA in 1972 Reduce direct pollutant discharges into waterways, establish ambient water quality standards, finance municipal wastewater treatment facilities and manage polluted runoff EPA, states, and tribal organizations regulated discharges of pollutants from point sources and set ambient quality standards for surface waters
Be able to describe and explain what is meant by a "watershed" and why it is useful when thinking about water resources
Watershed: all land from which water flowing due to gravity on the land surface would pass through a given cross section of a stream channel Usually defined by topography Water balance equation: change in storage = amount in - amount out Watersheds are the basic unit used for water management and allows us to predict and manage Water quantity available for use Flood control and forecasts (hazard mitigation) Water Quality
Be able to explain how runoff results in streams and surface water
When rain falls or snow/ice melts... Runoff - flow over land surface Runoff and eventually groundwater flows down slope into streams and rivers Snowmelt- Significant fraction of total precipitation at higher elevations and higher latitudes, critical water resources for much of world's population (stores freshwater in winter acting as a natural reservoir, contributes to streamflow in spring and summer, slow melt allows more infiltration and groundwater recharge)
Be able to divide the sub-goals into those that can be addressed by science and technology, and those that can be addressed by social science
ex. Food - goal targets of maintaining genetic diversity of seeds or doubling agricultural productivity (fertilizers/irrigation) is scientific/technological BUT correct trade restrictions is more policy and social science based. Even if science and technology exist they cannot be successfully used without policy Subsistence farming: using what you grow "no one solution" for example hunger in the united states is different elsewhere. Ex. Water is a lot of technology based (sanitation systems, sewage, treatment facilities, testing for clean water, groundwater access) but need economic support/training on use in order to meet the goal Population grows fast so there is problems accessing water and technological availability
collision-coalescence process
formation of precipitation, where tiny droplets accumulate, fall, and collide with other small droplets until rain drops form and fall. 2 drops of water form to make a bigger drop of water (looks like a ball dropping and getting bigger)
National Pollutant Discharge
prohibits discharging "pollutants" through a "point source" into a "water of the US" unless they have an NPDES Permits are issued to any facility that discharges directly into waters of the US. Regulated entities include industrial and municipal facilities General water quality permits are issued by states Sediment permits are issued by Army Corp of Engineers
Colorado river aqueduct
¾ used for agriculture Source for about 37 percent of the urban consumption 92 percent of the southern countries with farm irrigation waters There was a huge battle with Arizona about California using too much water; Arizona fought Consists more than 90 miles of funnels and five pumping stations for a huge number of states Funded by a bond