Ethics Final Review

Is professional ethics the same as or reducible to ordinary ethics?

"No, Professions have special rights and privileges, which are needed so they can fulfill their role in providing for basic human needs for us. Having special rights and privileges results in having special ethical obligations and duties." -Difference between a surgeon with a scalpel and criminal with a knife? -There is a massive difference, however, the surgeon would not be able to fulfill their duty to save peoples' lives if the ordinary ethical rule that one should do no physical harm to others also pertained to him - Great amount of social power flowing from ethical responsibilities Ex: Doctors are responsible for treating a patient despite their feeling toward that individual

Bayles' three central features of professions

(1) An extensive period of training is needed.(2) The training to become a professional involves a significant intellectual component.(3) The trained ability held by professions (and professionals) provides and important service to society.

Bayles' three salient features of the role of professions in the US today

(1) Provide an important service. (Often we cannot get access to that service without going through the profession. Medicine is a prime example.) (2) Have mostly monopolistic control over the provision of services and entry into the profession. Thus, there is: (3) Not much public control of professions and professionals.

Libertarian Ethics

(Opposite of Communist/Socialism) Justice = Liberty, liberty above all else, the best government; societal; political system is one that is most minimal emphasizing individual liberties, entrepreneurship. Adam Smith "The Wealth of Nations" lassiez faire economics Robert Nozick

Utilitarianism

(most prominent consequentialist theory) holds that what is good produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. Founder: Jeremy Bentham Author: John Stuart Mill

What are some of the best reasons why it is advantageous for businesses to employ women?

- Companies with more women board of directors experience higher financial performance than those with fewer women - Higher levels of women in public life correspond to lower levels of corruption

Ethical issues in Advertising

- Concealment of facts, exaggeration, psychological appeals - Ads directed at children very questionable because lack competence therefore do not meet informed consent standard

What is a fiduciary relationship?

A ​fiduciary​ is a person who holds a legal or ethical ​relationship​ of trust with one or more other parties (person or group of persons). Typically, a ​fiduciary ​prudently takes care of money or other assets for another person.

Do we have an ethical responsibility to future generations?

Libertarian View: not our obligation as we choose how we want to live our lives Natural Law View: humans beings of nature and have a responsibility to preserve the environment Naturalistic View: Nature has intrinsic value apart from humans, therefore, we have a responsibility to preserve - Because complex difficult to predict issue we should proceed present-day actions with caution and restraint as we try to preserve as many future generations rights as possible

What are some ethical problems for the engineering profession? See the Blackboard slides + the article on the Boeing case.

In engineering values may be in conflict e.g. ---eafety and efficacy are often in conflict i.e. environmental concerns. -The relationship between costs and efficiency is not linear. -Rule ethics are not the best approach for this the best approach is virtue ethics ie. developing the ethical character of the person.

Taylor claims that the adversary system of justice promotes or requires or gives rise to ethical problems ("an ethical jungle" he calls it)? Why does it do this? (R&Z, 339-343).

In the adversary system, lawyers attempt to win instead of arrive at the truth.Lawyers strive to keep out reliable evidence hurtful to their cause. Confidentiality of the lawyer-client relationship takes precedence.Client confidentiality is at the heart of the ethical difficulties of the adversarial system. BIG The legal system should not (i.e. is at fault to) put lawyers in the position of continuing to seek the acquittal of guilty clients.

Issues in product pricing (Deceptive pricing strategies)

Manipulative Pricing: Pricing that conceals product's true cost. Hidden fees Price Fixing: Competitors agree to set the minimum price to avoid competition Price Gouging: Exploiting short-term situation like a monopoly to raise prices

Tragedy of the commons

Individually rational behavior becomes excessive when everyone thinks in the same way and eventually leads to degradation of communal resource (everyone brings 2 cows to communal stables instead of 1)

Is it permissible for a professional to lie to a client? Why or why not? What test might be given to distinguish between permissible and impermissible lies?

Kant forbade all lying, even for a supposedly philanthropic (good) reason or cause. ● Lying requires that (a) what is said or written is false, (b) the person who says or writes it knows it is false, and (usually) it is intended to deceive. ● Bok defines a lie as "any intentionally deceptive message which is stated." ● People often think that lying is performing an act of kindness. DISAGREE WITH KANT Reasons for lying To prevent harm To achieve personal gain Fear To help the client From a belief that the individual or agency would not understand the truth, or would misuse it. From a belief that the counselor has been forced into the situation. From a belief that this (lie) will educate the victim. 8. To get revenge. Ex: man with gun who is drunk, permissible to lie if you can stop harm to others or himself ANSWER TO IS LIE PERMISSIBLE ● What would the public reaction be - and what would you think about that reaction - if your lie with your name attached to it, a well as the reasons for your lie, were published prominently in the newspaper or appeared on the TV. ● This is a version of the "reasonable man" standard.

Ethics vs. Law

Legality and ethics are not necessarily linked, something can be unethical and legal or ethical and illegal depending on the societal norms of whoever made the laws

nonconsequentialist theory

based on whether the actions, beliefs, or theories conform to some rule or principles

Kantian Ethics/Deontological Ethics

holds that rightness/wrongness is determined from conforming to ethical rules/principles that are derived from logic and reasoning Immanuel Kant "Categorical Imperative"

Necessity for unbiased, accurate, and non-politically influenced info for environmental thinking

necessary for making well-informed cost/benefit analysis for making environmental action decisions - Whether the benefits of using a pesticide outweighs the pollution costs: •How much of a pesticide is needed to control a pest? •How harmful is that pesticide to humans and other living things? •How long do various chemicals last in nature? •How much of a pollutant is released by a particular industry or process?

Ethics based on religion

right and wrong is determined not by humans but by a God. Ex: ten commandments

Conflict of interest

when an individual's private and personal interests get in the way of fulfilling their duties (employee has financial investment in suppliers) -Perform duties based on their order in WD Roth's hierarchy in his prima facie duties

What is expected from you when hired?

you are expected to be an aid to the business or specific projects, if not, justifiable termination

Lichtenberg writes about conflicts of interest for journalists and journalism. What are some of those conflicts of interest? How and why do they arise? How might they be avoided or solved? What is wrong with the notion of journalist as ​tabula rasa?​

¨Issues in journalistic conflicts of interest ¨No journalist is a tabula rasa. Four mistaken views: ¨(a) Journalists shouldn't have opinions ¨(b) Journalists who are politically involved can't do fair journalism ¨(c) Journalists' will entangle them in ways that compromise their fairness and accuracy ¨(d) Journalists' political involvements create the appearance of bias and conflicts of interest and thus should be prohibited.

Client confidentiality. What is it? What is its importance? Can/should it be breached? Why/when? What are some professions in which confidentiality is important?

•Keeping professional secrets •Four requirements, according to Beauchamp and Childress •Medicine: Problem of patients with AIDS •Engineering: Engineering creativity vs. public safety •Accounting: Conflicting pressures from clients, credit grantors, government(s), employers, investors, the business and financial community, and others.

Cohen-Almagor claims that limitations should be placed on media coverage. What is his argument for this? Do you agree with him? Why or why not?

- Limitations should be placed on media coverage... - Freedom of speech is a fundamental right, an important anchor of democracy, but it should not be used in an uncontrolled manner. - Unlimited liberty and unqualified tolerance might deteriorate into anarchy and lawlessness, and, in such an atmosphere, democracy would find it quite difficult to function and the media would be one of the first institutions to be undermined. OPINION Limitations should be placed on media coverage... - The media should be held accountable for aiding staging, promoting, or exaggerating events or rumors, acting irresponsibly - Reporting false stories in efforts to boost rating - The media acts in ways that endanger lives

Is it ethically permissible for K through 12 teachers to become advocates (for, e.g., a political or religious point of view) in the classroom? Why or why not? (R&Z, 433-438).

- More of an opinion question. - The paper talks about college students and how we should have information to make informed decisions - K-12 Teachers can easily mold a student's views on many topics. May become advocates but must do so carefully.

What is the distinction between a stockholder and a stakeholder? What is the purpose or goal of stakeholder theory? Review Freeman's "Stakeholder Theory of the Modern Corporation," (R&Z, 168-172), especially his six ground rules for fair contracts.

- Stockholder: have an interest in the firm because of their financial investment in stocks, bonds - Stakeholder: anyone who benefits from (are harmed by) the actions of an organization - Stakeholder Theory: "The stakes of each group—management, owners, employees, suppliers, customers, the local community, and perhaps others—are reciprocal, since each can affect the others in terms of harms and benefits as well as rights and duties." - 6 Ground Rules for Fair Contracts: 1. Principle of entry and exit 2. Principle of governance 3. Principle of externalities 4. Principle of contracting cost 5. Agency principle 6. Principle of limited immortality

What unethical and/or fraudulent accounting things were done by Lucent Technologies?

- The SEC brought charges against Lucent for fraudulently reporting sales - They reported excess sales figures making themselves seem much more successful than they actually were - "The SEC's complaint alleges that Lucent fraudulently and improperly recognized approximately $1.148 billion of revenue and $470 million in pre-tax income during its fiscal year 2000." The firm was fined $25 million, and securities fraud charges were brought against 9 former employees

How might a conflict of interest arise for an accountant?

- The problem of conflicts of interest for accountants and auditors. - Among other conflicts, the role of accountants in middle-management gives rise to ethical problems and conflicts of interest - Cooking the books, etc. - The Generally Accepted Accounting Principles have gaps and can be interpreted differently. - This means that these principles can be interpreted one way at one time or situation, then in a quite different way at another time or situation, to gain an advantage for whoever's interest the accountant is serving

According the Bayles why have few professions been subject to much public control?

- There is monopolistic control over the profession and entry into the profession - It provides an important service that can only be obtained by going through the professionals in this field

How does the existence of new media (Internet, bloggers, Twitter, text messaging, cell phones, etc.) affect journalism and what are some of the ethical questions posed by this?

- Today, with the Internet, Twitter, Facebook, blogs, etc. everyone can/has become both an editor and a publisher. - The old media served as gatekeepers. - The challenges to traditional journalistic values and ethics today are major. Ethical Questions: - Can truth and accuracy be maintained today? - Can completeness and comprehensiveness be maintained. - Does noise drown out truth, accuracy, and comity? - Does it matter? Why or why not? Questions of whether the ads will take away from the editorials - With internet news also, news must come much quicker than previously (every minute rather than every day) - Ethical issues - Sites are tracking their usage on the web - Sites are packing audio music clips with their record reviews and selling the albums online - Capacity to imbed ad links into editorial copy now, and charge for those links

Issues raised by cybertechnology and computer technology.

- What counts as equity in cyberspace and who should have ownership. Right now US owns large portion of internet who's dominance is refuted by UN and other smaller nations - Employer monitoring internet access of employees / Businesses like google monitoring purchases of consumers (Privacy concerns) - Blurred lines: Is pirating music theft?

What is the conflict between engineering and public interest? See Broome's account of this problem.

-Debate as to whether engineering is a science or not, therefore, individuals don't know whether to place faith in it or if it is laden with risk -Most hold belief that engineering cannot assure health and welfare of the public because engineering is inherently a risky field -Broome: adopt the "Praxiology" view of engineering agreeing with claim that it is not a science ad laden with risk. Therefore, he advocates that engineers hold acceptability of risk of public health to be paramount. This begs the question of "acceptable" to whom?

Descriptive vs. Normative account of something (Descriptive vs. Normative Ethical Relativism)

-Descriptive account: describes what a thing is or what ppl. think with no comment on whether good or bad -Normative account: usually with a normative ethical theory in mind, commenting on rightness/wrongness of something -Descriptive Ethical Relativism: different ppl, groups, societies have different ethical views relative to the person/group/society -Normative Ethical Relativism: notion that ppl. should conform to the ethical principle that their culture actually holds. Can be no universal ethical standards

Review Schlossberger's points and list of questions to ask in giving an ethical evaluation of organizations. Know those questions

-Does the organization make a good faith effort to serve its intended, objective, and conceptual beneficiaries? -Is the perceived good of the organization truly a good? -Does the organization attempt to ensure that its efforts serve what it understands to be the good-in-general, either directly or by serving a role within a practice that serves the good-in-general? -Is the organization's understanding of the good-in-general correct? -Does the organization succeed I those efforts? -Do the organization's activities violate some other firm precept of morality [ethics] in a way not justified by the considerations raised in the first five questions?

What are at least three reasons that problems in ethics arise for the profession of accounting?

-Pressure on accountants and auditors to have the business seem to be meeting its earnings goals - Do all interested parties in an economic interchange have a right to all the relevant information - Do accountants have an additional responsibility to the public

What type of information can an employee not take from one employer to another

-Proprietary data: technological or other type of info to maintain competitive adv. -Trade secrets

What are some ethical problems or issues faced by nurses?

-Refusing to follow directions of treatment prescribed by dr. when they know it's not in the best interest of the patient -Lack of autonomy -Lack of Authority -Extended workload

Criteria for a good and accurate ethical normative theory

-Universality -Consistency -Culpability -Importance -Fairness

What are the four components of an ethics audit according to KPMG Peat Marwick? (Blackboard)

1) Assessment of the ethical climate of the client, involving culture, environment, motives and pressures 2) Assessment of performance incentives 3) Communication of a message of what is acceptable / unacceptable ethical behavior 4) Compliance and enforcement

According to Jordan Goodman, in order to solve problems of unethical accounting, change is needed in four specific areas. What are those four areas? (On the Blackboard handout)

1) The corporate culture itself needs to change 2) Executive compensation has to be controlled 3) Can we find corporate leaders who respect the rules 4) How do we reconcile tough leadership with the profit motive

Three Parts of an ethical argument

1. A factual premise (Mary stole money from her employer) 2. A premise stating an ethical principle or theory (Stealing is bad) 3. A conclusion that brings those two together (Mary did wrong in stealing from her employer)

Robert Nozick's Three Principles

1. A person who acquires a holding in accordance with the principle of Justice in Acquisition is entitled to that something 2. A person who acquires a holding in accordance with the principle of Justice in Transfer from someone else entitled to that holding is now entitled to that holding 3. No one is entitled to a holding except by repeated applications of 1 and 2 - Just Ratification

What five tasks usually need to be accomplished in a professional-client relationship

1. Analyze the client's need or want. 2. Consider alternative responses to the client's need. 3. Deciding which of the alternatives to pursue. 4. Implementation of the decision. 5. Education (of client or professional or both).

4 ways to challenge an ethical argument

1. Attack or disagree with the factual premise 2. Attack or disagree with the the ethical theory used in the argument 3. Say the ethical theory is good but doesn't apply in the particular case 4. Point out mistake in logic (formal [if P the Q...] /informal fallacy [slippery slope, etc.])

Jonathan Haidt's presentation of 6 "moral foundations"

1. Care/harm, 2. liberty/oppression, 3. fairness/cheating, 4. loyalty/betrayal, 5. authority/subversion, 6. Sanctity/degradation

4 key features of capitalism

1. Companies 2. Profit motive 3. Competition 4. Private Property

Steps in hiring process

1. Create job description 2. Advertise job opening 3. Collect applications 4. Screen applicants into 3 groups a) reject b) accept c) interested if none in b pass 5. Testing - needs Reliability (consistent for every applicant) and Validity (test abilities relevant for position) 6. Interview Finanists

Detmer offers five suggestions for improvement of journalism. What are they?

1. Engage in much more investigative journalism instead of relying on handouts from authority figures. 2. Enlarge the pool of authorities from which information is drawn. 3. Don't allow US corporate and government spokespersons to "set the agenda." 4. Abandon the confused and irresponsible notion of objectivity that currently guides the profession. 5. Abandon the "both sides" approach to the presentation of opinion.

Cohen-Almagor lists six different categories of events. What are they?

1. Events that have social-public meaning. 2. Gossip events that are of little social value but are of interest to the public. - Distinction between people who choose a life of self-publicity and those who choose a life that will predictably attract media attention. - Distinction between celebrities and public figures that choose their position and ordinary people. 3. Heightened events. 4. Exaggerated events and twisted stories. 5. Staged events. 6. Fictitious events.

S&B 6 steps for what businesses should do to ensure consumer safety

1. Give safety the priority warranted by the product 2. Abandon accidents just occur from product misuse 3. Monitor manufacturing process 4. Review marketing/advertising process 5. Make available written report of product performance 6. Investigate consumer complaints

2 ways employees can misuse an official position

1. Insider Trading 2. Using company money for personal use/benefits

3 arguments for the narrow view of CSR

1. Invisible hand argument of Adam Smith 2. Let-the-government-do-it: its the role of the gov't to handle social issues 3. Businesses can't handle social responsibility because business people and corporations lack training necessary for this

Justice in Economics (distributive justice): 4 things justice has bee held to be

1. Justice as fairness (John Rawls) 2. Justice as Equality 3. Justice as desserts - getting what one deserves 4. Justice as moral/ethical rights

Informed Consent

1. Sufficient Information, 2. No coercion, 3. competence

Know and be able to discuss at least five important ethical issues or problems that arise in multinational business.

1. Take advantage of developing world, Government experience/Consumer sophistication 2. Circumvent government regulations 3. Product dumping 4. Bribery: wrong because gives unfair advantage to some over others. If asking for a bribe it is equally as bad as you are trying to get the other person to betray their morals and trying to get something out of it. 5. Use of sweatshops/labor in developing world

Review Faber's account of five different types of professional-client relationship.

1. The agency relationship. 2. The paternalistic relationship. 3. The contractual relationship. 4. The affinity relationship. 5. The fiduciary relationship

Cohen distinguishes between pure legal advocates and moral agents. What is this distinction? What is its importance and/or consequences?

1. The pure legal (amoral) advocate undermines each of those seven criteria [Cohen's 7 points of a morally good person]. - - So there is a great deal of disutility in being a pure legal advocate. Thus a different conception of lawyer is called for, and "there is a further concept of a lawyer which, while not abandoning the adversarial approach, serves to avoid much of the disutility" of the pure legal advocate. 2. Moral Agents: ● Treats others as ends in themselves and not as mere means to winning cases. (Individual Justice) ● Treats clients and other professional relations who are relatively similar in a similar fashion. (Distributive Justice) ● Does not deliberately engage in behavior apt to deceive the court about the truth. (Truthfulness) ● Is willing, if necessary, to make reasonable personal sacrifices—of time, money, popularity, etc.- for what he/she justifiably thinks is a moral cause. (Moral Courage) ● Does not give money to, or accept money from clients for wrongful purposes or in wrongful amounts. (Liberality) ● Avoids harming others in the process of representing his/her client. (Non Malevolence) ● Is loyal to his/her client and does not betray the client's confidences. (Trustworthiness) ● Makes his/her own moral decisions to the best of his/her ability and acts consistently upon them. (Moral Autonomy)

6 reward distribution schemes

1. To each an equal share (winning team in competition) 2. To each according to individual need (food stamp policy) 3. To each according to personal effort (grading) 4. To each according to social contribution (capitalism) 5. To each according to merit (job candidacy) 6. Winner takes all (race)

Schlossberger's account of four different types of professional information, as well as the question of who owns this information and whether and what information an employee can take from one employer to another.

1.Patented Information: is publicly available information who use is legally restricted 2.Trade Secrets: proprietary information or business secrets.Business secrets include specific company plans or business dat not available to the public. Specific processes, ingredients. 3.Trick of the trade: short cuts, problem-solving strategies, unofficial solutions to common types of problems, ways of thinking , approaches, and other non patentable information. It is insider information and not publicly available but learned from ones own experiences as an engineer. 4.General Knowledge: information generally available. Info found in textbooks, articles, courses. Info is PUBLICLY available and NOT LEGALLY Restricted

Review Emanuel and Emanuel's account of four models of the physician-patient relationship.

1.Paternalistic model: physician makes decision for the patients benefit independent of the patients values or desires 2. Informative: physician provides information, patient applies values and decides 3. Interpretive:patient is uncertain about values, physician, as counselor, assists the patient in elucidating his or her values. 4. Deliberative: Patient is open to development, physician informs and teaches the most desirable values.

Monroe Freedman posed three ethical dilemmas for defense lawyers. What are they and why do they arise?

3 ethical dilemmas: (a) Is it proper to make a witness to appear to be lying when you know his testimony is truthful and accurate?(b) Is it proper to put a witness on the stand when you know he will commit perjury? (c) Is it OK to give client legal advice when you have reason to believe the knowledge you give him will tempt him to commit perjury? Pushed the implications of the adversary system to their logical conclusions; dismissed as hypocrisy in attempts to deny their ethical difficulties.

Review Cohen's 7 points of a morally good person.

A Morally good person: Is just Is truthful Has moral courage Has good monetary habits Is benevolent Is trustworthy Is disposed to do his/her own moral thinking

How is the metaphor of a video camera and its operator applicable to the ethics of journalism?

A camera doesn't know where to point, someone decides what to show and include, choosing what to pay attention to. The journalist decides what to share with the public which can lead to bias or manipulation.

What is a professional-client relationship for?

A client goes to a professional because the client has a need or want, and the client believes that the professional will enable him or her to obtain what she needs or wants. - Client knows the end goal but not the means, professional is there to guide client or provide the means for client to achieve goal.

Do you think that a lawyer in the American legal system, in his role as a lawyer, can be an ethically good person? Why or why not?

A lawyer can be ethically good if they keep confidentiality rules, don't deceive, makes decisions based on ethical principles, and is careful with communication and how they formulate legal strategies. The profession is set up to make it difficult especially because sometimes a lawyer must deceive the court to win a case and defend someone who they know is guilty

The view was given in class that the proper approach to environmental problems is some version of cost/benefit analysis, instead of any form of environmental absolutism. Do you agree? Why or why not?

Absolutist ethical view:Polluting and despoiling the environment is always wrong and should be totally avoided. But this would mean that many businesses and economic ventures would need to be shut down. Utilitarian: Use a cost-benefit analysis that compares the cost of any damage to the environment with the benefit to be gained thereby, and then do whatever produced the greatest benefit over the environmental cost.

What is the nature of the Anglo-American legal system? What term is used for it? What does this mean about the role of lawyers in that system?

Adversary System - Two opposing sides 'battle' to determine the truth by showing their case is more plausible, etc. - lead to massive conflict and sometimes deception (accomplish victory by any means necessary)

Capitalism

An economic system in which the major portion of production is in private hands operating under a market system -Socialsim public ownership, planned economy

Technology and worker displacement.

As new tech is developed it displaces old workers wedded to old technology and low skilled work like factory/truckers. Increases productivity so less workers are needed for same output

What is autonomy? Why is it important?

Autonomy is being free from external interference or control - By respecting a person's autonomy, one is taking their views and wishes seriously, and so is treating them as moral agents - Jobs with high degrees of autonomy create a greater sense of responsibility and higher job satisfaction

Contractarian (contract-based) ethics

Ethics is based on hypothetical/imagined contracts settled upon among members of society. Harvard Professor John Rawls

Know the central conclusions of some important legal cases dealing with affirmative action, especially Bakke vs Regents of the University of California, Grutter v. Bollinger, Graz v. Bollinger, and Parents United v. Seattle. Adarand V Pena: Justice Thomas, Justice Stevens

Bakke vs Regents of the University of California: Allan Bakke sued the medical school on the basis that he was being discriminated against and would have made admissions if it were not for 16 percent of places being reserved for minority students, vote allowed Bakke entry and caused states to question race-based AA going forward Grutter v. Bollinger: Upheld the raced based affirmative action admissions policy of the University of Michigan Law School to promote student diversity Graz v. Bollinger Rejected race-based AA at UMich. because it gave minority group members an automatic advantage Parents United v. Seattle. District's racial tiebreaker plan deemed unconstitutional as AA policy was, in an attempt to stop discriminating by race, discriminating by race Adarand V Pena: Construction company awarded the job as hirer received compensation from gov't for hiring minority group - Justice Stevens: favors race-based affirmative action, a majority discriminating against a majority to help a minority is not wrong and would fix the problem - Justice Thomas (Black conservative): against race-based affirmative action, laws designed to separate race and laws to distribute benefits by race are one in the same and immoral, against any and all racial discrimination policies

consequetialist ethics

Based on examining consequences of actions, beliefs, theories, and judging rightness/wrongness on whether consequences bring benefit

Ethics based on emphasizing human rights

Bill of Rights in the Constitution Problem: that different societies emphasize different human rights; not universal

The problem of child care for working mothers. Know and describe the problem, and be able to present something about what businesses can do to alleviate the problem.

Both fathers and mothers must care for children but there is a higher percentage of mothers who's responsibility it is to take care of the children. therefore, business must account for women taking long time off for maternity leave and throughout career for raising child Business option: - Offer Extra pay - Child care credits - On-site child care

Care Ethics

Care is the most fundamental value. Outgrowth of feminist Philosophy Professor Virginia Held

Career tracks for women: The career-primary track vs. the career-and-family track (the mommy track). (Felice Schwartz) Know and describe the difference.

Career Primary: put career first and remain single and childless but if they do have children they are ok letting others raise them Career and Family: Willing to sacrifice career growth to have free time to raise children

Can the client become the enemy of the professional? What are some examples?

Clients who abuse the professional's time. -Patients who don't/won't take care of themselves, or who manipulate their doctors. -For lawyers: Clients who settle too soon or too late, or who won't dress or behave appropriately in court. -People who want architects to design a building that will be unpleasant to live in. -Social workers: Dealing with people who abuse themselves, their families, or the system. -Accountants: Clients who want falsified financial statements -Teachers: Students who won't behave, won't do/finish their assignments, turn in assignments late, don't do the assigned reading, etc.

Distinguish between negative and positive affirmative action.

Comparable to the distinction between negative and positive rights Negative: government or state can't take it away from you Positive: the state has to give it to you (ex. Social security) Affirmative action: policy to aid minority groups in gaining admittance to exclusive programs in which they were previously discriminated against

What is cooking the books? How is it usually done? Why is it done?

Cooking the books​- Intentionally hiding or distorting the real financial performance / condition of a company. - Usually done by moving items from Income Statement to Balance Statement and vice versa. - To defraud, to improve / maintain high stock prices, for personal profit, etc.

Technological cornucopianism and technological dystopianism. Definitions, plus your stance on this.

Corucopians: Tech leads to solution for all problems facing humanity and should be embraced Dystopian: Tech leads to hell and should be shunned I find myself having a hard time to favor one side or the other, thus find myself with the view or attitude most people have, which is that I fall in between the extremes of dystopianism and cornucopianism. - Supporting new technology from a cornucopianism view means that new technology usually provides a basis for new business, new employment, and new wealth-creation. For example, new innovations on electric cars lead to environmental procetction. but at the same time from a dystopianism view this means that it provides a means for a technological elite to form leads to greater inequality. New machines put low skilled labor out of work. Nuclear bombs

Ethical problems in health care, as given on the class handouts. Think about four or five specific problems in ethics of health care, and think about how you would solve several of them.

Do not resuscitate order: Physician-assisted suicide: - Physician-assisted suicide should be a right in ethics if a person believes that life is no longer worth living beyond a certain point of age and inability. If there is informed consent on both ends, the patient and the physician, this should be an ethically permissible practice Who should decide about abortion? Is medical Treatment a human right. - Medical treatment is a human right. A professional would not be performing their duty if they denied a patient this right and thus be inflicting harm onto that patient. One possible solution to this problem is to ensure the entirety of the population has access to comprehensive healthcare. Patient Autonomy

Contrationalist-Egalitarian theory of Rawls and 2 pts

Each person possesses rights secured by justice that can not be lost, not even for the greater welfare of society 2. Each person should have an equal claim to the most extensive system of equal basic liberties. Social and economic inequalities should only be prevalent if each has an equal fair opportunity of achieving these and if they are to benefit the least-advantaged member of society

How far can a business go in investigating employee behavior?

Employees have the right to privacy so businesses must justify infringement on that privacy. Most cases where are allowed to inquire into employees' behavior is if they have reason to believe it will impact job performance/increase costs for the firm i.e. smokers/non-smokers (higher insurance costs) Eastern airlines: drug testing baggage handlers for anonymous tip

Caveat Emptor, Caveat Venditor, Strict product liability

Emptor: "Buyer beware" buyer is alone responsible for checking quality and suitability of good before purchase, Venditor: "Seller beware" Seller is responsible for any problem a buyer might encounter with a product Strict Product Liability: Manufacturer of a product has a responsibility to compensate the consumer for any injuries suffered by the product defectiveness whether aware of defect occurring or not

What is the main goal or purpose of counseling?

Enhance client autonomy and power while improving physiological health

What are some of the main difficulties experienced by teachers, K-12, in the US? What are some of the reasons for these problems? (R&Z, 407-417 + Blackboard and Class Presentations). How would you solve these problems?

Ethical dilemmas: 1. Teachers being friends with students... Should not be 2. Being political social advocates in the classroom - Many differences of language, ethnicity, family situation, culture, income and wealth, family expectations. - Educational authority is divided among federal, state, and local authorities. - Disagreement about purpose and methods of education. - Teachers are not held in high esteem by members of higher-status professions. - For the most part, students from the "best colleges" and/or in the upper half of college graduates do not go into K to 12 teaching. - Overpopulated classrooms - Inadequate preparation time for teachers - Inadequate salaries for teachers—less salaries means teachers have to focus less on teaching to cope with the finances and are unable to prepare for class - Losing interest in teaching- routine becomes less interesting - Teacher burn out - Teacher unions support interests of teachers at the expense of students

Nepotism

Favoritism to relatives or close friends For: If the business is family-oriented, in which case nepotism is built into the business model, Increased loyalty/familiarity/productivity Against: Overlooking more qualified candidate

Virtue Ethics

Focuses not on ethical rules or consequences rather the moral status of the individual, purpose of building an individual's ethical character Aristotle "Nichomachean Ethics"

What are some of the principles or guidelines concerning dating and mating between co-workers?

For the most part, courts ruled that this is private matter where companies cannot intrude. Relationship between superior and subordinate always held to be unethical

Know the arguments for and against positive race-based affirmative action, and responses to them.

For: -Affirmative action is necessary to permit fairer competition today, blacks have been held back from the disadvantages of the past -Necessary to break the cycle that keeps minorities and woman locked into the low-paying, low-prestige jobs Against: -Injures white men and infringes their rights -Violates the principles of equality -Nondiscrimination will achieve our social goals; stronger affirmative action is unnecessary

Labor Unions: Reasons for formation, tactics, libertarian critique

Form to equalize relationship between employee-employer Tactics: Strikes (1. just cause, 2. proper authorization, 3. Last Resort), Collective bargaining Libertarian: Unions infringe on autonomy and therefore liberty of individual workers, favoritism of union workers

Be able to describe the glass ceiling and the notion of comparable worth.

Glass Ceiling: an invisible barrier that keeps given demographic from rising beyond a certain level in a hierarchy. They can "see it" but never reach it Comparable Worth: holds that women and men should be paid on the same scale not only for doing the same or equivalent jobs but also for doing different jobs that involve equal skill

Moral Sense Theory and Ethical Intuitionism

Holds that humans have a moral sense (like the physical senses) or intuition by which we can distinguish between right and wrong. David Hume, W.D. Ross' "Prima facie duties"

What is technological determinism and is it true? Where?

Holds that technology makes its own path for development with no consideration of human ethics. Others argue that humans control where tech goes and the morals it adheres to. Can be said to be true especially in military development where tech seems to continue to innovate past ethical boundaries with no end in sight as humans lack control

Ethics based on Nature or "Natural Law."

Humans are a beings of nature, nature can be known, ethics are derived from principles found in nature. Nature makes ethics not humans Secular v. Religious Thomas Jefferson "Declaration of Independence" v. Roman Catholicism homosexuality

Who should bare the costs of environmental clean-up?

NIMBY: Build it somewhere but not in my backyard (Don't have it affect me) BANANA: Build absolutely nothing, anytime, anywhere

Broad and narrow view of Corporate Social Responsibility

Narrow view: (Milton Freeman) Profit maximization. The sole social responsibility for a corporation should be to generate as much money for stockholders as possible Broad view: because of social power and social role a corporation has a larger social responsibility outside of making a profit for its shareholders

Nestlé Baby formula case

Nestlé, an MNE, took advantage of a lack of consumer sophistication in developing countries by sending individuals dressed as doctors to these regions to advertise their baby formula. This made the locals believe that they needed the formula. Due to a lack of resources and insufficient information before purchasing the formula, the residents were unable to properly dilute the formula leading to the eventual spike in infant mortality due to malnourishment

Is it permissible for teachers to become friends of their students? Why or why not?

No, By becoming friends with a student, a teacher has a biased towards, and thus raises the question can they be unbiased when grading their work compared to other students - Professors may use students to help with research without the student getting any compensation - The first premise is the general principle that we are prima facie obligated not to engage in any activity likely to severely limit our ability to honor our moral obligations - Establishing and maintaining a friendship with one or more students will severely limit a professor's ability to honor other moral obligations - Each professor has a duty to give all students equal consideration in instruction, advising, and evaluation. - Professors are likely to violate these moral obligations if they become friends with students

Can Corporation make moral decisions? Two arguments

No, Corporate internal decision CID structure causes it to be like a machine. Corporation not responsible for moral decision just like how a car isn't ethically responsible if the breaks fail and kills someone Yes, CID structure acts like an individual person gathering info and making decisions. Therefore, corporation is ethically responsible for its decisions.

According to Detmer, what is/are the problem(s) with the notion of "objectivity" as it is usually held up by journalists?

Objectivity (treating things as objects and with fairness and impartiality) requires self-transcendence (the ability to go beyond your self-interest) and self-transcendence makes social ethical life possible. Problems With Objectivity: -It discourages investigative journalism, since reporters who do their own investigations are pretty much obliged to draw their own conclusions, and this, according to the principle in question, is to inject their own "bias" and "personal opinions" into the news. -It encourages journalists to finesse the issue by presenting only those judgements and conclusions that neither they themselves nor the bulk of their audience will recognize as such.

What does the existence of lawyer jokes suggest about our (i.e. the public's) thinking/feeling about lawyers and the legal profession?

That the public does not hold the profession with high regard, in fact, it shows that they are associate the profession with unethical practices and deception

What is dual-investor theory? What problem or question is it intended to answer (the narrow view of corporate social responsibility, as propounded by Milton Friedman)? What are Schlossberger's five main points in his argument.

Organizations generally have a duty of minimal social responsibility as moral duties are build into the concept of an organization - Refutes the narrow view and supports the broad view of CSR Shlossaberger's 5 Points: 1. Society provides every organization with extensive help without which it cannot function 2. Every organization knowingly employs that help of society in pursuing its purpose 3. Therefore, every org. makes use of society for its own purpose and benefit 4. When one makes use of what another has provided, it becomes one's duty to ensure that in pursuing one's purpose one upholds the benefactor's needs, welfare to the extent equal with the magnitude of what one has used 5. Every org. Has a duty to ensure that the pursuit of its purpose is consistent with the needs, welfare, and projects of society

What is paternalism in the marketplace? Do you think it is justified? Why or why not?

Paternalism: When an individual, usually in a position of superior knowledge, makes a decision for another to protect this other person from some type of harm - I believe paternalism to be justified in the marketplace as the other extreme of caveat emptor, or "buyer beware" no longer can be looked upon favorably in today's marketplace. Under "buyer beware" professionals possessing greater knowledge must provide the customer with all available information about the product but can still take advantage of this customer as can be the case with insurance salespeople. The salesman must reveal any and all product information but does not have to disclose any information about the customer not needing the insurance. Whereas under paternalism, the professional must look out for the customer's best interest. Therefore, the salesperson must not just think about their profit, rather, they must take into account the best interest of the customer prior to the sale and can even refuse the sale if they believe the product to cause harm to the customer or third-parties.

Third Person Problem in counseling

Pertains to client confidentiality. Is the counselor ethically responsible to inform a third party when the client's condition indicates that this other party's safety is at stake? Is it ethically justifiable to breach the client's trust in this case? For example the client divulges they have AIDS and they have not informed their sexual partner.

What is a technological elite and what ethical problem arise because of it?

Possess most knowhow for the forefront of the most important technological innovation giving them wealth, power, and social status (large principle-agent problem) Potential for power to be misused

What are some of the pressures that are or can be put on accountants to have them create false or fraudulent accounting statements.

Pressure on accountants and auditors to have the business seem to be - to have its books look as if it is meeting its earnings goals To please shareholders and make everyone involved happy - Look as if there are good profits Management is being greedy and taking money - Forces accountant(s) to cover it up - Threatened to be fired Fear of being a "whistleblower"

Pragmatic ethics

Principles and views need to be bent and changed in light of new discoveries/situations therefore ethics must also change to fit these situations Ex: Those in favor of "living" Constitution

3 Ethical justifications and criticisms of capitalism

Pro: 1. Natural right to property 2. Religious justifications of private property 3. Adam Smith's Invisible hand (by seeking the best for ourselves we are simultaneously compelling the best state of the economy Con: 1. Leads to inequality 2. Today's marketplace is far different and more complex than during Adam Smith's time 3. Capitalism assumes humans are materialists/consumerists

Alexandra and Miller's account of fundamental (human) needs and the role of professionals in filling those needs, along with the claim that others have against the professional to fulfill his/her needs.

Professionals provide the good of the satisfaction of fundamental needs (which not just desires) Having a fundamental need that one cannot satisfy on one's own establishes a claim against those who can satisfy it, The role of the profession is to satisfy one's fundamental needs

Pros and cons of Government safety regulations:

Pros: - Greater safety and consumer protection - Legal Paternalism: use of law, justifiable used to ensure people do no harm to themselves. Justified when dire to protect individuals from harm by oneself or others (seat belts) Cons: - High economic cost - Consumer choice against safety rule (Seatbelt law)

What are some problems for teachers and education that came about because of No Child Left Behind? What are some problems for teachers and education raised by the Common Core Standards?

Teaching to the test. Fraud in testing. - No Child Left Behind (NCLB) lead to teaching the test, where teachers only teach information that appears on state / federally mandated tests and not a comprehensive curriculum. - Common Core Standards (CC) further encourages this by providing national standards that may encourage test fraud, etc. - Scores on these state / national tests dictate funding, etc. so there is high incentive to cheat.

Moriarty's use of virtue ethics to solve problems of engineering ethics. (R&Z, 203-211) Look especially at his accounts of character, dispositions, virtue, conflict between goods, objectivity, self-transcendence, and the virtues of care and objectivity

Self-Transcendence: The ability to go beyone one's own self interest. This is important for professionals because all professionals should look past what is good for just themselves and should instead look at what is also good for others. - Care and objectivity should characterize character. It is possible to choose ones ethos​--People should be objective so as to remain open minded, patient, honest, trust, humility, hope, courage and maintaining a narrow and wide perspective. -Care is connective -Disposition of Character: Commitments, Concerns and Dispositions. 1) Dispositions to recognize situations as ethically problematic 2) dispositions to treat certain factors as having special weight in ethical decisions 3) concerns for certain thing thought to matter 4) commitments that provide a connecting thread among different moments of the agents life

Definition of technology

Technology has been defined as "the totality of the means employed to provide objects necessary to human sustenance and comfort"

What are nonsexual dual relationships? Are they objectionable or problematic? Why?

They exist in addition to professional relationship, existing in a second social, financial, or professional role. - Yes, they are objectionalble. they negate, erodes, distorts the professional legitimacy.Conflict of Interest.Decrease effectiveness of service, professional is no longer objective.

Define corporation

Thing that can 1) endure past lives of members 2) has incorporators who can sue and be sued 3) can cosign their property to the corporation 4) for ventures in limited liability

Amy Gutmann raises the question whether virtue can be taught to lawyers. Why is she concerned with this? What is her answer and her proposal to this problem?

Three conceptions of legal virtue: (a) "standard conception" [corresponds to pure legal advocate]. (b) "justice conception" [seeks social justice]. (c) "character conception" [live a good life in the law, exercise practical judgment]. All conceptions of lawyering neglect the virtue of deliberation in legal practice. So legal education needs to change. Two proposals: (1) Teach lawyers how better to communicate with their clients. (2) Teach the knowledge and understanding that is necessary to make informed judgments about alternative legal strategies. Accomplish this through adopting the Socratic method of give-and-take in deliberation.

W.D. Roth's Theory of Prima Facie Duties

Unless there is some good reason to the contrary humans have duties to fulfill and should fulfill multiple simultaneous conflicting duties using hierarchy of duties, do higher duty first

What is sexual harassment, and what can businesses do to prevent it?

Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature. Prevent: Managers to establish that sexual advances in any form are not tolerated, specifically through written policy and reinforced through training

Ethical Egoism

What is ethically right or wrong is in line with the individual's self interest. Something is ethically right if it will promote individuals long-term self interest Ayn Rand

Socialist, Communist, Communitarian, Progressive, and Marxist Ethics

What is good or bad is socially determied.. Emphasizes society and communal goals, Social Justice. Favors powerful government to accomplish communal goals Secular: Karl Marx Religious: Jewish, Catholic, Islam

Whistle Blowing and 7 conditions

Whistle-blowing: an employee informing the public about the illegal or immoral behavior of an employer or an organization. 1. Appropriate moral motive 2. all internal channels Exhausted 3. compelling evidence 4. analysis of the danger 5. likelihood of success 6. Understand the consequences for yourself and others 7. Get legal help before going public Mike W. Martin: 3 Ways to deal with it 1. Deal with it and look at it as a tragedy 2. it is unethical for the whistleblower to have gone behind the back of the company 3. Whistleblowers are paramount

Three approaches to achieving environmental goals:

Wise Use: human life and business ventures require exploitation of environment, acknowledges this and sees exploitation as necessary for survival Sustainability: Unsustainable activities must be curtailed or completely prevented Stewardship: right to use the resources on Earth but at the end of our time here we should leave planet in the way we found it. There are earth caretakes such as groups and orgs that help look after the environment

Can the integrity of professional counselors be challenged by the demands or behavior of clients? (Yes.) What are some circumstances in which this can occur? (See the article by Kupfer and Klatt, R&Z, 308-314. Although it is somewhat important, you may ignore their account of first and second-order autonomy,

Yes, if the Client has fatal and contagious disease like AIDS, they must reveal to relevant third party. if the client has not made any intention to Disclose to parties at risk of contraction. -Communicate intentions to disclose When clients have intentions to produce harm to others.