Ethics Exam #2

capitalism laissez faire

the only socio-economic political structure that is compatible with our rational nature•"bans force from social relationships" because the trader and the warrior are antagonists•Why laissez-faire?It is the only formulation of capitalism that avoids a trading of favors between business and government or business and religio

teleology

theory of morality that derives duty or moral obligation from what is good or desirable as an end to be achieved. Also known as consequentialist ethics, it is opposed to deontological ethics, which holds that the basic standards for an action's being morally right are independent of the good or evil generated. . ends justifies the means . ex. utilitarianism:It states those actions right that produces the greatest number of happiness to the greatest number of people. For example: torturing someone to find the location of a ticking time bomb. While the torture for its own sake would be wrong, because it is done for the greatest good and to save lives, it can be understood to be the ethical thing to do. Another example of teleological approach is virtue ethics. Virtue ethics does indeed seek to maximize "happiness" it sees happiness in a much more personal way. This ethical theory argues the goal in the development of the human mind, spirit and body to the fullest potential possible.

perfect duty

we are obliged to do these always ex. don't lie don't still

imperfect duty

we are obliged to do these as often as possible Ex. charity, develop our talents

What is the paradigm shift?

. paradigm shift from teology to mechanism 1. Questions are different. R- Why do we have disease? S- How does disease work? 2. Conception of truth changes. R- Truth is the unseen-the word S- Truth is empirical (based on observation or experience) 3. Conception of the world. R- world is a stage for divine drama S- world is "matter in motion"

harm principle

One may pursue his/her own happiness unless it causes direct harm to another.•This direct harm is distinguished from mere offense: a person must be worse off than they were before, in order for it to be a direct harm•So, even though Bill Gates would not physically suffer as a result of my stealing $20 from his wallet, he would still be $20 worse off than he was before

purpose of government

Only to secure the people against force both foreign and domestic •To act as police to protect the basic rights of citizens •Can only use force in retaliation •May not act "in the best interest of citizens" to make them educated, virtuous, etc.

How is Hume contra Plato?

P- soul is like charioteer with reason leading the horse being reason and will H- argues that it is not reason leading the horse but passion instead H- reason is not a reliable guide (this is the way it is and how it should be)

How does Hume contra Descartes?

cogito ergo sum (I think, therefore I am) Hume asks: Where is this "I"? Where is it located?- argues that self is a bundle of perceptions . We believe it exists because 1. our memories associate ideas over time and 2. these perceptions succeed one another rapidly and are constantly in flux.

How does Hume contra science?

. he refutes causation science is founded on the assumption that the world is a constant stream of cause/effect relationships. H- argues that there is no power in event 1 that causes event 2

kant rejects golden rule?

. judges would give everyone no time . consistent egoist would not want to do good or anything for anyone, he's only self interested . masochist wants to hurt themself

the moral society (Ayn Rand)

. A collection of independent individuals •Respect for natural rights: life, liberty and property •Abide by "the trader principle": individuals trade value for value, materially and spiritually •Both natural rights and the trader principle are dictated by the fact that people are ends-in-themselves and must think and act for survival

Hume's position on free will:

. Hume is compatibilist: both free will and determinism can coexist . our passion drives our choices and "causes" our actions-points our reason in a particular direction. In this respect we are free and accountable. . At the same time, if we are compelled by outside forces to act in a particular way, we are not accountable and our actions have been determined-no freedom/choice

radical empiricist

. Ideas are merely feeble copies of impressions. •There are no ideas without impressions: consider the blind and color, for example •To discover the legitimacy of an idea, one must find the impression that created that particular idea, because impressions are far more "vivid" and "lively", therefore more reliable, than ideas

Kant- Transcendental Analytic

. The mind is composed of categories: 4 classes and 12 categories of understanding A. Quantity: unity, plurality, totality B. Quality: limitation, reality, negation C. Relation: cause and effect, inherence and subsistence (substance), community (reciprocity) D. Modality: necessity-contingency, existence-non-existence, possibility

How does Hume contra logic?

. all deductive arguments found upon inductive conclusions All men are mortal. David is a man. David is mortal. . ind.reas. argues that because something has happened with regularity in the past that the future will be much like the past . ex. the sun came up monday therefore will come up tuesday . science is based on inductive reasoning- ends on prediction . Hume asks to prove that inductive reasoning works - all times we used i.r. it worked . "you used i.r. to prove i.r."

How does Hume contra religion?

. attack on the Ontological Proof of God's existence . Descartes' Proof: If God is the cause of my idea of him (perhaps begs the question), what is my impression of this "cause"?- we have none . Same criticism is God is the cause of my existence as a thinking thing . attacks deism: no sense impression of harmonious design (cause) . problem of evil: all knowing, all powerful, all good . asserts God cannot be all of these all the time because evil exists and God doesn't do all things to prevent bad things etc. .attacks miracles: miracles are violations of the laws of nature * does the one experience outweigh the rest?* That is, does the number of times the law has worked outweigh the one time it has been violated? Upon which should we rely? Hume concludes that humans are unreliable and those reporting miracles are most likely liars and deceivers. . attack on Anselm's Ontological Proof: The argument is based on the innate idea of perfection, but we have no impression of perfection, so no experience of the attributes of God

Hume's moral decision making:

. based on ones impressions . linked to our ability to understand pleasure/pain . as a spectatory, one can view the reaction of the receiver to the act perpetrated by the agent. If the reaction gives us an impression of pleasure, the act has been moral. If, though, our impression is of something painful, the act is immoral. . Our understanding of right and wrong is bound up in our ability to experience- a posteriori

kant's categorical imperative

. formula of universal law: if you do everyone else does too...whereby those principles and rules for governing human beings' conduct which are most universal in their acceptability, their applicability, translation, and philosophical basis, are therefore considered to be most ...act only on a maxim you can will to be universal . formula of the end-in-itself: we should treat others not merely as a means, but also at the same time as an end. In other words, for example, we should not use people just to benefit us and bring us to something we want, but we should value people for who they are and not just for what they can do for us. In an example with an object, those who value cars for what they are, not just for their use of getting from point A to point B, value the cars as an end, not as a means...End-in-itself•Treat other rational, thinking things as ends-in-themselves and not as a mean to an end.Rational beings have innate value.Only those beings that can reason and think rationally are deserving of moral consideration . formula of autonomy: capacity to deliberate and to give oneself the moral law. Personal autonomy is the capacity to decide for oneself and pursue a course of action in one's life, often regardless of any particular moral content..Autonomy•You are the lawmaker.•Because the categories are universal and necessary and from them our morality is derived, you are bound to rely on no one else to make the moral law. You are equipped to discern right from wrong because you can reason

act deontology (intuitionism)

. there are no generalizable rules for moral action; there are only particular people, situations, etc. . accords logical priority to particular moral judgments, rather than to rules or principles 1. any well meaning person has a sense of right and wrong 2. humans had moral convictions prior to philosophy 3. reasoning is used only to support our intuitions 4. we can reason incorrectly and thus fall back on our intuitions

4 phases of the history of consciousness

1. Mythopoeic (making of myths): animism (natural objects, everything possesses a soul) 2. Religion: systematized (definite plan) mythopoeic 3. Philosophy (the study of ideas about knowledge, truth, the nature and meaning of life): reason alone 4. Science: reason and observation/experimentation

Kant Rejects Hume's

1. causation H- denies existence of cause there are only constant conjunctions which we customarily accept the uniformity of the world K- experience will continue as it has because experience teaches so. There is no external guarantee beyond experience which is contingent, unreliable and subjective. causal connection cannot be proved. every event must have a cause 2. self-- transcendental unity of apperception (TUAP)-- an a priori structure of experience, but not an object of experience 3. ethics

Hume's Epistemology (study of grounds of knowledge esp. limits & validity) Tell two kinds of knowledge:

1. matters of fact (synthetic, posteriori): reasoning about which tells us something about the world and can be proven/disproven 2. relations of ideas (analytic, a priori): analytic, e.g. math that cannot be disproven, yet tell us nothing about the world

What are the foundations of modernity?

1. separation of church and state 2. importance of the individual 3. elevation of science as common ground 4. rise of relativism (knowledge, truth, and morality exist in relation to culture, society, or historical context, and are not absolute)

Kant Rejects Rationalists and Empiricists because:

1. they assume there is only one source of knowledge- sense experience or reason K- both sensation and understanding (concepts) are necessary for experience 2. They fail to separate analytic/synthetic and a priori/ a posteriori K- Synthetic a priori (more involved w/ area of study rather than practical application): example: every event must have a cause •Refutes Empiricism: Experience has a necessary a priori structure•Refutes Rationalism: The world is transcendentally ideal. Although the world and its objects are empirically real, they must conform to the categories of understanding

utilitarianism: hedonic calculator

A method for determining the act that produces the greatest amount of pleasure/utility •Measured in terms of hedons (utiles, benefons) •Has seven categories •The calculation consists in determining a range of hedons (0-10) and then associating a certain number of hedons per category. After all seven have been assigned a number, the total is computed and that choice which has the greatest number of hedons associated with it is the right choice Categories•Intensity: How intense is the pleasure to be derived from the act?•Certainty: How sure are you pleasure will be the result?•Duration: How long will the pleasure last?•Propinquity: How near is the pleasure in time?•Fecundity: What is the likelihood that the pleasure will produce more pleasure?•Purity: Is there pain mixed with the pleasure?•Extent: How many people will get to participate in the pleasur

trader principle

A voluntary, mutually beneficial exchange between equals is the only basis for a respectful and rational relationship. (from SEP) •This principle holds in terms of relationships between countries as well

Kant's Duty Ethics

Because humans are inclined to act in different ways (an outgrowth of emotion and irrational in nature), we must force ourselves to act morally out of a sense of duty. The Good Will: the unique human ability to act in accordance with moral rules and principles regardless of interests or consequences. . Nothing is good in itself except a good will . Kant believed morality could be established by reason alone.Just as triangles have three sides and 2+2=4

criticism of bentham

Bentham was criticized for creating a "swine morality" because his focus was primarily on the quantity of pleasure and was a kind of raw hedonism •Mill finds a way to respond to this criticism of Utilitarianism by defining pleasure as "the satiation of desire," rather than sensual pleasure, simply "feeling good." •Also, Mill notes that there are qualitative differences in pleasures. So, it is not only quantity, but quality as well that must be addressed. •With this in mind, it would be possible to find pleasure in the denial of sensual pleasure

categorical imperatives

Categorical Imperatives Obliged to follow these commands in all cases because they are universalizable and human reason demands our acting in accordance with them.

hypothetical imperatives

Commands that must be followed to achieve particular goals (ends), but that vary depending on the individual choosing the goals.

social progress

For Mill, the social progress was extremely important. •The belief was that if each individual had the freedom to pursue one's happiness, then the aggregate happiness would be increased as well. •In order to facilitate this (promoting utility in the larger sense), Mill outlined 3 liberties central to this goal: 1. Inward domain of consciousness 2. Taste and Preference 3. Unite with others •He also discussed the occasion when someone's liberty should be restricted: Harm Principle

deontology

The consequences of an act are irrelevant to the moral status of a particular action. The rightness or wrongness of an act is inherent in the act or rule itself.

rule deontology

There are certain rules that are the basis for moral action; again, the consequences are irrelevant .Example: Divine Command Theory In this case, the "force" behind the rules is only that the rules were established by divine intelligence.

deontological ethics

This approach to ethical decisions holds that some moral principles are binding, regardless of consequences. This approach is duty based, action based approach, also called humanitarian approach. Deontologists do not look at how much good might be caused by an action. They look at the action itself, deciding whether it is prohibited or made obligatory by one of their rules. Usually, the rules are expressed negatively: do not lie, do not steal, and do not harm the innocent. In a few cases, the rules are expressed positively: keep your promises; treat all persons as beings with rights, tell the truth. These rules are often called constraints. A "constraint" is like a set of handcuffs - it stops you from doing something, even if you want to do it. about lying or killing that is simply wrong, regardless of what good you could accomplish by lying or stealing - or killing - in some particular case. . They would be acting to do what was a duty, and whether or not that saved the rain forest or cost a half a million poor people their jobs in those forests would not be their main motive

What are 2 questions people have been asking?

What is the universe and what is my place in it? How do I gain control?

external and internal causes of end of church dominance

external: 1.Copernicus-heliocentric model of universe 2.Galileo-upheld Copernicus (supported evidence thru use of telescope etc) 3.Francis Bacon-Scientific Method internal: 4. corruption-the selling of indulgences (pilgrimages, prayers, donations, fighting would help erase some sins you've done, purgatory emerged so bishops were given power to reduce penants, do enough to earn full indulgence from the pope, went to far and money became more involved were buying indulgences even for dead family members) 5. protestant reformation-martin luther (popes claimed political power, lived like kings, commanded armies, didn't have time to care much for the souls of faithful, church corrupted) (German monk and professor that sparked Reformation, put "95 theses" on door that expressed concerns about church practice, mostly about selling indulgences, (Protest)ant the church and (Reform)ation it)

rule-deontological

judges morality on rules

rights

ost fundamental right: Right to Life •All other rights follow from the first:Right to Liberty-the right to act on one's own judgmentRight to Happiness-the right to pursue goals for one's own fulfillment Right to Property-the right to gain, keep and dispose of material valueExample of the connection between rights(from SEP): regulating speech on TV violates the right to free expression, but at the same time violates the property rights of the individual who owns the TV to use it as she deems

Kant's Ethics

•The supreme moral principle is a priori •Kant's ethical theory is objective •Rejects Hume's assertion that morality is derived from a posteriori impressions.Kant calls Hume's assertions about morality nothing more than moral anthropology.How is it Kant can argue this?