Ethics 2

Types of characters Aristotle= Eudaimonic Ethics. Besides listing all four, give a specific example of one type of character, according to how it measures up with three important conditions.

1. Virtuous- knows the good, can do the good, and do all of this with the right motivations. 2. Continent 3.Incontinent 4. Vicious

The privatio boni. (St. Augustine). Besides giving a brief definition, state its relation to free will.

Augustine's Moral Theory (through his Privatio Boni): Privatio Boni -Good is substantial, but evil is insubstantial. (1) Attempts to explain and analyze moral judgments and behavior, by human free will. Human evil is accounted for by free will. Natural evil is arises because of the Fall (Original Sin). II. Human free will is a gift of divine Grace: God gave humans free will, so that humans can love. Our nature is to lean toward the most loving choice (like a tree leans toward the sunlight)

Beneficence (David Hume). Besides stating briefly its meaning, mention why Hume believes this particular moral passion is of utmost moral relevance.

Beneficence-the doing of good; active goodness or kindness; charity. Attempts to clarify the meanings of moral terms through the shared psychological passions of beneficence. Benevolence is universally esteemed—due to shared features in our psychology: because desires are nesscerary for motivation. "Whatever conduct gains my approbation, by touching my humanity, procures also the applause of all mankind...but what serves my avarice or ambitions pleases these passions in me alone."

The Categorical Imperatives (Immanuel Kant). State or paraphrase both formulations (the Universal and the Humanity formulations).

C.I.U-Universal Formula: "I ma never to act otherwise so that I could also will my maxim [reason for acting] to become a universal law." (149) A perfect duty must be obeyed by any agent, without exception. Perfect duties conform to the Categorical Imperatives (based on the universality of reason) Example: Do not lie. C.I.H-Formula for Humanity: Treat all persons (rational agents) as ends, never as means, i.e., beings of absolute moral dignity and worth. (153) An imperfect duty should be obeyed generally obeyed. Imperfect duties conform to the hypothetical imperatives (based on the practicality of experience) Example: Be charitable: "It is impossible to will that such a principle [of being uncharitable] s

Briefly summarize the main points that Aristotle articulated in his moral theory of Virtue Ethics, as discussed in excerpts from his Nichomachean and Eudaimonic Ethics. In particular, what is virtue, according to Aristotle, and how does it relate to the golden mean (define this and give an example of a particular example)? Moreover, what did Aristotle mean by eudaimonea? Then, in a second paragraph, contrast your above synopsis with St. Augustine's: In particular, did St. Augustine believe that the human character was naturally willing towards virtue? Why or why not? What role does Grace (or the Love of God) play. In particular, answer why Augustine was able to reconcile our sinning nature with a morally perfect God, by briefly summarizing what he meant by the privation boni and why, according to Augustine, free will is necessary.

First Paragraph: Nichomachean- Moral judgments and behavior are guided by passions and reason to aim at virtues. (Virtues are states of character which are "final causes," or aims of our moral acts. The ultimate virtue is happiness (eudamonia—excellence or harmony of soul, i.e. "flourishing".) ) Moral beliefs (and terms) cannot be thought separately from a person's states of character, which can be refined through practice. The rule or best way to practice this is through the Golden Mean—a "mean" or "middle" (between two undesirable extremes) which is relative to circumstance and character. (Example: Courage is the Golden Mean between foolhardiness and cowardliness) Eudaimonic- Aristotle looked at biology, and developed his idea of telos (goal-directed or purposive behavior)...all entities strive after their final cause (full actualization of potential). From the Eudaimonic Ethics: Virtuous, continent, incontinent, vicious. Eudaimonia involves activity, exhibiting virtue in accordance with reason. Second Paragraph: St. Augustine differs with believing that human character is naturally willing towards virtue through Privatio Boni. Human evil is accounted for by free will. Natural evil is arises because of the Fall (Original Sin). II. Human free will is a gift of divine Grace: innately God gave humans free will, so that humans can love. Our nature is to lean toward the most loving choice (like a tree leans toward the sunlight). However, no one, not even God, can force the choice upon us (this would contradict the very meaning of love!) This does not contradict with God's omniscence, since "the will of God, which is always good, is sometimes fulfilled through the evil will of man." (63) This does not contract with God' omnipotence, because "our wills...are included in that order of causes which is certain to God...He is called omnipotent on account of His doing what he wills, not on account of His suffering what he wills not."

Briefly summarize the main points of Immanuel Kant's deontological (or duty-based) ethics. In particular, mention what Kant meant by "the good will"—you can illustratethis by way of an example of his "brooding philanthropist." What specifically did Kant mean by the "form of the moral law" and what makes our actions moral? State or paraphrase both versions of the categorical Imperatives. Then, in a second paragraph, give an example of a moral dilemma which would suggest a conflict of duties between the two Categorical Imperatives. Explain briefly how you think David Hume's moral theory would resolve this tension, and what, according to Hume's moral theory, would be the proper thing to do.

First paragraph: (1) Attempts to explain and analyze moral judgments and behavior, by good will and intentions. (2) Attempts to clarify the meanings of moral terms through the universal principles of the form of reason (3) Attempts to establish a consistent set of norms, through his Categorical Imperatives. He means that good will is our conscience. Kant's example of the "brooding philanthropist" who acts charitably "though his mind and heart are clouded with sorrow." An imperfect duty should be obeyed generally obeyed. Imperfect duties conform to the hypothetical imperatives (based on the practicality of experience) Example: Be charitable: "It is impossible to will that such a principle [of being uncharitable] should hold everywhere as a law of nature. The universal form of the moral law (making ethics possible) is governed by the Categorical Imperatives (C.I): "Kant claims from his fundamental moral principle, the Categorical Imperative, we can derive all other duties and that they can be organized into a system." C.I.U-Universal Formula: "I ma never to act otherwise so that I could also will my maxim [reason for acting] to become a universal law." (149) C.I.H-Formula for Humanity: Treat all persons (rational agents) as ends, never as means, i.e., beings of absolute moral dignity and worth. (153) Second Paragraph: A perfect duty must be obeyed by any agent, without exception. Perfect duties conform to the Categorical Imperatives (based on the universality of reason) Example: Do not lie. An imperfect duty should be obeyed generally obeyed. Imperfect duties conform to the hypothetical imperatives (based on the practicality of experience) Example: Be charitable: "It is impossible to will that such a principle [of being uncharitable] should hold everywhere as a law of nature. we have a common psychology based on certain common moral sentiments (passions). These passions determine our moral life

Briefly summarize the main points of St. Thomas Aquinas's natural law ethics. In particular, what did St. Thomas Aquinas mean by natural law? Is it the same as a natural law, in the scientific sense? Why did St. Thomas consider Aristotle, as opposed to Plato, to be a better guide for his moral theory? Paraphrase the three requirements of St. Thomas's Principle of Double Effect or PDE. Then, in a second paragraph, give an example of two actions which have the same outcome, and demonstrate why, via the PDE, one is permissible and one is not.

First paragraph: 1)To explain and analyze moral judgements and behavior, by human rational agency. 2)Attempts to clarify the meanings of moral terms through the natural theological notion of natural law (3) Attempts to establish a consistent set of norms, through his arguments of voluntary rational action through the principles of right intention (secured by faith) and consistent reasoning (secured by the illuminated intellect). "The term 'natural' in natural law ethics indicates that moral laws have a source and authority that distinguish them from any laws in civil society." Analogy with science: Just as a scientific theory tries to explain, predict, and organize experimental data in a meaningful (law-like) fashion , so a moral theory tries to make sense of moral experience According to Aquinas, Aristotle provides a useful guide in distinguishing natural reason from revealed reason. PDE-1) (intrinsic permissibility) The type of action, apart from its effects, must not be wrong. PDE-2) (non-intentionality) The bad/evil effect may be (if possible) foreseen, but never intended (whether as a means or as an end) by the agent. PDE-3) (proportionality) There is a proportionately serious reason for bringing about the evil effect (e.g., whether it's an only option, last resort, etc.) Second Paragraph: Hysterectomy of a pregnant mother PDE-1) (intrinsic permissibility) The type of action (removal of the pregnant woman's uterus), apart from its effects, must not be wrong. Permissible. PDE-2) (non-intentionality) The bad/evil effect may be (if possible) foreseen, but never intended (whether as a means or as an end) by the agent. Permissibile: The death of the fetus is foreseen, but not intended. PDE-3) (proportionality) There is a proportionately serious reason for bringing about the evil effect (e.g., whether it's an only option, last resort, etc.) Permissible: Hysterectomy is the only way to save the mother's life Crainotomy of a fetus to save the live of pregnant mother PDE-1) (intrinsic permissibility) The type of action (crushing the fetus's cranium), apart from its effects, must not be wrong. Impermissible. PDE-2) (non-intentionality) The bad/evil effect may be (if possible) foreseen, but never intended (whether as a means or as an end) by the agent. Impermissibile: The death of the fetus is intended, as an intermediate end to save the mother's life. PDE-3) (proportionality) There is a proportionately serious reason for bringing about the evil effect (e.g., whether it's an only option, last resort, etc.) Permissible: Crainotomy of the fetus is the only way to save the mother's life

Briefly summarize the main points of Thomas Hobbes's Social Contract Theory or SCT. In particular mention if Hobbes whether or not believed humans were innately virtuous (and why). Mention the difference between psychological egoism versus moral egoism. What did Hobbes mean by a "social contract" and what sorts of agents (or persons) are included in its domain? List three requirements or characteristics of these agents. Then, in a second paragraph, contrast Spinoza's position with that of Hobbes. In particular, mention explicitly whether or not Spinoza believed in free will (i.e. do we have the power to change future chains of events)? Mention what Spinoza meant by 'God' and its relation to Nature, and contrast Spinoza's view of rationality with Hobbes's view of rational self-interest.

First paragraph: Social Contract Theory tries to explain the origins of society and ethics based on social agreement and compromise. "Evaluating objects or actions as good or evil depends, Hobbes insists, on no other basis than desires and aversions. No objects or actions are intrinsically good...rather, people call good the objects of their desires, whereas what they call evil the objects of their aversions. Moral egoism is the normative ethical position that moral agents ought to do what is in their own self-interest. It differs from psychological egoism, which claims that people can only act in their self-interest. Hobbes meant that in order to overcome chaos and conflict, humans form social relations and governments. The three requirements are stability, compromise, and law. Second Paragraph: Attempts to explain and analyze moral judgments and behavior, by human striving. (2) Attempts to clarify the meanings of moral terms and beliefs, through the essential principles of determinism and rational understand of it. (3) Attempts to establish a consistent set of norms, through his achivement of the third kind of knowledge ("love of God" -e.g contemplation of one's bodily essence "in the form of eternity".) Spinoza also held that everything must necessarily happen the way that it does. Therefore, humans have no free will. Here he argues that all our motivations of conduct have their cause in the emotions, the important issue is to develop the right kinds of preferences, rationally considered. Spinoza argued that God is not a transcendent ruler over Nature, rather God is best thought of a deterministic system in which everything in Nature is a part. Human conatus is fundamentally motivated by emotions and desires—however, since our essential nature is rational, we can use reason to form more adequate ideas about our natures, motivation, and our place in Nature, and thus act more effectively. Hobbes (in particular) views "natural rationality" in terms of rational self-interest. (we are by nature self interested)

God (Benedict Spinoza). Besides stating briefly Spinoza's notion, mention God's relation to Nature, and what is meant by "neutral monism."

God is impersonal, of one substance, of infinitely many attributes God is not a transcendent ruler over Nature, rather God is best thought of a deterministic system in which everything in Nature is a part. Neutral Monism: In any case, the infinitely many attributes of God are experienced by humans primary by spatial and physical substance, as well as mental or thinking substance Note 1: In this respect, he differed sharply from the views of his contemporary Renee Descartes, who believed space/matter ("extension") and mind/thinking were two separate substances (dualism)

The natural state (Thomas Hobbes). Besides stating briefly Hobbes's notion, mention its relation to the commonwealth (or Social Contract) and "The Sovereign."

Happiness is a governing motivation, however happiness is based on power, acquisition, and self-preservation. Social contract-To overcome the chaos and conflict, by natural self-interest humans form social relations and governments (the "commonwealth.") The commonwealth, therefore, must be maintained and established by absolute sovereignty, to ensure a civil society. Natural reason is necessary, but not sufficient, for the preservation of the Social Contract. Only an absolute sovereign can guarantee its stability:

The Principle of Double Effect (PDE)—State or paraphrase its three conditions.

PDE-1) (intrinsic permissibility) The type of action, apart from its effects, must not be wrong. PDE-2) (non-intentionality) The bad/evil effect may be (if possible) foreseen, but never intended (whether as a means or as an end) by the agent. PDE-3) (proportionality) There is a proportionately serious reason for bringing about the evil effect (e.g., whether it's an only option, last resort, etc.)

The golden mean (Aristotle). Besides giving a brief definition, give one example of a virtue satisfying the golden mean.

The Golden Mean—a "mean" or "middle" (between two undesirable extremes) which is relative to circumstance and character. Example: Courage is the Golden Mean between foolhardiness and cowardliness Temperance is the golden mean between over- indulgence and excessive self-denial (asceticism). Generosity: is the golden mean between miserliness and being wasteful, etc. : To determine the golden mean is not like simply computing "an average"—what makes ethics a practical art is that the golden mean is always determined in relation to a particular circumstance, and one's state of character: