EURO TIMELINE WITH DATES

Pragmatic Sanction of the Bourges

15 7 7 1438 1516 Signed by King Charles VII of France, it stated that the general council has more authority than the papacy. This gave the French power over the appointments of many church official such as bishops, and striped the pope of some of his revenues. This helped to consolidate the French crown's power since the sanction stated that it was above the French church. McKay 7th p. 444

Apothecaries and Purging

18 1710 Apothecaries were the time's pharmacists who sold all kinds of herbs and drugs for diseases and ailments. Prescriptions tended to be long and complicated, containing at least 100 substances, and were very expensive. Some of these prescriptions worked, like the strong laxatives given to the nobles. The nobles would eat large meals and then purge their systems of the food, which was an extremely dangerous practice. Only bloodletting was more dangerous and caused more deaths. McKay 7th p. 675

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McKay 7th p. 703 & French Rev PowerPoint Notes

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Modern Art Presentation

Eastern Orthodoxy

11 1054 Eastern Orthodoxy is a Christian denomination similar the Roman Catholicism, except for the fact that it does not believe in the pope's authority. In all other ways the two Churches are very similar. Eastern Orthodoxy developed in Eastern Europe, especially because missionaries from the Byzantine Empire came to convert the Slavs. This religion was one of the core unifiers between all of the Slavs. This denomination considered all other sects of Christianity to be heretical, and they certainly did not practice religious tolerance in their nations -- it was the national religion of Kiev. McKay 7th p. 577

Popolo Revolutions

13 1205 1300 The urban nobility made strict laws to be a citizen and then be a government official, and pretty much the only ones who fit the criteria were the urban nobility. The popolo, the next social class down, were heavily taxed and were mad that they were not part of the government. Throughout the 13th century the popolo revolted and put in place republican governments. However, once in power they were just as exclusive and cruel and they could not get the other people in the communes to support them. By 1300 these unstable communes were taken over and then ruled by oligarchs. McKay 7th p. 417-418

Brethren of the Common Life and The Imitation of Christ

14 1370 In late 14th century Holland, a group known as the Brethren of the Common People was created by Gerhard Groote. The people were pious and lived by the Gospel, by feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, and feeding the sick. They taught in local school to identify those pious enough to become priests. They held that religion was a personal inner experience, as was written down in Tomas a Kempis' The Initiation of Christ. It encourages Christians to use Jesus as a role model and live a simple life. They argued that Scripture should be the center of religion. It spread throughout Northern Europe. McKay 7th p. 458

Charles VII of France

15 10 21 1422 1461 Charles VII unexpectedly revived France and the monarchy following the Hundred Years' War. He ended fighting between the Burgundians and Armagnacs, who had been at civil war for many years. Charles VII reorganized the royal council to give more power to the middle class and enacted the gabelle and taille, taxes on salt and land respectively, to bring in more income. He also established the first permanent army of France and signed the Pragmatic Sanction of the Bourges. McKay 7th p. 443-444

Marburg Colloquy

16 10 1529 In an attempt to unite Zwingli and Luther's ideas into a single Protestant theology, this conference was called. It would have been beneficial for Zwingli as he had no strong political support and protection. Luther and Zwingli agreed on everything except for communion, which left them without a united religion. Luther would be okay as he had other allies, but was disastrous for Zwingli. Reformation PowerPoint

Society of Jesus

16 9 27 1540 Ignatius Loyola was a Spanish soldier who retired from the military to be a servant to Jesus and wrote Spiritual Exercises which was intended to renew spiritual piety. In 1540, he and six others gained permission from the Pope to create the Society of Jesus and their followers were known as Jesuits. They were Catholic, and saw the Reformation as a pastoral problem that could be fixed by improving spiritual conditions NOT changing the doctrine. Jesuits were committed to helping souls and they would go anywhere that they felt they were needed including places like India, Japan, Congo, and the Americas. This flexibility and openness to adjusting to the time's needs made many which to join the Society. Jesuit schools used humanist ideas and educated the children of the poor and the rich alike. They were spiritual advisors to kings and help political power. They are responsible for bringing lots of Germany and eastern Europe back to Catholicism. McKay 7th p. 482-483

Thirty Years War

17 5 23 1618 05/15/1648 "The Thirty Years' War was the last religious war, and therefore also marked the end of the Reformation upon its completion. It is broken up into four parts:

Treaty of Amiens

18 3 25 1802 Great Britain and France has constant battles and competition throughout the French Revolution. Napoleon wanted to consolidate his domestic rule and to do so he needed at least temporary peace with Britain. The treaty was actually a high point for Napoleon, as he got a lot of good out of it. France was still in control of most of Italy, the west bank of the Rhine, Holland, and the Austrian Netherlands. In addition, he could reshape the German states according to his will. McKay 7th p. 714

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

18 8 27 1789 "The National Assembly issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen which established the people's sovereignty. With the assertion of the people's sovereignty, absolute divine right king ships were destroyed. This document saw all of the revolution's core ideas put into writing. The Declaration included freedom from arbitrary imprisonment, expression, and press. It also established that all people are equal under the law and that there would be representative government. It also emphasized the three core tenets of the revolution: "Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité"

Giuseppe Garibaldi and the Red Shirts

19 5 1860 Garibaldi and his supporters wanted more unified than just the north of Italy, which Cavour had accomplished through the vote. Cavour secretly supported Garibaldi and his red Shirts in their quest into Sicily. Using guerilla warfare, they were able to outsmart the royal army and gained support. From Sicily, Garibaldi continued into Naple and was getting ready to attack the Pope. That is when Cavour stopped his support, because he could not risk the wrath of the pope and all of the Italian Catholics. He sent troops to the Papal States to protect them from Garibaldi. Garibaldi still supported Cavour, and the south voted to join the already unified north. In 1866 the kingdom got Venice, and in 1870 they got Rome. Italy was officially unified. McKay 7th p. 828

Ptolemy's Geography

2 Ptolemy's Geography was written by a Hellenized Egyptian and Arab scholars reintroduced it to Europe in about 1410. It was accurate and developed in some respects: it shows the Earth as round and had the beginnings of latitude and longitude lines. However, there were some big errors like how the Americas are not depicted at all -- Ptolemy had no idea that they even existed. This map was a starting point for new cartographers from Italy and the Iberian Peninsula to study and create more accurate maps of their own. McKay 11th p. 433-34

America Joins the War

20 4 1917 America joined the war based on the naval war, sympathy for the Triple Entente, and the desperation of Total War. Britain and France had placed a naval blockade on all Central Powers Which stopped all of their trade. The Americans were annoyed, but they turned to the Entente's side due to large profits from selling supplies to them, and the propaganda that depicted German barbarians in Belgium. Then, in a counter to the Entente, Germany started to use submarines and a submarine sunk the British passenger ship, the Lusitania, which was carrying 139 Americans who lost their lives. Wilson got the German to stop the submarine warfare, but when they started up again only two years after the sinking of the Lusitania, the United States declared war on the Central Powers and joined the Entente. McKay 7th p. 899 - 900

Napoleon also knew how to setup a centralised state with an organized bureaucracy that relied on him. For example, he gave amnesty to 100,000 emigres as long as they took an oath of loyalty on their return. He also had a system of local officials who depend on Napoleon, so they worked for his best interests."

McKay 7th p. 713

First, Second, and Third Balkan Wars

20TH CENTURY 10/8/1912 -1914 The Ottoman and Austrian Empires were being destroyed by nationalism and independence movements, and these wars only prove that point. Serbia was an independent nation that was determined to independently unite all Slavic people, so it became hostile towards both empires which were to Serbia's north and south borders. Serbia was connected to Russia through their Orthodox faith, and they were relying on their help to defeat these larger nations. In the First Balkan War, Serbia, Greece, and Bulgaria (an autonomous nation) attacked the Ottomans, but the Serbs and Greeks fought with the Bulgarians over the rewards. This conflict led to the Second Balkan War wherein Austria forced Serbia to give up Albania, which Serbia had annexed. At this point, the Ottoman Empire in Europe was destroyed. Finally, when the Serbian government did not respond to the Austrian ultimatum following the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, Austria declared war on Serbia which resulted in the Third Balkan War. Overall, the Balkan wars led to destabilization in southeastern Europe and saw the beginnings of the alliance systems in action, and ultimately were contributing factors to the start of WWI. McKay 7th p. 892 - 893

Gustav Stresemann

20TH CENTURY 1907 -1929 Stresemann started out as a representative in the Reichstag in 1907. During WWI, he was a nationalist and wanted Germany to annex foreign territories that it conquered. At the end of the war, Stresemann was opposed to the Treaty of Versailles as he believed that it was unfair to Germany because Germany had only entered the war because of self-defense. Despite this, Stresemann made sure to stay centered and was elected chancellor in 1923. When French and BElgian troops occupied the Ruhr region, Stresemann called off the occupation and began trying to have peace talks with the French. He also was able to put down communist uprisings and rebellions such as Hitler's attempted coup. Stresemann was also able to stop inflation. Even when he was no longer chancellor, he worked as foreign minister for all administrations until his death. McKay 7th p. 938 & 941

Attack on Pearl Harbor

20TH CENTURY 12/7/1941 The Japanese had their own nationalistic desires, and wanted to create the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. This would be an Asian country with no Western interference, and the slogan was "Asia for Asians." As Japan began to expand into places like Manchuria, American President Roosevelt was against these actions, so the Japanese began to think that war with America was bound to happen. Japan decided to launch the first attack as a surprise on Pearl Harbor Hawaii. This attack sank or seriously damaged every naval ship docked in this navy yard. The attack on Pearl Harbor launched America into WWII and a large offensive against the Japanese, eventually using the PAcific island-hopping technique to push Japan back into its original borders. McKay 11th p. 927

Friedrich Nietzsche

20TH CENTURY 1872- 1900 Nietzsche was a philosopher who argued that the West overemphasised rationality. As a result, he believed that the inner instinct and true passion of a person that led to creativity was repressed because of rationalism. NIetzsche saw the traditional views of morality, things like reason and democracy, to be another way that individuality was repressed. He also claimed that Christianity emphasized weakness, envy, and mediocrity, and declared that "God is Dead" because no one really believed in him anymore. Finally, Nietzsche saw a very dark world and thought that the only hope for humanity was to accept the meaningless of human life. McKay 7th p. 924

Others believed that working and living conditions were improving in this time. Andrew Ure, in 1835, thought that conditions in cotton factories were good. Edwin Chadwick, a government official, though that life was improving because the people were now able to buy more luxury goods."

McKay 7th p. 742

Age of Anxiety

20TH CENTURY 1919- 1950 After WWI, disillusionment abounded in Europe. The war resulted in millions of deaths and people began to question everything and feel like they were living in strange and uncertain times. In addition to the general uncertainty and pessimism, there was also a devaluing of human life. People began to doubt that they had a definite purpose and that their individuality mattered overall and that their personal accomplishments needed to be glorified. Additionally, people rejected the Enlightenment ideal of progress because they did not see how humanity was getting better in any way. The war exemplified human violence and destruction, and in no way highlighted progress. They also rejected tradition, the classics, adn rationality. Overall, it was a general time of anxiety and nervousness. Age of Anxiety Chart

Radio

20TH CENTURY 1920 Radio became possible in 1901 with the invention of the transatlantic "wireless" communication coupled with the vacuum tube. It took a few more years, however, until there were major public broadcasts in the US and UK (1920). Countries quickly created national broadcasting networks to get content out to its people. In America, the networks were privately owned and paid for through advertising. In Britain, parliament created the British Broadcasting Corporation as an independent public corporation. In most other European countries, the governments had direct control over the radio station. In democratic countries, politicians could reach out to the people and gain support, like FDR's fireside chats. However, in totalitarian countries, dictators like Hitler took complete control and broadcast the speeches they wanted their people to hear. McKay 7th p. 937

Modern Film

20TH CENTURY 1920 While there had been silent films created in the late 19th century, movies became much more popular during WWI. Movies allowed people to escape from the harsh reality and uncertainty of everyday life. Many adults went to see movies more than once a week, as movies were the most popular form of entertainment until after WWII. While both America and Germany had silent film industries, by 19266 America had outdone Germany and dominated the world stage. However, in Germany Hitler used the filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl to create documentaries that were actually propaganda. Just like in radio, totalitarian dictators used the movies as a form of propaganda. McKay 7th p. 936 - 937

Labour Party of England

20TH CENTURY 1924 Britain was giving their people more social equality, which maintained social harmony. From this time of stability, the Labour Party was able to rise to power and make themselves the greatest force against the conservatives, putting the liberals down a notch. The Labour Party championed the workers and had revisionist socialist policy. The change in power, from Liberal to LAbour, showed how the people were no longer believing as strongly in old liberalism which championed laissez faire capitalism and individual responsibility. In 1924 and 1929, MacDonald led the country under the Labour PArty. The Labour party gradually introduced socialist policy, in order to keep the middle class from freaking out when the working class got more rights. McKay 7th p. 942

Kellogg-Briand Pact

20TH CENTURY 1928 Fifteen countries signed this pact created by French and American officials. With this oact, all of the nations condemned war as an "instrument of national policy." Clearly, this pact was created to try and stop another domino war from happening in the future. All of the nations pledged to settle disputes peacefully, adn to not jump into war. While there were no measures to punish those who initiated war, it did give some people optimism. McKay 7th p. 939

WWII in North Africa

20TH CENTURY 1942 Fighting between the English and the Axis nations led to Nazi advancements into Northern Africa. This worried the Allies, as they saw Hitler gaining more land. At the Second Battle of El Alamein, England beat the German and Italian armies and stopped any further advancement of the Axis nations in Africa. Winston Churchill considered this to be the moment that set in stone the Allied victory. The Vichy government (French government) still had holdings in Morocco and Algeria. American and English troops took these territories away from France. The Nazis worried that these Allied troops would head north through France, so they occupied Vichy France. McKay 11th p. 928 - 929

Samizdat

20TH CENTURY 1958 In the Soviet Union, there was no freedom of speech, so critics of the leadership had to go underground. the Samizdat was an underground literature circulation within the East Bloc. Books, pamphlets, newspapers, and periodicals were secretly self published and passed had to hand. Even though the Party allowed minor criticisms, teh samizdat work directly opposed communism, so it was very illegal. The samizdat allowed critical thought to be sustained in a nation that otherwise destroyed it. McKay 11th p. 982

World War One

20TH CENTURY 7/28/1914 -11/11/1918 Caused by Alliance Blocs and tensions in the Balkans, World War One was the first major European conflict since the Napoleonic Wars, which proves the effectiveness of the Council of Vienna. The war not only included European powers, but spread to the colonial territories as countries like England and France used their colonies as source of materials and soldiers. It was a disastrous war that resulted in millions of casualties and affected all people in Europe due to the total war effort. This war resulted in the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and the divvying up of the land among European powers. It was ending with the Treaty of Versailles, which set the stage for WWII. McKay 7th p. 897 - 900

Russian Revolution of 1917

20TH CENTURY 3/8/1917 -11/7/1917 The Russian Revolution of 1917 had many underlying causes. For one, the revolution of 1905 had gotten the people some liberal reform, but the tsar still had complete veto power over the Duma, so they were pretty much powerless. The people wanted a more democratic system, and realized that a constitutional monarchy was their goal. Additionally, 55% of Russia was not ethnically Russian, so nationalism was working against the tsar. In 1915 alone, Russia saw 2 million casualties in WWI. New recruits were sent into the field without weapons and were told to take them from the bodies of fallen soldiers. Conservatives AND socialists were on the same page with their desire for reform, which shows how backwards Russia was and how does[early reform was needed. All of these underlying tensions bubbles over in March of 1917 when the women marched into St. Petersburg demanding bread since everyone was famished. The soldiers were ordered to stop the women, but instead joined their march. With the tsar losing the support of the troops, teh Suma took the opportunity to crete a provisional government and demand the abdication of the tsar, which they got. McKay 7th p. 904 - 905

Sykes-Picot Agreement

20TH CENTURY 5/16/1916 To gain support in the Ottoman lands during WWI, Great Britain and France promised them independence in exchange for their support. However, after the war the Western nations went against that agreement and instead carried out the one they had agreed on independently and secretly, known as the Sykes-Picot Agreement. This document set up the former Ottoman lands to be ruled via the mandate system, meaning that they would have hands on control of the nations. It was originally stated that the goal of the mandate was to eventually give independence, but that did not happen. This was essentially a continuation of imperialistic policies. Under this agreement, France got modern day Lebanon and Syria and southern Turkey. Britain got Palestine, Transjordan, and Iraq. This was a major ager point for the Arab nationalists. McKay 11th p. 853

Assassination of Franz Ferdinand

20TH CENTURY 6/28/1914 There were existing tensions between Serbia and Austria so Austria sent its heir to the throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, to Sarajevo to try and create good relations. While being driven, a member of the Black Hand shot both the Archduke and his wife Sophie. The Black Hand was a ultranationalist Serbian group, and was secretly supported by the Serbian government. The Serbian government actually knew about the assassination plans, and did nothing to stop it. The Austrians delivered an ultimatum to Serbia to hand over the perpetrators, but Serbia did not answer directly, angering Austria. As a result, this act of terrorism in the form of an assassination and the evasive response to the ultimatum started not only the Third Balkan War, but also WWI. McKay 7th p. 893

Battle of Britain

20TH CENTURY 7/10/1940- 10/31/1940 As Hitler was trying to take over Europe, the only two regions left to attack were the Balkans and Great Britain. Britain at the time was led by Winston Churchill who refused to compromise with Hitler. Germany decided to gain control of the air in order to conquer Britain. Up to 1000 Germans planes per day fought with British planes in the sky and bombed British towns and factories. At first, the bombing sites were distinctly chosen, but by September Hitler ordered arbitrary bombing of england. His ultimate goal was to break the British people's spirit and result in a feeling of defeatism. In response, British air force factories increased production, and they were able to outdo the Germans. This action gave Britain the victory in this battle. McKay 11th p. 920

The Dropping of the Atomic Bombs

20TH CENTURY 8/6/1945 -8/9/1945 WWII was coming to a close as an Allied victory as the Soviet Union and the United States attacked Germany from both the east and west coast. America was also defeating Japan in the war on the Pacific front, but the Japanese were still fighting with determination. This was the last Axis battle to be defeated. As American strategists evaluated the situation, they only saw more American deaths and wanted to avoid that. Even with the typical WWII bombings that the Americans carried out, the Japanese still fought back and more American died. Ultimately, the American government decided to drop devastating atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. 5 days after the bombing of Nagasaki, Japan surrendered and the Allied powers had officially won WWII. McKay 11th p. 931

Popular Front

20TH CENTURY May 1936 French fascists were taking inspiration from Hitler and Mussolini, while communists were looking to Stalin. However, the fascists were much more vocal and they were threatening to overthrow the government. The communists, socialists, and radicals were all alarmed by this development, so they formed the People's Front. This alliance was formed just in time for the 1936 elections, and they were hoping to keep the fascists out of the legislature. The socialists, led by Leon Blum got the majority. Under Blum, the Popular Front made the first and only attempt to deal with the economic and social problems in France. Blum encouraged unions and created reforms that resulted in a 40 hour workweek and paid vacations for workers. McKay 7th p. 948

Trench Warfare

20TH CENTURY November 1914 England and France were trying to gain German land, but the invention of the machine gun was leading to devastating losses for all countries. As a result, nations began building trenches to protect the soldiers. Trenches were dug behind rows of mines and barbed wire, making the "no man;s and" in between the trenches dangerous for many reasons. There would be days of endless shelling, followed by soldiers climbing out of the trenches towards the other side's land and trench. Tiny amounts of land were gained -- England only gained 3 miles in 1915 -- and the casualties were massive. 11,000 men (German, English, and French) died at one battle with trench warfare, the Battle of the Somme. The horrors of the trenches destroyed an entire generation of men. They were constantly surrounded by death, and those who came home were frequently crippled or suffering from what is now known to be PTSD. It also led to an increase in disillusionment and a decrease in the idea that war makes men noble. McKay 7th p. 895 - 897

Total War

20TH CENTURY October 1914- 1918 As nations realized that the war was going to be longer and more intense than they had thought, they began to also mobilize the homefront. Using total war, nations got everyone at home involved in producing supplies and supporting the war effort. One way that the nations implemented total war was by temporarily suspending capitalism and creating government planning boards for the economy. They also rationed food, created price and wage controls, and restricted the movement of workers. Total war blurred the line between civilian and soldier as everyone on the nation was contributing to the war effort. McKay 7th p. 900- 902

Causes of the Great Depression

20TH CENTURY October 1929- 1939 In America, everyday people were investing in the stock market. However, they were buying on the margin meaning that they only paid for a fraction of the stock and borrowed the rest of the money from the stockbroker. As stock prices fell, the margin buyers either had to put up more money, that they rarely had, or sell the stock to pay of their broker. Since so many people were trying to sell, there were not enough buyers and the market was crashing. Coupled with the already declining world economies, the world was plunged into a Great Depression. Banks across America had to close and people lost lots of money. The banks were also trying to recall foreign loans to save themselves, so the world's gold was finding its way back to America. In Britain, they went off the gold standard and had to devalue their currency. Ultimately, the lack of international economic leadership and the lacking national economic policies were the major reasons that the Depression got as bad as it did. McKay 7th p. 942 - 944

Erasmus and In Praise of Folly

6 1511 Erasmus was raised a monk and became a leader of the Christian humanists. While he valued the classics, he wanted people, including the pope, to return back to the basics of Christianity and its practices. In Praise of Folly is written as satire, exposing many of society's flaws at the time. Erasmus was critical of politicians and lawyers, but much more so of the clergy and Church. While he was a loyal Catholic, he saw things that were wrong with the Church, and inadvertently gave the Protestant Reformation some foundation. An Overview of Northern Ren. Literature

This revolution ended when the Russians Came to help the Austrians suppress the revolutions. Also, the archduchess Sophia was mad at her brother, Emperor Ferdinand, for his incompetence so he was forced to abdicate in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph."

McKay 7th p. 780 & 19th Century Revolutions

P - perseverance of the saints"

McKay 7th p. 470-471

Harry was a 17th century English doctor who also disproved Galen's theories. HIs look, ""On the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals,"" proved that the heart continually circulated blood throughout the body."

Scientific Revolution PowerPoint

Diversification of English Exports

Since the Middle Ages, England's biggest export was wool. AS the textile cottage industry grew, England implemented protectionist mercantilist policies, but they still were not selling as much as they had before to other European nations. However, they were still selling to the Americas, India, and Ireland. It is not good to only have one major product that an economy relies on, so England luckily diversified. They began producing lots of iron products like axes, chains, and weapons. Many of these products were also sent to the New World. England also began producing clocks, buttons, musical instruments, scientific equipment and saddles. This range of products helped to make foreign trade the basis of many industries. McKay 7th p. 649-650

The palace itself was elaborate. There was an entire Hall of Mirrors, a garden full of fountains, and gilded items everywhere. Louis XV went on to spent 1/4 of the entire budget on Versailles and its extravagance."

Versailles Video and Readings

Creation of communes and the rise of the urban nobility

12 1140 Through the 12 century and into the 13, communes began to develop in Italy. They were associations of men seeking complete political and economic independence from their feudal lords. The communes began to gain independence and rich commercial families rose to the top of the social ladder. Nobles, however, were intrigued by the new opportunities in trade, open seats in local governments, and the opportunity to merge their families with the rich commercial families. Through marriages, the nobles and the wealthy commune commercial families combined into a new social class: the urban nobility. They urban nobility became a tight knit group that worked together to get more and more rights. They made strict citizenship laws and excluded the lower classes, which would cause problems. McKay 7th p. 417

Mongol Yoke

13 1242 1480 The Golden Horde was the brutal Mongolian army that would kill entire towns of people. Following the army devastating the eastern Slavic regions, the Mongols ruled over the regions as what is known as the Mongol Yoke. The Slavic princes all had to acknowledge the khan as the supreme ruler which actually unified the Slavic princes that were previously always fighting. Any rebellions were quickly put down violently, to everyone acknowledged the khan. The princes also had to send slaves to the khan as tribute. The Slavic title of "great prince" was kept by the Mongols, and they gave it to the prince that was the most loyal gave them to most money. The khan used the princes as local leaders and tax collectors. McKay 7th p. 577

Spreading use of Clocks

14 1320 1380 With many people now living in cities, telling time became necessary as opposed to farmers who only needed approximates like "midday" or "dawn" to work. Cityfolk practiced quantification, precise measurements of time, in order to engage in the buying and selling of goods. Measuring the days' hours gave more people to desire to control the world, and therefore many Europeans divided the day and set specific times for work. This way the working day could be the same in all seasons. Clocks gave the people more control over their lives, and the precision made them more sophisticated than other people. McKay 7th p. 433-434

The Hundred Years' War

14 1337 1453 The 100 Years' War was a conflict between England and France that was fought intermittently for a century, partly because it also became a French civil war. It was caused by French expansionist policies and economic factors such as the wool trade and control of Flemish towns. While the English won initial victories, the French ultimately won with the help of Joan of Arc, although both nations suffered devastating human and economic losses and the war shaped the future political structure of both nations. McKay 7th p.387-393

Italian Renaissance

14 1350 1550 "Rebirth". A foundation characteristic of this era is that the Italians in the 14 and 15 century were aware of the fact that they were living in a new time. It was inspired by Francesco Petrarch, a poet who rekindled an admiration for the Greco-Roman classics and spread it. The three main hallmarks of the era are secularism, humanism, and individualism. People in this time began to understand that they could live happily, all while keeping in mind the end goal of heaven. In the Italian Renaissance people were still very religious, but they did incorporate some pagan and secular views into their work (i.e. School of Athens and artists placing their faces on Religious characters). This change was felt mostly by the elite. Many noble families and the church commissioned artwork. Some was displayed in public, where even the commoners could see, known as civic art. Other art from this time period was luxury art, commissioned just for the wealthy man himself. Balance, harmony, and restraint, were new themes throughout the artwork of this time, especially as the Renaissance progressed. The era brought along not only new intellectual ideas and art, but new views on various social groups and minorities. McKay 7th p. 421-424

Renaissance Hallmarks

14 1350 1600 The renaissance had three main hallmarks, or defining attributes. The first was individualism, which glorified the individual and his achievements. It was the first time that people began to appreciate their own potential and the genius of others. The second was secularism, which placed a focus on the current world. It was the idea that you can enjoy this world and its opportunities and can still be a good Christian and get to heaven. The last was humanism, which placed value in the Greco-Roman classics and portrayed them as the ideal achievement. It was further divided into Classical or Christian humanism. Classical was in Italy, where they were still very Christian in terms of faith, but they used pagan and non-Christian idea in their work. Christian humanism was in the North, and was the name implies it stuck true to Christianity and focused in creating a moral Christian society. They looked at the classics as ways to see Christian themes in other works. McKay 7th p. 421-423

Decline in upper class women's rights

14 1350 Women in the upper ruling class during the Renaissance had less power and freedom than their Medieval counterparts. While women were educated, the purpose of their education was to make them better for social functions and for running a household. It was a universal thought by men that women should be kept on the domestic side of things, and they were kept out of any political or legal activity. Women were left to deal with running their husband's court, which could be a massive undertaking depending on their wealth. There were some women who continued their studies, like Laura Cereta, but they had to stop once they married because having and raising children was their first priority. Any education given to women was overwhelmingly to make them better decorations for their husbands. Mckay 7th p. 430, 434-435

Hungary under the Habsburgs

14 1526 1867 Hungary had been under Ottoman rule, and preferred that to being under Habsburg rule. The Protestant Hungarian nobility -- making up 5-7% of the population which is a lot -- resisted Catholic Habsburg rule. While they successfully revolted, they were never crushed like the Czech nobles were. The HUngarian nobility and peasantry developed a strong sense of nationalism and desperately wanted to be independent, or at least out from under the intolerant Habsburg rule. The HUngarians looked out for weak times in Habsburg rule and took advantage of those times to try and gain more autonomy. During the War of Spanish Succession, they rose up under Prince Rakoczy in 1703. While they were defeated, the Habsburgs had to compromise with them. The Hungarians had to accept the hereditary rule of the Habsburgs, but the Hungarian nobility regained some of their previous advantages. McKay 7th p. 573

Italian city-states and modern diplomacy

1455 Italy was a collection of city-states and the people felt allegiant to their city state, not an overall Italy. The city-states created a balance of power between themselves. Essentially, different city states would align themselves with each other to oppose a policy or act done by another city-state, to check their power and keep Italy in harmony. Due to this sophisticated but ever moving system, the city-states invented diplomacy to aid themselves. They created permanent embassies in critical capital cities and ambassadors lived there. This innovation laid the foundation for all of today's modern diplomacy. McKay 7th p. 418-419

Nobility of the Robe

16 1540 During the Habsburg-Valois War, France was struggling financially. Besides raising taxes and borrowing lots of money, King Francis I tried other ways of raising funds. He decided to sell public offices, and they turned into hereditary holdings. With the buying of an office, you and your heirs became tax-exempt. So, as the years moved on, a new class emerged that was exempt from taxes, known as the nobility of the robe. McKay 7th p. 491

Spanish Inquisition

15 11 1 1478 1834 The Iberian Peninsula was was a collection of various kingdoms and no unity. A main reason was because of the many religions and cultures present. Spanish rulers, Ferdinand and Isabella, wanted to gain more control and try and unite some of the kingdoms. (They became known as the "Catholic Kings of Spain" due to their ability to appoint bishops in Spain and their American territories.) While many Jews and Muslims throughout the peninsula had already converted, Ferdinand and Isabella began to encourage the remaining religious minorities to convert, most of whom were from Granda which was previously untouched. The new converts were referred to as conversos and the term also applied to the many families who had converted years earlier. However, many Spanish people still hated the conversos and claimed that their conversions were untrue and that they were still practicing Jews. Ferdinand and Isabella got the okay from the Church, and they began the Spanish Inquisition, which was a tribunal to find out who had betrayed Christianity by still practicing Judaism. Ferdinand just wanted peace. He was not out for Jewish blood, but he did what he thought he had to do to appease the majority of his people and maintain order. Many Jews were killed, or eventually expelled as a result. McKay 7th p. 445-448

Girolamo Savonarola's role in Florence

15 11 1491 05/23/1498 Savonarola was a Dominican friar who claimed to have predicted the French invasion on Italy. In his sermons, he condemned Lorenzo de' Medici's undemocratic government and the corruption of Pope Alexander VI. He also referred to paganism as the city's biggest vice. Many common people supported him and he became Florence's religious leader and helped end the Medici rule. However, his constant condemnation of people's morality, or lack there of in his opinion, grew tiresome and the people lost interest in him. The pope excommunicated him and then killed him. He is proof that the Italian city-states were unstable and the perfect place for other countries to invade because of that. McKay 7th p. 420

Rise in African Slavery

15 1400 Starting the in 15th century, the Portuguese began bringing back more and more African slaves from their expeditions and selling them. Cities in Portugal began to have decent percentages of Africans living there, free and slave. Renaissance Italian courts did not want white slaves, but black ones. The owning of an African slave became a status symbol of wealth, and the nobility did whatever they could to obtain one. Some ladies tried to have African maids, and some nobles got their portraits painted with their African slaves. Africans in society did all form of labor work and frequently were performers through song, dance, and orchestras. Mckay 7th p. 438-440

Negative views on homosexuality

15 1410 Homosexuality was referred to as sodomy or sexual acts against nature. Obviously, there were gay people in the Renaissance like there always has and always will be. However, in this time more than in the past, the views on homosexuality as a sin really sprung up. Religious leaders like Savonarola preached the sins of homosxuality and many Italian city-states passed legislation making it illegal. In Florence, they even went as far as to set up The Office of the Night which was an annually elected group of men who would punish men accused of sodomy. People of all classes were homosexual or engaged in the behaviors, but it was not approved of by society's standards or those of many governments. McKay 7th p. 437-438

Prince Henry "The Navigator"

15 1420 Henry was a younger son of the Portuguese king who was later called "The Navigator" for his annual expeditions and support of the study of geography and navigation. He did not personally go on any expedition, but he kept overseas exploration going despite initial disappointments. Under Henry, the Portuguese began to settle the islands of Azores and Madeira and created their first commercial settlement in Africa in Arguin. Thanks to Henry, sugar plantation were abundant on the Atlantic islands, Portugal gained access to African gold, and the first enslaved Africans came to Portugal. McKay 11th p. 435

Masaccio and "International Style"

15 1420 Masaccio was a revolutionary Italian Renaissance artist. Using realism, he effectively painted with dark and light tones, gaining the moniker of "father of modern painting." However, he embraced and cultivated "international style" which was spread throughout Europe. It focused on rich colors, ornate detail, curvilinear rhythms, and swaying forms. McKay 7th p. 427

New Monarchs

15 1450 1521 The "new monarchs" infused the kingship with strong senses of national purpose and royal authority. They also insisted on loyalty of their subjects to them and stressed their royal sovereignty. They emphasized that the monarchy is the only thing that combine all different kinds of people within set boundaries. These rulers were ruthless and rid their lands of rebellion, even from the nobility. They frequently reorganized their councils to give the middle class more power, mostly because they feared the vast amounts of power held by the nobility and wanted to avoid them. Examples include Louis XI, Henry VII, and Ferdinand and Isabella. McKay 7th p. 443

Great European Witch Hunt

15 1450 1750 In the time of the religious wars, witch hunts became more common. All types of people believed in witches, no matter their education level. Witches were considered to be people who had made pacts with or communicated with the Devil. It was thought that women on broomsticks went to sabbats which were witch meetings to eat infants and have orgies. Most of the accused were women who were older and crippled. If someone became blind, some may consider if witchcraft was involved. Persecution for witches came when it was declared heretical to be a witch. People accused others of witchcraft as a way to attack the nonconformists and to have a scapegoat, and was misogynistic. Witchcraft charges allowed for tens of thousands of women to be legally put to death. Witch Hunting only decreased because people stopped believing in the Devil and what he would do to you in the 18th century. McKay 7th p. 515

Improved Status of the Artist

15 1450 An artist in Renaissance times was considered to be a free and intellectual worker. They did not produce uncommissioned art because that could tarnish their status in society. Artists were being paid very well and were greatly admired by their patrons. This was the first time that artist were seen as geniuses, and artists and humanists began to consider work of art as the meaningful creation of one has a unique personality that goes beyond the social norms. McKAy 7thy p. 427

Genevan Catechism

16 1541 Calvin used sermons and programs to deliver a religious education the Genevans. This education ensured that God's laws were strong, present, and enforced in Geneva. Calvin published the Genevan Catechism to teach the people of Geneva. It had a list of questions and answers that everyone memorized that covered subjects on faith and daily life. McKay 7th p. 471

Astrolabe and other helpful inventions

15 1450 New technologies assisted in the New World Exploration. The magnetic compass allowed sailors to know their direction and position in the ocean. The astrolabe was invented by the Greeks and perfected by the Muslims, and it was an invaluable tool. It measured the altitude of the sun and other objects in the sky as well as allowed sailors to plot their latitude. Most technology, like the astrolabe, was borrowed from the East where they had already been using it. The lateen sail which allowed for travel against the wind was created out of Indian Ocean trade, and gunpowder was a Chinese invention. McKay 11th p. 434

Columbian Exchange

15 1450 The Columbian Exchange was a result of the overseas exploration and migrations. It was an exchange of plants, animals, and diseases. Columbus brought sugar to the settlements through the exchange and Spain brought rice and bananas to the Canary Islands. Grapes and olives from Spain were brought to be grown in PEru and Chile. Both the Spanish and the Portuguese brought wheat with them to all of their territories. Columbus brought horses, cattle, goats, dogs, and more to the New World which really only had llamas and alpacas to help with the work. The Europeans also brought diseases like smallpox and the flu with them. The Natives did not have immunities to the diseases and many died as a result. McKay 11th 9. 498-99

Millet System

15 1454 1899 The Ottoman Empire divided its subjects into different religious communities, or millets. Recognized religions were Orthodox and Armenian Christians, Jews, and Muslims. Each millet was ruled independently by that religion religious leader. These authorities would support the sultan's rule in exchange for keeping their power. Each leader had to do certain things for their state, including collecting taxes, regulating behavior, maintaining courts of law, and building schools, houses of worship, and hospitals. McKay 11th p. 489

Printing Press

15 1454 Gutenberg, Fust, and Schoffer invented moveable type, which had the mirror image of each letter carved into a block. The blocks would be lined up for form words and sentences, allowing anything and everything to be printed. Paper was readily available and Europeans began printing many different things. People now began to own and read their own Bibles and other books, encouraging many more commoners to become literate. New printed material could be read to those who were illiterate, joining together oral and written culture. McKay 7th p.431-432

Ivan III of Russia

15 1462 1505 Ivan III was responsible for finishing the consolidation of the various territories around Moscow. He brought them all into one principality, his. The most important territory that he added was Novgorod which was a wealthy merchant republic. In 1480, Ivan had grown strong enough to stop acknowledging the khan as the supreme leader. Additionally, Constantinople fell to the Turks in 1453 and Ivan's daughter was married to the last Byzantine emperor. This fall made Ivan feel like Moscow was the "Third Rome" or the new center of holiness. Together with no longer acknowledging the khan, Ivan began to rule alone in an autocratic manner. He became known as the tsar. Ivan created the service nobility -- people who held the tsar's land on the condition that they served in the army of the tsar -- to further consolidate his power. McKay 7th p. 578-579

Revival of hermandades

15 1476 1498 Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain had many factors against their rule, one of the greatest being the warring nobility from all of the various kingdoms on the peninsula. To combat this, Ferdinand and Isabella revived a group that was used in the Middle Ages: hermandades, meaning "brotherhoods." Hermandades were groups in various cities given the authority to be the local law enforcement and judges. They were so cruel and effective with their horrifying punishments that within 20 years there was no longer a need for them. McKay 7th p. 445

Court of the Star Chamber

15 1487 Henry VII of England reorganized his council and replaced many nobles with middle class members. The council was under his command, and one of their concerns was the Court of the Star Chamber that was designed to deal with threats from the nobles. It was a horrifying institution that went against Common Law and was only called something vaguely happy because of what was painted on the ceiling -- stars. The court used torture and other cruel methods, and the accused people had no rights and no juries. McKay 7th p. 445

Charles VIII of France invades Italy

15 1494 This was the beginning of European and Italian power politics. Charles had no problems as he moved through Italy. Soon enough, he ruled the city-states of Florence, Rome, and Naples. Piero de' Medici went to the French camps and tried to gain peace, but the Florentine people exiled the Medici family in favor of a republican government. McKay 7th p. 420

Northern Renaissance

15 1497 1615 As students of the Italian Renaissance spread, and people traveled, Italian Renaissance ideas spread to Northern Europe. In the North, the people interpreted the Italian views through their own culture's lense, resulting in a more Christian Renaissance. Christian humanism arose, and these humanists stressed Biblical themes and created a system for social reform based on Christian teachings. They combined the Bible with the "good" part of the classic texts to create this ethical way of life. McKay 7th p. 440

Treaty of Tordesillas

15 6 7 1494 Spain and Portugal both had laid claims to New World territories and found themselves arguing over who actually claimed the land. Pope Alexander VI stepped in and presented them with the treaty of Tordesillas. The treaty created an arbitrary line down the Atlantic Ocean. Everything west of the line belonged to Spain and everything east went to Portugal. It worked out for Portugal with the discovery of Brazil, but as more was discovered explorers found lots of land to the east which the pope had arbitrarily declared Spanish. McKay 11th p. 440

Ulrich Zwingli

16 1 1 1519 1531 Zwingli was a humanist inspired reformer responsible for the Reformation in Switzerland who claimed to not have been influenced by Luther at all. He had music and decorations removed from church services,stating that they are distracting and statues bordering on idolatry. Zwingli held that tithes collected by the church should go to the poor and believed that faith alone gets you into heaven. Like Luther, he did not believe that purgatory exists and he believed that Scripture should be the basis of the religion. Zwingli saw communion as purely symbolic. He became the "People's Priest" in Zurich and was allowed to continue to preach when he made convincing arguments against the Catholic clergy who were not used to backing up their doctrine. He turned Zurich into a theocracy and died during the Swiss Civil War. Reformation PowerPoint

Abdication of Charles V

16 1 16 1556 Charles V was born in Ghent Netherlands and raised there, able to speak Flemish for the rest of his life. For this reason, the Netherlanders/Low Country people identified with him as their emperor on many levels, and he identified with them as well. This loyalty kept Protestantism underwraps for a while. However at age 55, crippled and needing support, Charles V made a speech abdicating all of his thrones, including Holy Roman Emperor. Charles gave his brother Ferdinand Austria and the Holy Roman Empire, and his son Philip II got Spain, the Low Countries, Milan, Sicily, and the Spanish territory in the New World. Charles gave his abdication speech in LFmeish, while Phillip responded in Spanish because he could not speak Flemish or French. While the people of the Netherlands had always thought of Charles as one of their own, they did not forget that Philip was Spanish. McKay 7th p. 493

Diet of Worms

16 1 28 1521 5/25/1521 Luther at this point had rejected the pope's power and his infallibility. The Church gave him two months to recant his statements or be excommunicated. Luther burned the letter. Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor called the Diet of Worms and ordered Luther to appear as he decided that it was a matter of the state. He ordered Luther to recant, and when he did not Charles V declared him an outlaw. Luther had to rely on Frederick of Saxony to protect him as a result of the Diet. "McKay 7th p. 461

Edward VI of England and the Book of Common Prayer

16 1 28 1547 7/6/1553 Edward was 10 when he became king, so a council ruled in his stead. His uncle, Edward Seymour, grabbed for power and controlled the regency. Between the influences of his uncle and the council, Edward helped to move England towards Protestantism. Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, along with protestant theologians, created the Book of the Common Prayer in 1549. It contained the services to be said in all churches across England. This standardization united the people and showed how the monarchy controlled religion. "McKay 7th p. 476

Pilgrimage of Grace

16 10 1536 1537 Henry VIII's break with Rome was not warmly welcomed by all of his people. Many lay people relied on the monasteries and begged for him to keep them in place. Many people did not silently give in to the country's changes. The Pilgrimage of Grace was a rebellion in northern England that was the largest in English history. After a year, a truce was reached and the movement's leaders were arrested, tried, and killed. McKay 7th p. 475

The Protestant Reformation

16 10 31 1517 1648 Martin Luther was an educated man and eventual monk that lived his life in fear that he would not be saved and welcomed into heaven by God. As a monk, he began to examine the Bible for answers and had no intention of breaking away from the Church. However, as he decided that you do not need good work to be saved, and as he had more and more issues with indulgences (sold by the Pope that apparently saved your soul or another from being in Purgatory), Luther strayed from the Church. His posting of the 95 theses marks the beginning of the Protestant reformation. In this time, reformers throughout Europe, but mainly North and West, searched for the truth about salvation and created their own ideas and sects of Christianity. The word protestant is derived from "protested" as princes protested the Catholic Church at the Diet of Speyer in 1529. McKay 7th p. 459 & 462

Elizabeth I of England

16 11 17 1558 3/24/1603 Elizabeth had been raised Protestant, and became queen when the country was truly divided. She ruled moderately between Catholicism and Protestantism as she could not care about your faith and your beliefs as long as you kept it to yourself. She had herself given the title of "Supreme Governor of the Church of England Etc." to allow her people do decide what the etc meant. The Elizabethan Settlement was a series of laws that made everyone appear to conform to the Church of England. All had to attend Anglican services or they would be fined, but the service was very similar to Catholic ones except that is was conducted in English. The Thirty-Nine Articles were the basic beliefs of the Anglican Church. McKay 7th p. 476

Council of Trent

16 12 13 1545 12/4/1563 The council was called while Pope Paul III was pope to reconcile the Church with Protestantism. However, Calvin and Luther insisted that Scripture be the foundation of the conversation which made reconciliation imposible. The council made Scripture and tradition equal in terms of authority and reinforced the seven sacraments, rejecting Calvin and Luther's ideas. Charles V of the HRE did not want the council to continue because he did not want any of his Lutheran subjects or nobles to be angry. The French monarchy did not want reconciliation because they did not want the HRE too stabilize. Despite the forces working against the council, there were some successes of reforms within the Catholic Church. Representatives from Poland, Portugal, Ireland, and Hungary were sent to the council. Bishops were required to visit all of their churches at least once biannually. Seminary professors were to decide if potential clergy membeswere dedicated enough to become ordained. Clergy members had to give up their concubines. The sale of indulgences was outlawed and simony was suppressed. They emphasized educating and accepting the lay and uneducated people. Secret marriages were ended as now vows had to be made in front of witnesses. McKay 7th p. 479-480

The Catholic Reformation and the Counter-Reformation

16 1500 The Catholic Reformation started before the Protestant Reformation. Its goal was to try and fix the issues that they were seeing within themselves and to create a new spiritual fervor. The Counter-Reformation began in about the 1540's as a response to the Protestant Ref. The goal of this movement was to get heretics, dissenters, and pretty much all Protestants possible to return to Catholicism. An example would be the new religious orders and the Council of Trent. At this point, the movements tended to move forward together. They were successful, as after 1540 no major parts of Europe except for the Netherlands broke away from Catholicism. McKay 7th p. 477

Criticisms of the Roman Catholic clergy

16 1500 The clergy of the Catholic Church was being criticized for some of its behaviors. The act of simony, the selling of church offices, along with nepotism resulted in clergy members without adequate knowledge to serve their benefice or diocese. Pluralism -- the act of holding multiple church offices -- and absenteeism -- clergy members never being at their benfice to serve the people -- became large problems as well. Finally, clergymen were immoral. They were supposed to be chaste but many had sex with prostitutes and some even had children. Additionally, many would get drunk, gamble, and live ornately while they should be humble. These problems would attract the attention of reformers and serve as a starting point. McKay 7th p. 456

Hurrem, wife of Suleiman the Magnificent

16 1505 1558 Hurrem was born in Poland by the name Aleksandra. She was enslaved by the Ottomans and renamed Hurrem, meaning "joyful one," due to her good humor and grace. She was a concubine to Suleiman the Magnificent, but he loved her at that set her apart from the rest. Suleiman broke all of the laws retaining to concubines for her. A concubine was supposed to stop having children once she had a son, but Hurrem gave Suleiman one daughter and five sons. Suleiman then married Hurrem, which was an unprecedented honor for a concubine and a major scandal. Suleiman paid her lots of attention and allowed her to stay at his palace instead of leaving with her son to rule a province. Hurrem had a large allowance, and she used it to build a mosque, two schools, a hospital, a fountain, and two bath houses in Istanbul. In Jerusalem, Mecca, and Istanbul, she built soup kitchens, hostels for pilgrims, and services for the poor. McKay 11th p. 488

Copernicus

16 1506 1543 Copernicus studied astronomy and church law. Many astronomers relied on Ptolemy who was not always true, and Copernicus thought that the inaccuracies and the practice of astrology detracted from the awe of a perfect creator - God. Copernicus liked the greek idea that resurface in Renaissance Italy: the sun, not the earth, is the center of the universe. Copernicus worked on his heliocentric theory while working in a church position. Copernicus feared that he would be mocked by other astronomers and knew that the church would not support it, so he published his heliocentric theory in the year of his death. The theory was outlined in his book "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres." The Copernican Theory had three unanticipated implications. First, it destroyed the belief in crystal spheres since it established the stars as stationary. This meant that their apparent movement was just a result of the earth rotating around the stationary sun, not spheres rotating around the earth. Second, it created a universe that was huge and potentially infinite. Third, earth was now characterized as just another planet which destroyed Aristotle's view on the difference between earth and God's realm just beyond. Where is God now? McKay 7th p. 597-598

Ecumencial Council

16 1512 1517 Meaning universal, this Italian dominated council did not quite match its name. However, Pope Julius II summoned the council with good intentions: to reform the Church. The bishops and theologians at the council honestly wanted to make their Church better. They suggested higher education requirements for clergy members and believed that the papal authorities needs to work harder to eliminate the bureaucratic corruption that had evolved. They also proposed some doctrinal reforms. McKay 7th p. 459

Machiavelli and The Prince

16 1513 Machiavelli is considered to be the father of political science. His book, The Prince, was an attempt to discuss political power and effective rule. As a humanist, he looks at human nature and how that comes into play while ruling or being ruled. The Prince argues that an effective ruler does whatever he has to do to keep his rule, no matter how cruel. Cesare Borgia was Machiavelli's ideal ruler and The Prince is modeled after him. Machiavelli hoped that the Medicis, the rulers of Florence who removed him from power, would take the advice he laid out in his book. It is a work that has continued to be studied. It is the first place where history was compiled from various times and themes were drawn from it. McKay 7th p. 431 and A Myriad of Renaissance Men reading and Machiavelli article

Transubstantiation vs. Consubstantiation vs. Lord's Supper & in Calvinism

16 1517 A big dividing factor between the different sects of Christianity was the way in which they view communion/the Eucharist. In Catholicism, they believe in transubstantiation when the wine and bread literally turn into Jesus. The clergy are the ones who perform transubstantiation. In Lutheranism, they believe in consubstantiation where the bread and wine go through a spiritual change and Jesus is there in spirit. The bead and wine are not physically transformed. Finally, Zwingli held that the Lord's Supper (communion) was a memorial to Jesus's last supper and that the bread and wine do not transform at all. Calvin held that the blood and body of Jesus are spiritually in the bread and wine and that they are consumed spiritually. McKay 7th p. 463

Women and Protestantism

16 1517 Overall, Protestant reformers still believed that a woman's job was marriage, however there some changes. Catholic institutions had dealt with public welfare, and woman began to help the poor as those institutions became secularized. Women's charity tended to focus on other women. Protestant schools taught girls how to be literate to read the Bible. Women were responsible for their own faith and for teaching their children. Women were not leaders, but they did share their husband's work. Ministers could marry, which validates women and shows the home as the center of faith. However, traditional views persisted, as women were still seen as subordinate. "McKay 7th p. 466 & 473

Ferdinand Magellan

16 1519 1522 Magellan, sponsored by Charles V of Spain, set out to find an sea route to southeast Asia to access the spice trade. He sailed to Brazil and found the dangerous strait known today as the Magellan Strait. He came out into an ocean that seemed so calm in comparison that he named it the Pacific. Storms carried his fleet to the Malay Archipelago, present day Philippines. After shipwrecks, attempted mutinies, lost ships, and desertions, 18 men finally returned by way of the Cape of Good Hope. 270 men started, and not even Magellan made it back. This was the first trip to circumnavigate the globe McKay 11th p. 440

Habsburg-Valois Wars

16 1522 1530 After Charles VIII of France invaded Italy successfully, the French were dying to stay in Italy and profit off its wealth. They were pushed out, but returned to the region in 1522. Italy became the battleground for power politics between the Holy Roman Empire, lead by Charles V and France, led by Francis I. These conflicts became known as the Habsburg-Valois Wars, and they tore apart Italy. Mckay 7th p. 420-421 and McKay 11th p. 361

German Peasant Revolts

16 1524 1525 Peasants saw that they low on money and struggling to live because of tithes they had to pay to the Church and taxes to their landowners. They despised the way that their lord treated them and wanted to be able to hunt freely and eradicate the extra taxes that they saw as outrageous. The peasants summarized their complaints in the Twelve Articles. Emboldened by Luther's On Christian Liberty, peasants revolted against the upper class and burned castles and monasteries. The nobles looked to Luther to end it as he was the one whose writings had encouraged them. Luther knew that he relied on the nobility for support and protection, so he wrote Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants, which condemned the revolts. Luther did not believe in violent rebellion and stated that everyone is equal in the eyes of God when it comes to Salvation, but on Earth not everyone can be equal. "McKay 7th p. 463-465

Anabaptists

16 1525 Anabaptist literally means 'to baptize again" as they believe in adult baptisms. Since only an adult with understanding and choice can choose to love and have faith in Jesus, you cannot be baptized until then according to this Protestant faith. They wanted to return to the way Christianity once was, which was a voluntary group of people who believed that they had an inner light. They believe in religious toleration since they believe that only a few people will ever experience the inner light and each community was run independently by its minister. Women could be in the clergy, they did not hold public office, and they were pacifists. It attracted mostly poor people in urban areas. Since they believed in a separation between church and state they were hated by everyone. The Anabaptists are the present day Amish and Mennonite peoples. McKay 7th p. 473

Elizabeth Hardwick

16 1527 2/13/1608 The status of women was not improving in this time period. Marriage became a woman's job, more than ever, and women were considered inferior to men across all sects of Christianity. Elizabeth Hardwick is the anomaly. She was orphaned, but strategically got married four times. Each marriage gave her more land and a higher social status. She was a great businesswoman and managed over 100,000 acres of estates, building two great mansions called Hardwick and Chatsworth. When she died, she was one of the wealthiest people in England. McKay 7th p. 513

The English Reformation

16 1527 There had been Christian groups working for reform in England since the 15 century from the Lollards and humanist authors like William Tyndale. However, they were unsuccessful and England was staunchly Catholic. The clergy was increasing their education and strengthening Catholicism in the monarchy and with the people. It seemed that England was going to be safe from the reformation since King Henry VIII was given the title "Defender of the Faith" when he wrote a letter defending Catholicism and the seven sacraments. However, a desire to get divorced from his wife and married to another resulted in England separating itself from Rome and creating the Anglican Church. Henry VIII used parliament to achieve the split. "McKay 7th p. 473-474

Baldassare Castiglione and The Courtier

16 1528 Castiglione was an Italian Renaissance author who wrote an etiquette book for nobles called The Courtier. It became the ideal for a noble boy throughout early Modern Europe and it influenced social norms and conduct of various groups of nobility. It explains the ideal gentleman as someone with studies in many areas of academia, as well as the abilities to sing, dance, and play instruments. He should be a Renaissance by today's standards, meaning he can ride a horse well, solve complex problems, play an instrument, speak and write elegantly, and play sports. McKay 7th p. 430

Suleiman's Siege on Vienna

16 1529 The Ottomans tried to take Vienna twice, but only once under Suleiman the Magnificent. Suleiman knew that this was a difficult time for Charles V since he was dealing with the Protestant Reformation. This siege led to Charles V signing the Peace of Augsburg because he needed the nobles to help him fight the Turks. Together, they defeated Suleiman. This marked the beginning of the end for the Turks. The empire dd not enter a steep decline, but it saw the end of the expansionist policies that they were based in. Eastern Absolutism Notes/PowerPoint

John Calvin, Calvinism, & The Institutes of the Christian Religion

16 1533 "Calvin believed that God select specific people to carry out certain missions and that his mission was to reform the church. He created a Christian society in Geneva that was ruled through councils and ministers. His doctrine was published in The Institute of the Christian Religion which stated that God is sovereign and humans are weak. According to Calvin, humans do not have free will. Instead there is predestination, the belief that God in his total sovereignty has already decided who will be saved and who will not. This idea encouraged Calvinists to do good things to honor Jesus and believed firmly that they were among those elected to be saved. TULIP is an acronym for his basic doctrine.

""Terrible"" or ""Awesome"""

16 1533 1584 At age 16, Ivan IV crowned himself tsar and did not let the boyars have a voice. Ivan IV declared war on the remaining Mongol lands, and added lots of territory to Russia when he captured Kazan and Astrakhan. He reinforced the idea of service nobility, and in order to own land one had to serve the tsar. Ivan proceeded to fight a war with Poland-Lithuania which caused him problems with the boyars. They had opposing views on the war, and Ivan also blamed them for the unforeseen death of his wife. As a result, Ivan had a special police force kill boyars, their families, and their servants. Ivan also bound the peasants, serfs, and merchants to their land so that he could tax them. Ivan declared himself to own all industry, just like he owned all of the land. If Ivan saw any new and profitable industry, he would take charge and make it a monopoly held by the tsar. Ivan did other good things, like bringing scholars and engineers to Russia in an attempt to westernize the Russian culture. McKay 7th pg. 579-580 & Ivan Reading

Ursuline Order of Nuns

16 1535 As part of the Catholic Reformation, new religious orders were created. One of which was the Ursuline order founded by Angela Merici. Merici's goal was to combat heresy through education. They were the first order that focused on education for young girls. The order thought that if they train the next generation of wives and mothers that they could move society in the Christian direction that they wanted to. It was hard to get papal approval, but they were officially recognized in 1565 and quickly spread. They soon had schools as far as North America. McKay 7th p. 480-482

The Scientific Revolution

16 1540 1690 The Scientific Revolution saw science become a major part of education, as opposed to during the Middle Ages where science was a secondary discipline. The Revolution involved big names like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Bacon, Descartes, and Newton who searched for the truth about the universe while still being religious Christians. Not only did the Scientific Revolution forever change the people's views of the universe (heliocentric!), it also created helpful new technology. Examples include Galileo's improved telescope and colleges who strove to improve the latitude and longitude calculations. Medical advancements also occurred, like the better understanding of anatomy and the circulatory system. Finally, the Scientific Revolution saw the emergence of empiricism -- experimenting to find the truth, not just using reason -- and the established scientific method. Overall, this revolution was one mainly of the elite upper class and some of the upper middle class. Very few things trickled down to the people, but authors like Fontenelle did their best to simplify and circulate scientific truths to the lower classes. McKay 7th p.595-603 & Scientific Revolution PowerPoint

Vesalius and Harvey

16 1543 1657 "There was very little medical knowledge known to Europeans. Individuals like Galen thought that the body was composed for four humors - yellow bile, black bile, phlegm, and blood - and that illness was caused by an imbalance of these humors. Vesalius was a Belgian anatomist who proved these theories to be incorrect through autopsies that he performed. He wrote ""On the Fabric of the Human Body,"" a seven volume work with vivid depictions of anatomy.

Cossacks

16 1550 Ivan the Terrible was instituting reforms that were making all peasants his slaves. However, since he kept Russia at war and would "demonically purge" his lands, much of central Russia had loses in their populations. To make matters worse for the peasants, the nobles kept on demanding more from them. As a result of these abuses, the peasants fled to newly conquered Russian territory in the east and south where they created outlaw groups known as Cossacks. The Cossacks were just out of reach of the tsar and their independence was always right on the edge of being taken away. In an effort to stop the growing groups of Cossacks from forming, Ivan made it so that peasants would not leave the land of their lord. McKay 7th p. 580

Ottoman Empire Organization

16 1550 The Ottoman Empire is known as a gunpowder empire because its structure only worked as long as it continued to expand. The empire was led by a sultan who owned all of the land in the empire. There was no private property which meant that there was no hereditary nobility. According to Muslim law, a Muslim cannot enslave other Muslims so the sultan created taxes on his Christian subjects in the forms of slaves. THese slaves were treated well and served in bureaucratic administrations where they could advance socially, or in the janissary corps as a soldier. Sultans married women with high social statuses, but only had children with their concubines to keep elite families from gaining influence. Each son and his mother was then sent of to rule a province. McKay 11th p. 489 & Eastern Absolutism Notes/PowerPoint

Puritans

16 1550 The Puritans were a group of English Calvinists that did not believe that the English Reformation had gone far enough. THey wanted to purify the Anglican church of all of its Catholic aspects. The Anglican church had retained many of the Catholic practices like like bishops, elaborate ceremonies, and the altar's position. Puritans even wanted to get rid of the practice of giving and wearing wedding rings. There were many Calvinists in England because of its emphasis on hard work and the postponement of pleasure, which fit right in with the middle class of England. McKay 7th p. 550

John Knox and the Presbyterian Church of Scotland

16 1559 In Scotland, the leaders were Catholic but the nobles supported reform and they held most of the power in the country. John Knox was at the center of reform in Scotland from his position as a preacher and a contemporary of Calvin. In 1560 he succeeded in getting Scottish parliament to abolish papal authority and Mass. Knox created the Presbyterian Church of Scotland which was run by ministers not bishops. Its doctrine was aligned with Calvinism and it was a national church. The Book of the Common Order was written by Knox and was the handbook for running the Church. McKay 7th p. 476

Francis Drake

16 1567 Francis Drake was was an English Adventurer who took boats filled with wool and slaves to the West Indies. In the night, a large Spanish fleet attacked, selling all survivors as slaves or burning them at the stake, Drake escaped and vowed to avenge the crew that he lost. He began to loot and raid Spanish ships, and they began to call him the Terror of the Seas. While Elizabeth I officially could not support him because that would risk a war with Spain, she was privately gleeful. In 1577 she sponsored Drake to to go looking for a continent below South America, and secretly she gave him permission to get all of the Spanish treasure that he could. Drake became the first Englishman to go around the world. He found CAlifornia and claimed it for Elizabeth. He also came back with lots of treasure he looted from a Spanish boat off the Pacific coast of South America. Elizabeth I reading

Peter Paul Rubens

16 1577 1640 Rubens was the epitome of baroque painters and studied in both Italy and Flanders. Rubens was influenced by masters of the High Renaissance like Michelangelo. However, Rubens had his own style that used rich colors, drama, animated figures, and large scale works. Many of his paintings have Catholic figures, like his portrait glorifying Queen Mother Marie de Medici. While he was influenced by Catholicism, another one of his trademarks has nudes of saints, angels, Roman goddesses, and nymphs. He was widely admired in his time. McKay 11th p. 499

Michel de Montaigne

16 1580 1592 New ideas came about in Europe as interaction with foreign people from outside of Europe began as a result of exploration. One of which was skepticism which states that no knowledge is ever definite. Another was cultural relativism which states that cultures are different, not superior to one another. These ideas were expressed in Montaigne's new literary genre of essays. Essay come from the French word "essayer" which mean to test or try. His publication, Essays, reflected on these topics and drew on his knowledge of ancient texts, his experience as a government official, and his own morality. He wrote in French to be accessible to the public. They spread to other countries and were translated, becoming some of the most read texts in Europe. McKay 11th p. 457

Escorial

16 1584 The monastery of Saint Lawrence of the Escorial was a monastery northwest of Madrid completed under the personal watch of King Philip II. It was a residence for Jeromite monks, a tomb for Habsburg ancestors, and a royal palace for Philip. This building is meant to look like a gridiron which was the instrument that St. Lawrence was said to have been burned alive on. The royal chambers were in the middle of the complex, and Philip's room had special features. A deeply religious man, Philip's room has a small sliding window of sorts that opened onto the high altar of the church. This allowed him to watch the monks' services and to pray with them as well. McKay 7th p. 496

War of the Three Henrys

16 1587 1589 The War of the Three Henrys was a civil conflict began with the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre. It was between factions of Henry of Navarre a Protestant, Henry of Guise a Catholic, and King Henry III Valois a Catholic. All three Henrys were hoping to get on the throne. King Henry III knew that the Guises wanted to wipe out the Calvinists and to place a Guise on the throne, putting his rule in danger. Henry of Navarre ultimately became king after Catherine de Medici died, and Henry III and Henry of Guise were both assassinated. Henry of Navarre, who became King Henry IV, saved France from inner destruction due to his politique policies. This was the last religious war in France since Henry IV put an end to all of the fighting with his Edict of Nantes. McKay 7th p. 493

Absolutism

16 1589 1715 In an absolutist state, sovereignty is embodied by the ruler who claims to rule by divine right. Absolut kings attempted to control competing institutions, jurisdictions, and groups within their nation. They also regulated religious groups and took away the rights of others. This was all in an effort to keep their state unified and centralized. Absolute monarchs took control of or got the favor of the nobles, who historically were the greatest threat to a monarchy. Absolute nations were being creating throughout the late sixteenth century and into the eighteenth. The perfect example is Louis XIV, who revoked the Edict of Nantes to delete religious differences and unite his people, and built Versailles to keep the nobles under his close watch. McKay 7th p. 534

William Shakespeare

16 1590 1616 Under the reign of ELizabeth I of England and James I, creative literature thrived. Shakespeare had gifts that made his works so interesting, among them being his mastery of language, understanding of human psychology, and original characters. Shakespeare was a Renaissance student, appreciating individualism, classicism, and humanism. His tragedies, Hamlet, Othello, and Macbeth, are his greatest works. The influences of the times are seen in how Shakespeare refers to a character as a Moor, a Muslim, and how The Tempest dealt with race relations. McKay 11th p. 458

Gresham College

16 1597 In England, the government and private trading companies wanted to improve the longitude system to improve trading and shipping. Sir Thomas Gresham left a large amount of money after his passing to establish Gresham College in London where three out of the seven professors had to exclusively teach scientific subjects. The astronomy professor was also teaching the science of navigation (longitude improvement!!). This was the first place in all of history where scientists had an honorable place in society. The school became closely aligned with the English Navy and various shipping companies and merchants. It was England's first center for scientific learning and study. McKay 7th p. 602

Times of Troubles

16 1598 1613 After Ivan the Terrible's death, Russia was thrown into a violent and complicated time of power struggle. After Ivan's son Theodore died without an heir, things became worse. Relatives of Ivan the Terrible fought between themselves and murdered each other, all the while supporting or opposing the Swedish and Polish invaders. Groups of Cossacks rallied up peasants and killed nobles. This caused the nobles to finally confront the Cossacks and defeat them in Moscow. These Times ended with the election of Michael Romanov, Ivan the Terrible's grandnephew, as the new hereditary tsar of Russia. McKay 7th p. 580-581

Mary Queen of Scots execution and aftermath

16 2 18 1587 Philip II of Spain had what he called "The British Problem" which was that England was being ruled by Elizabeth, a Protestant. Philip hoped to bring England back to Catholicism through heir to the throne and council of Elizabeth, Mary Queen of Scots. Mary had an assassination plot to get the throne, and Philip supported her. She was discovered and beheaded. After hearing about Mary, Pope Sixtus V told Philip that he would give him 1 million ducats if Spanish troops landed in England. This led to the Spanish Armada. McKay 7th p. 498

Edict of Nantes

16 4 1598 Henry of Navarre became Henry IV upon his ascension to the French throne. He famously said "Paris is worth a mass," showing how he was willing to put politics ahead of religion in true politique fashion. This sacrifice saved France from religious destruction. The Edict of Nantes gave new rights to the Huguenots. Calvinism and public worship were legalized in 150 fortified towns. The Edict restored peace throughout France. McKay 7th p. 493

Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis

16 4 3 1559 This treaty ended the Habsburg-Valois Wars, in which Spain won. The war was fought over the dominance of Italy, and the French now had to admit to Spanish dominance of the region. Spanish governors were placed in Sicily, Naples, and Milan. The treaty marked the end of dynastic wars and the beginning of religious wars. It also was the end of the Italian Renaissance as there was no unity between the Italian city-states. "McKay 7th p. 490

Henry VIII of England and his reformed Anglican Church

16 5 22 1509 1/28/1547 Using Parliament, Henry broke away from the Catholic Church and established his own. The Act in Restraint of Appeals in 1533 established the Crown as the supreme legal authority and outlawed judicial appeals to the Pope. The Act for the Submission of the Clergy made clergymen subjects of the king and required all ecclesiastical law to be approved by the king before publication. Finally, the Supremacy Act made the king the head of the English Church. Henry had removed all papal influence and power from England and placed himself at the head. Many advisors took issue with these reforms and Henry killed all dissenters. Henry also passed the Treason Act which made it treasonous to say that the king was not the head of the church. While Henry dissolved monasteries and broke away from the Church officially, many doctrines in the Anglican Church mirror those in the Catholic Church. For example, they believe in transubstantiation and clerical chastity. "McKay 7th p. 474

Spanish Armada

16 5 9 1588 Farnese had told Philip II that he would need to conquer England to cut off their support of the Dutch, and combined with the Pope's bribe Philip made a plan for attack. There were also suspicions that the Turks would attack Spain from their MEditerranean coastline while they were busy fighting the Dutch and English. Philip decided to merge both ideas. He created a large fleet to sail from Lisbon to Flanders and fight any English navy presence there, then escort Farnese and his troops across the English Channel to get to England. The Spanish Armada -- 130 ships -- was confronted by the English fleet which had 150 ships that were smaller, quicker, easy to maneuver, and fired better than the Spanish Armada. Only about 65 of the Armada made it home. This defeat did not stop NEw World silver from coming back to Spain, as they rebuilt the fleet quickly. However, it did stop Philip from achieving religious unity and created a spirit of defeatism among the Spanish people. From the English view though, to created nationalism. "McKay 7th p. 498

William Laud

17 1633 1645 Laud was the archbishop of Canterbury and his policies were supported by Charles I. Laud wanted to bring the Anglican Church back closer to Catholicism. He wanted elaborate services, uniformity of church services, and and ecclesiastical court known as the Court of High Commission. This court would be a uniform court run by ecclesiastical authorities. He attempted to impose an Anglican Book of Common Prayer and bishoprics on Presbyterian Scotland. The Scottish were vehemently opposed and revolted against the crown. McKay 7th p. 550

Charles V of the HRE

16 6 28 1519 8/27/1556 Charles's mother was Joanna of Castile, Ferdinand and Isabella's daughter, and his father was Philip of Burgundy, a Habsburg. As a result, Charles inherited many land from his parents and grandparents who were taking over territory worldwide. He inherited Spain, its New World territories, and its Italian holdings in Sicily and Sardinia from his mother. From his father he received the Holy Roman Empire. He is considered to be the last medieval emperor as he believed that he would be the one to keep Western Christendom united religiously and politically, and that he would become the world's monarch. Charles rejected domestic calls for reform and instead focused himself and his troops on international policy before looking at Germany. A staunch Catholic, his first Diet was the Diet of Worms. He was involved with the French for about 30 years during the Habsburg-Valois Wars over the lands of Burgundy that the Habsburgs got when Maximilian married Mary of Burgundy. McKay 7th p. 461, 466-467, 470

Mary Tudor of England

16 7 1553 10/1/1558 Mary was the daughter of Catherine of Aragon and Henry VIII, and moved England back towards Catholicism. She was married to King Philip of Spain, another Catholic. She believed in papal authority in England and in the Pope being the head of the Church. She executed about 300 Protestants in an attempt to wash away Henry and Edward's reforms, gaining the nickname Bloody Mary, and outlawed Protestant worship. She did not restablish monasteries because she knew that she needed the nobles support and the nobles had received the land after the monasteries were dissolved. Reformation PowerPoint

Congregation of the Holy Office

16 7 21 1542 Pope Paul III established this Holy Office to have jurisdiction over the Roman Inquisition which was used in the Counter-Reformation. The Inquisition, under Cardinal Carafa, was a committee of six cardinals with authority over all Catholics. There goal was to eliminate heresy and they could imprison, arrest, and kill supposed heretics as they worked under the unfair guidance of Roman Law. THe Holy Office also published Index of Prohibited Books which was a list of books that were forbidden. The Holy Office and its proceedings were only effective in the Papal States where heresy was nearly eliminated, but in other parts of Italy and in the rest of Europe it was useless. McKay 7th p. 483

The Dutch Revolt

16 8 1566 1587 Calvinism was becoming a threat to the Spanish rulers of the Netherlands. This middle class merchant society was a prime spot for Calvinism, and militant groups appeared in all 17 provinces. Calvinism got even more followers as wealthy merchants supported and organized the groups. Philip II had made his half-sister Margaret regent in 1559, and she had tried to wipe out Calvinism with an Inquisition but failed. In August of 1556 grain prices were very high and Calvinist groups revolted, incited by public preaching. The Notre Dame at Antwerp was destroyed first, and libraries and other churches were burned. With the execution of 1500 Protestants in the Council of Blood, a ten year civil war started. Farnese was a Catholic sent by Philip II to destroy the Protestants. The Protestants, led by William the Silent of Orange fought back. The SOuthern cities fell to the Catholic. THe 10 southern provinces became Catholic and became known as Belgium. THe 7 northern provinces were untouched by Farnese and became Protestant with the Union of Utrecht. The Union declared independence but Spain did not recognize it. McKay 7th p. 495-96

Concordat of Bologna

16 8 18 1516 This legislation rescinded the Pragmatic Sanction of the Burges. King Francis I of France signed it with Pope Leo X. It allowed the pope to to receive the first year income of new bishops and abbots. In exchange, Leo X recognized French kings as allowed to select FRENCH bishops and abbots. This truly gave the French Crown control over church policy in France since it was a mutually agreed upon agreement and not a decree. McKay 7th p. 444

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

16 8 24 1572 Before the marriage ceremony of Margaret of Valois (a Catholic) to Henry of Navarre (a Protestant) Catholics massacred Calvinists. The marriage was meant to reconcile Catholics and Huguenots and obviously that did not happen. Admiral Coligny, a member of a great noble family and a Huguenot leader, had taken Catherine de Medici's place as influencer over King Charles IX. In response, Henry de Guise, a Catholic leader, had Coligny attacked the night before the actual wedding. There was rioting and slaughter and the Huguenot leadership and gentry present were all killed. The riot extended until Oct 3, and at that point about 12,000 Huguenots were killed. McKay 7th p. 492

Peace of Augsburg

16 9 1555 Charles V signed the Peace of Augsburg which recognized Lutheranism. Now, each Holy Roman prince could decide the religion of his territory. This did not mean freedom of religion, the people were still the religion of their prince, it just allowed the prince to dictate the religion instead of the emperor. North and central Germany became Lutheran for the most part, while the south stayed Roman Catholic. McKay 7th p. 470

Edict of Fontainebleau

17 10 22 1685 11/7/1787 Louis XIV was trying to centralize his state as much as possible. In that day, no ruler could fathom an united country wherein the people practice different religions. His grandfather, Henry IV had passed the Edict of Nantes which gave the Huguenots the right to practice their religion in 150 walled cities. With the Edict of Fontainebleau, Henry IV's edict was revoked and Huguenots lost their religious rights. The new edict had Calvinist churches and schools destroyed, and the people who stayed were forced to accept a Catholic baptism. While this was and imperative step in Luis's eyes to the centralization of France he also successfully made other European Protestants very angry. McKay 7th p. 541

Peace of Westphalia

17 10 24 1648 The Peace of Westphalia was a series of treaties that ended the Thirty Years' War. It marked the end of wars over religion in Europe. Over 300 German princes were formally recognized and allowed to govern his territory however he pleased, seriously weakening the emperor's power. The papacy was no longer allowed to meddle in the religious affairs of the HRE. Calvinism was recognized as an acceptable religion in addition to Lutheranism. The north was Protestant and the south still stayed Catholic. McKay 7th p. 501

Age of Crisis

17 1600 1699 Europe had seen a rise in population in the 16th century, but that all came to a standstill in the 17th. Climate changes and religious feuds created increased pressure and war. The villages could not take the changes and were hit with widespread hunger and increased poverty. All peasants and city people were heavily taxed and products had high prices -- they simply could not keep up. This all resulted in it being easier for an absolute ruler to come in and take over completely. McKay 11 p. 464

Constitutionalism

17 1600 1715 Constitutionalism is the limitation of government by law -- the constitution. Constitutions can be written in one big document or written in many different places in different way, for example parliamentary statutes and judicial decision. There is a balance of power between the government's power and the rights' of the people. The constitution gets it power from the government acting in accordance to its laws.Within constitutionalism is the possibility of a constitutional monarchy, like that of England following the passing of their Bill of Rights. Constitutional monarchies have a monarch who is the head of state and has some political authority leftover. For the most part, the electorate has the sovereign power. Constitutional governments DO NOT equal democracies. Democracies mean that every participates in government directly or indirectly -- voting for representatives. McKay 7th p. 548

Baroque Art

17 1600 1730 The newly strengthened Catholic Church and the reinvigorated influence of Rome led to a new style of art with intense emotion and exuberant colors. The Church wanted this new art to glorify the reformed Church and and appeal to the everyday churchgoer. Baroque art also had themes of drama and motion. Most Protestant countries never became overrun by baroque art, but neither did France, however Protestants created some of the best baroque art -- it was not just CAtholic art. It was popular in many Catholic countries though. The composer Bach is from the baroque period, but it took a few hundred years for him to really take off. McKay 7th p. 522-24

Community Controls

17 1600 1750 For many years, while premarital sex was common illegitimate births were not. One explanation is the community control groups. These groups were common in traditional villages and they were determined to keep the community moral and sinless. They would not hesitate to publicly shame someone if they felt that they needed to be taught a lesson (adulterers, spouse abusers, etc). The community controls viewed an unwed mother as a threat to the economic, moral, and social stability of these villages. For this reason, they would pressure a pregnant girl and her baby's father to get married. Fear and respect of these controls meant that premarital sex did not happen lightly, and for the most part only took place between those already thinking about marriage. The community controls were in all parts of people's lives, and privacy was not a luxury that people had. McKay 7th p. 664 - 665

Increased Literacy / Popular Literature

17 1600 1800 As a result of the elementary educations, literacy increased in this 200 year period. Most men were becoming literate, and some women (the woman's rates had improved, but we're not aligned with the men). This increase led to more reading, so new popular literature emerged. The most common thing to read was still the Bible, but people did begin to read other things. One example would be the chapbook. These were cheap pamphlets that featured Bible stories, prayers, and other religiously themed works. Fairy tales, historical fiction, humor, and other fictional stories also rose in popularity. The last king of popular reading material was the educational materials that taught things like crafts and repairs. McKay 7th p. 670 - 671

Creoles / Social System of New World Spain

17 1600 Creoles were people of Spanish blood born in the Americas. They could afford luxury good and wanted to be just like the European aristocracy, eventually creating a class of wealthy Creole merchants. The land-owning Creoles wanted control of the peasants and the natives, so they forced them to practically be slaves on their lands. Some of the time, it was not full blown slavery but debt peonage, which is a kind of serfdom. Debt peonage kept the natives in constant debt to the Creole, essentially tying them to that land. The middle class was called the mestizos, and they were the children of Creole men and native women. the mestizos wanted to be like the Creoles, and with enough money and power they rise up to be considered white. Essentially, all races were possible in the SPanish New World as interracial relationships were not uncommon. McKay 7th p. 654

Family set ups and marriage trends

17 1600 Families in Europe may have never been extended. The most common family setup was the nuclear family of a mother, father, and their children. Sometimes, an elderly parent would move in with their married child, but newly married couples rarely moved in with their parents. Surprisingly, both men and women married many years after reaching adulthood and being employed. Marriage was most likely delayed because couples had to be able to support themselves financially when they married. Peasants often had to wait for their fathers to die so that they could inherit the land and begin making a good living. The peasants girls needed to have a dowry to pay to her husband to help them buy a home or land, so she needed time to work for it. McKay 7th p. 662

Childhood and Mortality

17 1600 Newborn children had extremely high chances of dying. One in five babies was bound to die, and in poorer areas the number was more like one in three. Ordinary things today, like diarrhea, would make babies die because they would become dehydrated and no one knew how to help their kid. Many other died from infections and diseases in their chests and stomachs. If the child survived infancy, they would have to go through years of negligence and abuse from the adults in their lives. Many parents did not want to become attached to their children since they had such high mortality rates, and even doctors told parents to not form emotional attachments to their young children. McKay 7th p. 666

Elementary Education

17 1600 Schools for kids seven to twelve to teach literacy and religion to the commoners did not come about until the 17th century. Both Catholic and Protestant reformers encouraged literacy so that the people could read the Bible and other holy writings, so areas with high church (of come kind) influence typically had higher literacy rates. Larger scale education became more common in the 118th century. PRussia made elementary school mandatory in 1717, but most other German states only did it in the 18th century. Other countries set up schools as well. The Anglican Church set up "charity schools" to teach poor children, and Scotland set up parish schools for all children since they believed that people needed to be literate and read the Bible to achieve salvation. McKay 7th p. 669 - 670

French Academy

17 1635 Cardinal Richelieu was the chief minister during Louis XIII's reign. He was behind the centralization efforts of that time and the desire to have a strong absolute monarch of France. His efforts to centralized and conform French society went into literature and diction as well as the typical political sphere. He created the French Academy through official recognition of pf a group that was interested in grammar and rhetoric. These people created a dictionary that standardized the French language. It continue until this day as a prestigious academy. McKay 7th p. 536

Fronde

17 1602 1661 The Fronde was a civil war started by Cardinal Mazarin's continuation of Richelieu's centralizing efforts and his desire to increase royal revenue. The Fronde started in the provinces and the revolters were known as frondeurs which originally meant "street urchin." Frondeurs were anyone who opposed the government's new policies, as did many nobles and peasants. The nobles wanted the power that they had under Richelieu and did not have with Mazarin (regent to Louis XIV's rule as a child). When the French defeated the Spanish in 1642 and the wars ended, the people saw no need for there to be taxes anymore, and this was added to their list of grievances and reasons for revolt. The Fronde was violent and broke down civil order across France. It greatly interfered and disturbed the economy, and it would take years for it to recover. The most important result of the Fronde was the impression it left on then-child Louis XIV. It made him fear and distrust the nobles, which led Louis to starting the absolute kingship that he did. McKay 7th p. 536-537

King James/Authorized Bible

17 1604 At a Puritan conference in 1604, the participants persuaded King James I to support a new translation of the Bible. The King gave the responsibility to a group of scholars who published their translation in 1611. This version, known as the Authorized Version, was a revision of past translations but with a more elevated celebration of the English vernacular. This version, not sponsored by a church, reflects how Anglicans and Puritans wanted commoners to read the Bible. It would later become known as the King James Bible when Puritan pilgrims bring it to North American colonies. McKay 7th p. 521-22

Kepler

17 1609 1630 Kepler mathematically proved heliocentric universe and precisely calculated the relationship between the sun and other planetary bodies. While Copernicus argued against Aristotle, Kepler completely destroyed him because of his mathematical proof. He formulated three laws of planetary motion. First, he showed the planets have an elliptical orbit around the sun, not circular. Second, he proved that planets do not stay at a uniform speed throughout their orbits. Third, Kepler demonstrated that the time is takes for a planet to orbit the sun corresponds directly to its distance from the sun. This last law came very close to universal gravitation. McKay 7th p. 599

Moral Economics

17 1610 Plague came back to Europe during this time and claimed just as many lives. On top of that, wool textile exports -- a crucial part of the English economy -- decreased. Many people became unemployed, and those who still had a job had stagnant wages. As stated before, prices of fo and other products were high and it got to the point where peasants and poor city people could not even buy bread. Mostly led by women, rural people began to protest and demand fair prices, often taking the bread of a baker's shop and selling it a fair price. These revolts show moral economics, or a version of the economy where community needs dominate profit. McKay 11th p. 465-466

Miguel de Cervantes's Don Quixote

17 1615 Spain, ruled by Habsburg rulers, lacked finances and manpower and was filled with pessimism and fatalism. The rulers would not reform, but still held onto its staunch Roman Catholic values and the ideal of military glory. Many Spanish people convinced themselves that the ideal Spain was still around, even though it was long gone. Cervantes's book captures the society of the declining Spanish Empire in his masterpiece. The protagonist is Don Quixote, a man who lives in a dream world and travels around the countryside to find military glory. From this character's name comes the English world and perfect description of 17th century Spain, "idealistic but impractical." McKay 7th p. 548

Ferdinand of Styria/Ferdinand II of Prussia

17 1619 1637 Ferdinand of Styria was king of Bohemia, and was later elected Holy Roman Emperor as Ferdinand II. In his time as king of Bohemia, he won his phase of the Thirty Years' War against the Protestant. He then reassigned noble powers to non-Protestant people. These new nobles now owed everything tp Ferdinand since he was the reason that they moved up socially and earned more money. This resulted in a close relationship between the king and his nobility, which ultimately resulted in more struggles for the peasants. For example, there was a system called the robot which required serfs to do three days of unpaid work per week for their lords. The close relationship between the monarch and the nobility is what allowed the Habsburgs to actually centralize their power in Bohemia. Eastern Absolutism Notes/PowerPoint

Descartes

17 1619 1650 Descartes discovered analytic geometry, which became a huge tool going forward for scientists. Additionally, he thought that one should doubt everything (within reason) and then use deductive reasoning and self-evident principles to come to scientific conclusions. Using this method, he decided that all things are made of mind ( spiritual) and matter (physical). This idea is called Cartesian Dualism. Descartes use of deductive reasoning along with Bacon's use of empiricism created the modern scientific method. However, his strict rationalism had its downfalls, as he believed that all of medicine could be learned from a few basic principles. McKay 7th p. 603-604

Cornelius Vermuyden

17 1629 1677 Large parts of Holland had been sea or marsh, and the Dutch diligently innovated to come up with drainage techniques to use all of the land. The Dutch became leaders in drainage efforts and went on to help England. Vermuyden was one of the foremost Dutch engineers to work on drainage efforts in Yorkshire and Cambridgeshire. Due to him and his team, 40,000 acres of Dutch land were reclaimed from amrsh and were now able to be farmed. Since these hands were newly able to be farmed, there was no ingrained tradition so these people tended to use new crops and new farming techniques. McKay 7th p. 635

Galileo

17 1632 1642 Galileo consolidated the experimental method through examining motion and mechanics. Galileo formulated the law of inertia which stated that reest was not the natural state of objects. Instead, objects stay in motion unless acted on by another force. This demolished Aristotle's view on physics that all things are naturally at rest. Galileo also improved the telescope to go on to discover the earth's moon's surface is not flat and four of Jupiter's moons. Galileo was tried for heresy due to his book, "Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World," which argued against Ptolemy and Aristotle and for Copernicus. Galileo ended up recanting his heliocentric views officially and spent the rest of his life imprisoned. McKay 7th p. 599-600

Long Parliament and the English Civil War

17 1640 1660 Charles did not have a good relationship with Parliament. They did not trust him and considered him deceitful and treacherous. They would therefore not give him any money -- which they controlled -- or an army and this became a major problem when the Scots revolted. This all resulted in the "Long Parliament" which passed legislation that limited the monarch's power. The House of Commons also passed the Triennial Act which required the king to summon Parliament at least once every three years. To matters worse, Ireland revolted during this time as well. They were sick and tired of being oppressed by English landlords and the hatred some English felt towards them for remaining Catholic was too much. Charles could not deal with either of the revolts he was faced with. He proceeded to create an army from an array of under qualified people, while Parliament had a professional militia from London as their army. The two armies fought each other, resulting in a civil war. Parliament won, and Charles was tried and killed on the charge of high treason. McKay 7th p. 551

Frederick William "The Great Elector" of Prussia

17 1640 1685 This Frederick William came to power at age twenty. He was not a king, just on of the seven electors of the next Holy Roman Emperor (which is a ridiculous position since there is a hereditary line of succession). The Great Elector took power as the 30 Years War was ending and used the instability and destruction that it brought to his advantage. He pulled Prussia out of the ashes of war by increasing revenue due to his new taxation ability and the creation of an army. The Great Elector also managed to combine inherited lands of Prussia, Bohemia, and the Rhine into one through war and diplomacy. "McKay 7th p. 573 &

Moliere and Racine

17 1645 1699 Louis XIV loved plays, and during French Classicism two playwrights stood out. Moliere was a playwright, stage manager, actor, and director. His plays were comedies that showed society's hypocrisy. Tartuffe was a satire of religious hypocrisy, and Les Femmes Savantes made fun of the pseudo-intellectuals of the time period. While the models of Moliere's plays were classical, his content was observations of current social life. Racine was a playwright that analyzed love and its power. He wrote tragedies based on Greco-Roman legends. Racine's plays presented simple language, symmetrical structure, and restraint. Among his top plats are Berenice and Phedre. McKay 7th p. 542

French Classicism

17 1650 1715 During the reign of Louis XIV, there was a type of art called French Classicism that flourished. The official art of Louis's court, this genre took inspiration from the classics -- and in that way resembled the Italian Renaissance -- and featured religious scenes. It's characteristics include red and gold coloring, ostentatious displays of power, expressive facial expressions, and contrasting light and colors. Great examples of French Classicism paintings are the Rape of the Sabine Women and Seaport at Sunset. This genre is also seen in the interior design of Versailles and the GAlerie d'Apollon at the Louvre. Lully and Charpentier are examples of composers of this time, and their music was brighter, cheerier, and reflects the sound of Catholic Church choirs. McKay 7th p. 542 and French Classicism PowerPoint

English Mercantilism

17 1650 1776 Mercantilism is the economic theory that a country should import nothing and export everything. Mercantilists believed that the ultimate measure of wealth for a country was the amount of silver and gold they had in their treasury. In the case of mercantilism, the government was very involved in the economy and it was commonly used by absolute monarchs and the merchant societies of England and the Netherlands. Overall, mercantilists used the system to strengthen the nation's power. England was the exception. They believed that the system should not only increase the state's power but also serve the private interests of the people. This does not mean that England wasn't mercantilist, because they were. They used their new world economies for raw materials and with the Navigation Acts made sure that all things leaving and entering the colonies had to be on English ships to support their search for gold. This was actually economic warfare against the Dutch as it cut into their major shopping network. McKay 7th p. 645

Agricultural Revolution

17 1650 1850 The Agricultural REvolution was the precursor to all industrial societies as it allowed Europeans to move beyond subsistence farming for the first time. To avoid having fallow fields, people found crops like peas and beans that restock the soil with nitrogen to make it good for farming. This knowledge led to crop rotation, where different crops were grown in the fields each year to not exhaust the soil and to make sure the crops would thrive in the type of soil they were set in. Another major development was enclosures. Previously, the land was farmed communally with people owning little bits all over, and there were common lands to be used by all for grazing, etc. Now, landowners began enclosing their fields which was bad for the peasants. They had to sell many of their small plots to focus on others, and many had to sell them all eventually to the big landowners. Common lands were eliminated. While for the peasants it was a disturbance, it was good for the landowners. They could bring in increased revenue and try new farming techniques to see what works best. Additionally, oxen were replaced by horses for plowing since horses wee faster and more agile. Finally, many of the major developments were in the Netherlands and England, and then spread if applicable, because they had swampier lands and were already merchant societies so they needed more food to sustain their merchant populations. McKay 7th p. 633

Estates and Junkers

17 1650 Estates were the representative assemblies in Prussia, and they were composed of Junkers. Junkers were the landowning nobility class of Prussia. Junkers were in charge of the pursestrings of Brandenburg and Prussia and and no taxation could be passed without their approval. The Great Elector wanted the power of taxation to centralize Prussia, grab power away from the Estates, and increased revenue. The Great Elector gave the Junkers tax exemption and in exchange they gave him the power of taxation, which weakened heir already weak Estate system. Eastern Absolutism Notes/PowerPoint

Growth of Plantations in the English New World

17 1650 Settlers in the New World had access to nearly unlimited and free land. As ENgland became more mercantilist, investors sponsored sugar plantations in the Caribbean and African slaves worked on them. The sugar plantation became so large, that European settlers who were growing tobacco sold out and moved to the North American colonies. Now, black slaves were the majority of the population in the British Caribbean, as more and more worked on the large plantations. Those tobacco farmers who left, commonly settled in Virginia where they took large swaths of land t create plantations once again worked on by African slaves. The plantation allowed tobacco production to increase tenfold within 74 years and created a wealthy elite planter class in Maryland and Virginia. McKay 7th p. 649

Nikon's Reforms

17 1652 Nikon, the church patriarch, tore apart the Russian Orthodox Church. He was a purist and introduced religious reforms that brought 'corrupt" Russian practices back to the Greek Orthodox model. Nikon was supported by the church since it only acted in self interest, but the people would not go along with the reforms. They saw Kion as the Antichrist who was taking away the only thing that they had left: the religion of "Holy Russia." Many people left the national church and created communities of Old Believers. THese communities were persecuted and hunted by the authorities. 20,000 people burned themselves alive in protest singing the hallelujah two times instead of the three that Nikon insisted upon. The majority of the Russian people found themselves on the opposite end of this issue from their government who supported Nikon. McKay 7th p. 581-582

Oliver Cromwell

17 1653 1658 Cromwell ruled for part of the time known as the Interregnum as it was a time between to monarchical rules. The kingship was abolished and a commonwealth replaced it. In theory. Parliament had the legislative powers and the executive powers were in a head of state. However, Cromwell -- a military leader who had fought against Charles's forces -- created a military dictatorship known as the Protectorate after he ripped up the proposed constitution, the "Instrument of Government." Cromwell divided England into 12 military districts each led by general. He ruthlessly crushed an Irish rebellion, welcomed all religions except for Catholics, and instituted the Navigation Acts. The NAvigation Acts were the only thing kept by Charles II, and they stated that English good be transported on English ships and that only English Ships could bring products to English lands worldwide. Cromwell's death dissolved the dictatorship and the English people wanted a king back. McKay 7th p. 551-552

Charles II of England

17 1660 1685 "Charles II's rise to power was a part of the greater Restoration in England that restored both Houses of Parliament, the Anglican Church, courts of law, and and the system of local areas run by justices of the peace. Charles II was the son of Charles I, so he knew very well what could happen if he fell out of favor with Parliament. For this reason, he tried to keep on their good side. The most important way he did this was through the Cabal. The Cabal was a group of five men who were both advisors to the king and members of parliament. They acted as liaison between the two governmental bodies.

Cabot and Mercantilism

17 1661 1683 Colbert was given the position of controller of general finances by Louis XIV. HE controlled the finances of the entire administration and believed that the wealth and economy of France should all go towards serving the state. Colbert instituted the system of mercantilism in France, wherein France exports lots of good and imports none. This was to be done because it was believed to be the only way to accumulate gold which is how they measured wealth in the 27th century. In an attempt to make France completely self-sufficient, Colbert subsidized the cloth industry, granted special privileges to rug and tapestry makers, and built mirror factories to replace the Venetian import of mirrors. He also set up an inspection system and organized guilds to keep production at its finest. Finally, Colbert created a powerful transport system by sea. McKay 7th p. 540-541

Isaac Newton

17 1666 1727 Newton studied theoretical scientific and mathematical fields, but also was obsessed with alchemy. He hoped to turning metals into gold and silver and find an elixir of immortal life. He was also a very religious man so he was not the epitome of rationalism. In the book "Principia," Newton wrote scientifically on the laws that govern the universe. This book combined and synthesized Copernicus's heliocentrism modified with Kepler's laws and the physics of Galileo. All of this work culminated in the law of universal gravitation: everything in the universe attracts everything else in precise mathematical relationships. This relationship is proportional to the matter of the objects and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. McKay 7th p. 601

Urban Guilds

17 1675 In the 17th and 18th centuries, urban guilds reached their height. Each guild had specific privileges to certain materials and to the sale of certain products. Apprentices for certain fields could only be taught within the guild. If anyone broke this lawful monopoly. they would be prosecuted. Guilds only allowed access to "good" Christian white men, because they wanted to make sure there was enough jobs. To get into a guild, one also had to have many years of experience, paid lots of fees, and created a masterpiece. Very few guilds accepted women, but those that did were typically for textiles and embroidery. An all female guild was created in 1675 Paris for seamstresses. McKay 11th p. 555-556

Homosexuality in the 18th Century

17 1680 Homosexual relations among common people were illegal as it broke the Bible's law that sex should only be for reproduction. Laws against same sex relations were passed making it punishable by death in most countries, but some countries enforced it more strictly than others. Nobles and royals could have homosexual relations as long as they still had children with their wives, because their titles protected them. King James I of England was commonly known to have male lovers. In the late 17th century, homosexual subcultures emerged in major cities like Paris and London. They created their own slang, meeting places, and dress.These groups were exclusive to men who only had relations with men. There were also female same sex relationships, but they were not as strongly condemned as those of men. McKay 11th pg. 580

Pietism/Protestant Revival

17 1680 Protestants had become complacent and it had stopped answering the needs of the common people clearly. The Protestant revival became known as pietism, and it wanted to get people excited about religion again and to bring them back to the various churches. There were three main aspects. First, the revival stressed a warm religion that everyone could experience; they wanted there to be enthusiasm in all parts of religion and life. Second, the priesthood of all believers was firmly reasserted. Bible classes made sure to have reaches to all classes, all in attempts to bridge the gap between the clergy and the laypeople. Third, Pietism stressed the power of rebirth in everyday life. They wanted all reborn Christians to lead moral lives, despite their social class. McKay 7th p. 681

Dutch East and West India Companies

17 3 20 1602 12/31/1779 The Dutch East India Company was a joint-stock company created by the regents of Holland. The Dutch were a growing commercial society and wanted to expand their operations and decrease Portuguese trading in East Asia. In the 1630's, the East India Company was providing a 35% annual return to its investors. Within 50 years, this goal was met. The Dutch also got control of the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, and Malacca, and put trading groups there. The West India Company (1621-1674) traded with Latin America and Africa, establishing a colony in Cape Town South Africa whose effects were so large that they are persisting in South Africa until this day. McKay 7th p. 558

Peter the Great of Russia

17 1682 1725 Peter the Great reformed Russian to make his kind of an absolute monarchy. One of his main goals was military power. Under Peter, even more land was added to Russia. A part of Ukraine was captured from Poland, and Siberia's conquest was finished. The only year of Peter's rule when Russia was at peace was when he took over from his regent at age 17. Following an initial loss at the beginning of the Great North War, Peter realized that he needed to revitalize his army. He required every nobleman to be in the army or civil administration for life. He created schools that he required noblemen to go to for five years in order to produce skilled workers for his modern army. The new army was a hierarchy, and it was possible to start at the bottom and work up. Some high ranking officials were not noble-born. Peter also made peasants join the army, and he raised their taxes. These reforms all worked, as he was easily able to crush Sweden and ultimately win the Great Northern War. McKay 7th p. 582-484

Prince Eugene of Savoy

17 1683 1736 Eugene was a French noble who became the most famous of all of the Austrian war heros. He helped bring absolutism to Austria, and fought against the Turks and Louis XIV. The Holy Roman Emperors (he served under three) rewarded him with great wealth. With his great riches, Eugene had the leading architects of the day to build him a Winter Palace in Vienna and a Summer Palace as well. His palace was a grand example of baroque style interior design. McKay 7th p. 585-586

James II of England

17 1685 1688 James II succeeded his brother Charles II as king of England. He had publicly acknowledged his Catholicism, and more people began to worry. James began appointing Catholics to military, governmental, and scholarly positions; this was all in direct violation of the Test Act. The actions were tested in court, but James had control over the judges and they ruled for the king. James created the Declaration of Indulgences, which essentially reinforced the seven Catholic Sacraments. Anglican clergy members asked to not have to read it as it was against their religion and James locked them in the Tower of London. Finally, James's wife had a son, and the Anglican people feared a CAtholic dynasty supported by Louis. There was mounting support from Parliament and the people for James's grown daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange to come to the throne. James escaped quickly with his family to France. McKay 7th p. 553

Johann Sebastian Bach

17 1685 1750 Bach, while under appreciated during his lifetime, represented the height of the baroque period through his inventive musical works. He was an organ player and choir director in many Lutheran churches in Germany. This gave him a good background in music, and Bach wrote fantastic secular concertos and religious cantatas. Bach wrote a lot of organ music which used baroque themes like tension, invention, and emotion. McKay 11th p. 499

Glorious Revolution

17 1688 1689 This was a miraculous event as power changed hands in England without any bloodshed. Mary and William came to power, which officially destroyed the idea of divine right ruling since they were chosen by Parliament and not God. Sovereignty became divided between Parliament and the king, and the Bill of Rights created a constitutional monarchy. Under the Bill of Rights, Parliament had to be called once every three years and Parliament creates laws that cannot be revoked by the monarch. Additionally, the monarch could not interfere with Parliamentary elections or judicial proceedings. In direct response to Cromwell's military dictatorship, there was to be no standing army during times of peace. McKay 7th p. 554

Elector Frederick III "The Ostentatious"/King Frederick I of Prussia

17 1688 1713 Frederick III was weak mentally and physically, and was bleak in comparison to his predecessor, the Great Elector. Frederick III adored Louis XIV of France and it was his goal to be like him. Therefore, Frederick III spent money frivolously and built many palaces. He is noteworthy, because he was the first to gain the title of King. During the War of Spanish Succession, Frederick III gave the Habsburgs military support, and in return they granted him the title of "king." He became King Frederick I, the first king of Prussia. McKay 7th p. 575 & Eastern Absolutism Notes/PowerPoint

The Enlightenment

17 1690 1780 The ENlightenment was a search for truth and deeper understanding spurred by the Scientific Revolution. This was definitely a movement of the elite. The ideas were mixed, but there were three core concepts of the Enlightenment: reason, scientific method, and progress. By reason, the scholars meant that nothing should be accepted on faith alone, all ideas should be thought through critically and rationally, just like the scientists before them. The scientific method core concept meant that just as scientists used this method to find the laws that govern the universe, it is possible to discover the laws of people and society through the same process. Finally, all scholars saw progress in human society, and that it was possible for people to create progress and better societies. McKay 7th p. 605

John Locke's Second Treatise of Civil Government

17 1690 The Glorious Revolution brought William and Mary to the English throne, replacing Mary's father James II after he fled to France. This bloodless revolution was supported by English political philosopher John Locke and his work, Second Treatise of Civil Government. Locke wrote that governments are in place to protect the life, liberty, and property of its citizens and that they become tyrannical when they go outside these three specific boundaries. Locke considered life, liberty, and property to be natural rights that all deserve and have because of a human's ability to reason. Therefore, if a government become tyrannical and consistently violates the natural rights of its people , the people have another natural right -- rebellion. McKay 7th p. 554

Charles XII of Sweden

17 1697 1718 This 18 year old king was a military genius. Sweden was a strong country with a strong army, holding territory in northern Germany, Finland, and Estonia. Everyone underestimated Charles for his youth and did not expect him to live up to the might of the previous Swedish rulers. Peter the Great was shocked to discover that Charles was a great leader and military commander, quickly defeating Denmark and moving on to Russia. His forces attacked Russian boats attempting to lay siege to a Swedish force on the Baltic coast, and the Russian survivors fled in fear. This was a catalyst to the Great Northern War. McKay 7th p. 582

Railroad Growth

19 1850 By 1850, trains could go 55 miles per hour and showed the increased speed that would come with this new age. The final invention of the Industrial Revolution, its impact was great. The railways made the transportation of goods cheaper and less uncertain. It also allowed for markets to expand. SInce it was no longer so hard or expensive to transport goods, markets no longer had to be small and local. The building of the railroads also required lots of unskilled labor, which was good considering the large proletariat class. McKay 7th p. 732 - 733

James I of England

17 3 24 1603 3/27/14625 James the I took over as King of England following the death of Elizabeth I. He had already been King of Scotland for decades, and his Scottish accent was actually a disadvantage because it made his language seem improper to the English. James was a firm believer in divine right kingship. In his essay, "Trew Law of Free Monarchy," James discussed how a ruler is responsible to God only and that rebellion is the worst possible crime. He even went and lectured the House of Commons on his divine rights. Elizabeth had left James I with lots of debt and a Commons that wanted sovereignty. Parliament kept the crown's finances under tight lock and key, and James used what he could get unwisely. Instead of paying off some debt, he spent it frivolously on his court. Between that and his blatant homosexuality, the English people had no respect for him. McKay 7th p. 549

Charles I of England

17 3 27 1625 1/30/1649 Charles I succeeded his father, James I, as king of England. The House of Commons under Charles wanted to pay taxes as long as they could direct the funds. Charles did not accept this as he considers it an affront to his divine right. Charles instead tried to rule without Parliament which caused many issues. He levied a tax known as ship money on his people. This was a Medieval tax on the people living in coastal towns for the ships used to protect them. Charles I also levied it against the inland people, in an attempt to raise money to suppress the revolt on Scotland. He was finally forced to call a session of Parliament in 1640 because of the Scottish revolt. McKay 7th p. 550

Defenestration of Prague

17 5 23 1618 Tensions between Protestants and Catholics began to rise in Bohemia in 1617 when Ferdinand of Styria, the Catholic king, closed some Protestant churches. At a castle in Prague in 1618, Protestant threw two of Ferdinand's officials out of a window. The officials fell 70 feet but they survived. Of course, both sides attribute this to different causes. The Catholics claimed that angels had saved them, while Protestants said that a large pile of manure had broke the fall. McKay 7th p. 499

Versailles

17 5 6 1682 "Louis XIV built Versailles in the hunting grounds that he remembered visiting with his father as a child. Versailles was built for two main reasons: to bring glory to Louis's rule and to control the nobility. As an absolute monarch, Louis held that his rule was divine, and he considered himself to be great. Versailles was a physical representation of his wealth and superiority over other Frenchmen and other rulers. Secondly, the Fronde had left Louis traumatized and distrustful of the nobility. For this reason, Louis wanted them close to him and constantly occupied. To keep them close, Louis would only help those at his court. Everyone knew that to be in the king's favor you had to be at Versailles. Then, Louis institute peculiar customs at the palace. For example, people had to bow to the king's food, could only speak formal French in the king's presence, and could not knock, but scratch the door with the single finger nail. All of this etiquette rules made the nobles so self-conscious that they could not think of their grievances against the king.

Louis XIV of France

17 9 5 1638 9/1/1715 Louis XIV, son of King Louis XIII, was the king who brought absolutism to France and made it the most centralized state European state at the time. Louis XIV became king at age four following the death of his father. Cardinal MAzarin ran the country while Louis was young, but after his death Louis declared that he would rule alone, without a chief minister that had helped run the French government for years. He required all legislation and laws to have a personal signature from him, and no one was allowed to sign for the king. Louis wanted to be a strong king, so he adopted the symbol of the sun for his rule. This choice was also connected to Apollo, the Greek sun god, who was a symbol a strength and was featured in one of Louis's favorite plays. Louis engaged in wars to try and expand his nation, and at one point built it up to the the strongest military in the world (~1678). He opened private letters, had a secret police force, and had a system of spies to keep in control. Louis had the longest reign of any European king to date. McKay 7th p. 540 and Louis XIV Readings

Execution of Louis XVI

18 1 17 1793 The guillotine had become the most common form of execution, since it was not only efficient but also an equalizer so all died with the same dignity. Louis was convicted of treason -- said he was conspiring with Austria and Prussia -- and killed by guillotine. Austria and Prussia were already on edge, and this set them over the cliff. They were in a frenzy that people had killed their own king. French Rev Powerpoint Notes

Sieyes "What is the Third Estate"

18 1 1789 Sieyes was a clergy member who was elected as a representative of the Third Estate to the Estates General. He argued that the Third Estate is everything, is France itself. He considered the nobility to be a whiny minority that oppressed the true power of France: the third estate. Sieyes was clearly very influenced by the Enlightenment, and his pamphlet was very popular as it gave support to a group that had been previously neglected and overlooked. McKay 7th p. 700 & French Rev Powerpoint Notes & Sherman p. 112

March of Women

18 10 5 1789 10/6/1789 Louis had moved his family away from Paris and the riots and back to Versailles. The lower classes were still not satisfied with the changes, despite the Declaration on the Rights of Man and Citizen, because they were still starving and unemployed. As a result, the women marched to Versailles and demanded that Louis and his family move back to Paris. The women were successful and they intimidatingly escorted the royal family back to Paris. In their wake they had killed bodyguards, torn through the royal apartments to find Marie Antoinette, and returned to Paris with the heads of two slain aristocrats on pikes. McKay 7th p. 703 & French Rev PowerPoint Notes

Napoleon Rises to Power

18 11 1799 Napoleon was originally born in Corsica and became a French lieutenant in 1785. He ran some successful campaigns, and some failures (like Egypt). At this point, France was unstable from its past ten years of many different governments, so military rule was something people began to consider. Along with other conspirators, Napoleon staged a coup of the Directory and replaced it with the Consulate, a three man executive branch. By December of 1799, a new constitution had been passed to approve and consolidate his power, and Napoleon made sure he still seemed like a republican leader. Underneath is all though, he was a dictator. McKay 7th p. 712

Spinsters and John Kay - developments of the Textile Industry

18 1700 "The household always needed more people to help them spin thread in order to keep up with the man weaving. Four to five spinners were needed per weaver, so the wife was frequently recruiting spinners. She often hired unmarried women and widows as her spinners and they became known as spinsters.

Great Northern War

18 1700 1721 This war took place between Russia and Sweden. With Peter's revitalized army, larger population, and better resources, they easily defeated the army of Charles XII. The most battle was at Poltava in 1709, when Charles was crushed by Peter, which remains as one of the most important battles for Russia. The Great Northern War continued on, but Sweden never again pulled ahead. Russia ended up annexing Estonia and Latvia which had never been ruled by Russia before. By defeating Sweden, Russia became the greatest power in the Baltic Sea area and won a spot as a great European power. McKay 7th p. 585

Bartolomeo Rastrelli

18 1700 1771 The youngest daughter of Peter the Great, Elizabeth, established a grand and luxurious court. She hired Rastrelli as her head architect. Rastrelli was an Italian who had moved to Russia, so he combined Italian and Russian styles into a colorful and style only found in St. Petersburg. He was responsible for the building of many palaces for the nobles and he rebuilt the Winter Palace as a magnificent aqua royal residence. The Winter Palace is now the Hermitage Museum. McKay 7th p. 588-589

The Reading Revolution

18 1700 1789 During the Enlightenment, book publishing and literacy grew. The lower classes were buying more escapist stories and cheap books. However, most of the increase in book purchases is seen in the higher classes, middle class, and clergy. Personal libraries grew, and many of the books were no longer religious. In France, only one tenth of religious books were published as opposed to those published in the late 17th century, while scientific and artistic works skyrocketed. The French government was censoring many books published, so many books were published in England, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and parts of Germany (where there was little to no censorship) and the books were then smuggled into France. The new books published were not only scientific, but also fictional stories featuring "improper" topics like adultery and sexual scenes. McKay 7th p. 612-613

Height of the Slave Trade

18 1700 1790 These 90 years saw the height of the cruel Atlantic Slave trade. 52% of the total 11.4% of slaves torn from Africa and brought across the Atlantic from 1450-1900 took place in this timeframe. There was a growing demand for labor in the Americas, and the slave trade increased to meet that demand. Britain became the main country involved in slave trading, and any other nation who was involved stayed in their boats right on the shore and the trader brought the slave right up to them, so that they could get out faster, avoid the British, and save money. These other countries also stop fighting amongst themselves and began focusing on commerce. McKay 7th p. 650

Birth Control Methods

18 1700 Before the 19th century, forms of birth control were not developed and undependable. The most common way to try and prevent pregnancy was coitus interruptus which we know is completely ineffective. The French were early leaders in the contraceptive world, and they used this method to try and limit family size. Especially common in urban settings was the sheath, but it was mainly used to prevent STDs not pregnant. Prostitutes had many things that they used to try and not get pregnant, and the information was available to the public if they sought it. McKay 7th p. 665

Rebirth of Spain

18 1700 Charles II, the last Habsburg ruler and a useless one as well, died and left eh trhone to his grandnephew, Philip V. Philip V was previously Philip of Anjou, Louis XIV's grandson who the War of Spanish Succession was fought over. He used the ideas that made France and his Bourbon family prosperous, and implemented them in Spain. He had rallied the people behind him during the War of Spanish Succession, and reformed the state after the war. He reasserted monarchical authority, redid the finances, and strengthened the military. The new army was able to hold their own against Britain, and spread Spanish influence throughout Louisiana and even into California after it acquired Louisiana in 1763. The mining of silver also bounced back which helped Spain make profits. McKay 7th p. 652-654

Growth of the Cottage Industry

18 1700 Europeans had always made some clothing or products for their homes or communities, but it wasn't until this point when they started to produce for large-scale market sale. There was lots of poverty among the proletariats -- landless peasants -- and they needed employment. This started the time of proto industrialization, a precursor to the full blown Industrial Revolution. In the cottage industry, families worked out of their home and all were involved in the production of the goods. The industry was most common in merchant societies like England and the Netherlands where there was less land to farm, the land was enclosed, there was already a culture of manufacturing, and there was no absolute monarch trying to keep power and control all aspects of life. McKay 7th p. 641

Infanticide

18 1700 Infanticide, the killing of babies, was unfortunately common. The medieval Church had outlawed the practice, and those found guilty could have been killed, but it was common nonetheless. There were cases of "overlaying" where parents claimed that they took the baby into their bed and accidentally smothered it. This was common among poorer families who just couldn't afford another mouth to feed. In 1784, Austria made it illegal for parents to take their kids into bed with them until they are five to try and combat infanticide. McKay 7th p. 667

Wet Nurses

18 1700 Noble women felt that breastfeeding was undignified and for the peasants only. They decided to hire wet nurses instead to breastfeed their children for about four years. Some people believed that bad flaws transfer from woman to baby through feeding, so when a baby turned out badly people would blame the nurse. Many other argued that the nurses were greedy and just wanted money. Due to that, some people claimed that there was such thing as a killing nurse that took your kid and your money, killed them, and then moved on. While some may have done that, many kids simply didn't survive for any other reasons and it can't be blamed on the nurse. McKay 7th p. 667

Issues with the Cottage Industry

18 1700 The cottage industry looks great on paper, but there were other problems beyond typical disputes between suppliers and producers. The biggest one from from the merchant's point of view. Rural laborers were hard to manage and organize because they were so spread out. Cottage workers worked in spurts, and then took days off. After pay day on Saturday, the men would relax until at least Tuesday. Rural workers than had to rush to meet the Saturday deadlines. When he did not succeed, there was nothing that the merchant could do; he simply lost out on that product for the week. McKay 7th p. 644

Textile Industry

18 1700 The most common cottage industry in England (and probably throughout Europe) was the textile industry. In this industry, as well as others, the entire family was involved. The loom that the man of the house weaved on was the biggest piece of furniture in the house by far. The man wove while the women and children prepared ans spun the thread. The youngest kids stomped on the raw cotton in a tub to beat the dirt out of it. Their small feat worked sort of like a washing machine. There were always disputes between the merchants who supplied the raw cotton and the workers. Workers accused the merchants of delivering underweight barrels and merchants accused workers of stealing raw materials. McKay 7th p. 642 & 644

Putting-out System

18 1700 The putting-out system was how the rural cottage industry worked. It was a kind of capitalism, as merchants held lots of materials as capital and sought to make profit and increase their capital. The merchant would "put out" these raw materials to the rural workers who would process them and return them to the merchant to sell. Some processors bought their own materials and sold pre-made products to the merchants, but the majority of the workers were the in partnership with the merchants. Since these workers were not confined to guilds and specific kinds of production, the system produced all kinds of products including cutlery, gloves, clocks, buttons, textiles, and more. There was was some disagreement between the merchant and the worker. It developed first in England and was most prosperous there, but it did spread unevenly across Europe. McKay 7th p. 642

Population Growth in the New World

18 1700 The white population of the New World rose quickly as families came to the Americas for the land opportunities. Even though the population rose quickly, settlers were not pushed into poverty. The agriculture in the NEw World resulted in the British colonies having the highest standard of living and incomes in the world. The colonists truly benefited from not only hard work, but also the Navigation Acts, because no one was very poor and no one was very rich. Life in the colonies was good, despite changes that might hurt others. McKay 7th p. 649

War of Spanish Succession

18 1701 1713 Charles II of Spain was weak and mentally ill due to decades of inbreeding and it was no secret. He had no son, and in 1698 France and other European Powers agreed to divide the Spanish Empire between France and the HRE when Charles died. However, Charles left his empire to his grandnephew, Philip of Anjou, in his will after he died. Philip was also the grandson of Louis XIV, and while the will specifically prohibited France and Spain uniting, Louis revoked the treaty to partition of accepted the will. If the two countries merged, especially with Louis XIV having all of the power, Europe's carefully situated balance of power would be in trouble. As a result, in 1701, the English, Dutch, Prussians, and Austrians formed the Grand Alliance to prevent France from gaining Spain and massive amounts of power.The Alliance was also trying to curb France's commercial expansion in North America, Asia, and Africa. McKay 7th p. 545

Jethro Tull

18 1701 1741 Tull was an English innovator who was a product of the Enlightenment. He thought critically about farming and tried to find better methods through empiricism. On of the things that he advocated for most was using horses in the fields to plow since they are faster than oxen. He also wanted people to begin sowing seeds with drilling equipment instead of just their hands so that the seeds go deep enough to grow well. Finally, he also believed in selective breeding. This was influenced by the nobility who bred faster horses and hounds for hunting. The selective breeding of livestock improved efficiency. McKay 7th p. 635

Construction of St. Petersburg

18 1702 During the Great Northern War, Peter the Great recaptured this desolate land from the Swedes who had a small fortress on it. Peter decided to build a city there to replace his capital in Moscow. Peter built a massive fortress to protect the area while the navy was being rebuilt. Once the Swedes were no longer a problem (1709), Peter placed all of his focus on building this city. Peter wanted the city to be modern -- meaning there was street lights, bridges, canals for drainage, etc -- and divided it into sections for the nobles, merchants, and peasants. Additionally, all buildings had to meet the government's architectural regulations. Peter drafted tens of thousands of peasants to come and build this city. These workers were unpaid and they had to pay a tax to ensure that they would be fed while in St. Petersburg. Man tried to run away many died from disease, hunger, and accidents. Nobles were also "drafted." They were commanded to move to St. Petersburg and build massive palaces for themselves. Merchants were also commanded to live in the new city, and they had to fund infrastructure like the roads and bridges. This whole project was so difficult because the city was built on a swamp. McKay 7th p. 587-588

Scottish Enlightenment

18 1707 1776 The Scottish Enlightenment highlighted common sense and scientific reasoning. Scotland had the right environment for an Enlightenment due to its freedom from English political conflicts after the Act of Union, and due to the creation of their public school system -- the first in Europe. One key figure was Adam Smith. He wrote "Theory of Moral Sentiment," which stated that the prosperous commercial economy led to civic virtue through the elements of competition, fair play, and individual autonomy. He argued against laws that he thought were hindering the economy from reaching its full potential. Another key figure was David Hume. McKay 11th p. 520-521

Charles "Turnip" Townshend

18 1710 1738 Townsend learned about turnips and clover while being the English ambassador to Holland. He used these crops in his land in Norfolk which had sandy soil. Turnips became all this man would talk about after he retired from his political positions. Townsend drained his land, fertilized with plenty of manure, and sowed his crops in a rotation that left no land fallow. These practices gave him and his tenants larger crop returns and higher incomes than most other English farmers. McKay 7th p. 635

Blood Sports

18 1710 Blood sports were always common, and they were still very popular in the 18th century. The two most common were bull baiting and cockfighting. In bull baiting, inn operators would chian a bull up and have dogs attack it for the amusement of his patrons. The bull was then taken to the butcher and sold as meat. In cockfighting, two rooster would fight each other. This was especially attractive because of the gambling opportunities it provided. People loved to gamble on almost anything. McKay 7th p. 684

Canal and Road Building

18 1710 Throughout the 18th century, European countries began building more roads and canals. The new ease of transportation lessened the blow of local famine because food and supplies could not be moved easily from one area to another to help them. Additionally, emergency supplies could be brought in. Local starvation became less common. This helped the people become stronger because they were not constantly hungry, and deaths from hunger decreased. In France, they built an all-weather road that promoted trade, communications, and aided in famine relief. McKay 7th p. 640

Faith Healers

18 1710 Throughout the 18th century, faith healers remained in society. They and their patients believed that demons and evil spirits cause disease. The faith healer would exorcise the evil spirits and then the disease would be cured, in their minds. This was strongest in the rural areas, where they believed in the power of relics and prayer. In illnesses like depression and hysteria, where the link between illness and attitude is direct, faith healers saw the best results. McKay 7th p. 675

Commercial Amusements

18 1710 Towns and cities had plenty of amusements, but for the first time leisure activities became commercialized. Urban failures would feature all kinds of amusements like acrobats, optical illusions, freak shows, and more. Other commercialized amusements developed, including bullfights, circuses, and horse races. The elite groups used to take part in amusements and other attractions, like Carnival, but this is the time when they began to look down at t. The elite began to consider suck amusements to be sinful and vulgar. McKay 7th p. 684

Frederick William I "The Soldier's King" of Prussia

18 1713 1740 The Soldier's King centralized his power through divine right absolutism and made Prussia into one of the strongest European countries through his militaristic policy. The king himself kept a military schedule and always wore a uniform. The Soldier's King was obsessed with tall soldiers and tried to breed them. Known as his "blue boys," Frederick William loved them so much that he did not want to send them to war. For this reason, one of the most militaristic societies in Europe was almost always at peace. The Soldier's King even enlisted the nobility into his army. He knew that strong army was important to gain power and respect, but that you cannot use it frivolously otherwise a nation will not be respected and will be broke. The Soldier's King also developed the Prussian economy. He actually paid taxes and cut back on the frivolous spending of his father. Local autonomy was wiped out, and the Soldier's King created a strong bureaucracy with regulation for state officials instead. Eastern Absolutism Notes/PowerPoint

Pragmatic Sanction

18 1713 Charles VI of the HRE was the last male heir of the Habsburg family. He wanted to pass on the empire to his daughter, Maria Theresa. He knew that this could be contested, so he spent lots of time during his rule making sure that she would be able to rule. For that reason he passed the Pragmatic Sanction. This legislation stated that the Habsburg holdings must be passed along in their completion to a SINGLE hair regardless of the heir's gender. Charles knew that he needed the support of the Hungarian nobles, so he granted them more autonomy. When Maria Theresa took the throne, she faced no internal challenges. Eastern Absolutism Notes/PowerPoint

Peace of Utrecht

18 1713 The Peace of utrecht was the treaty that ended the War of Spanish Succession. Philip of Anjou became the first Bourbon king of Spain as Philip V but had to renounce his place in the French line of succession and ensure that France and Spain would never unite. France had to give England Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and the Hudson Bay territory. England also got Minorca, Gibraltar, and the African slave trade from Spain. Austria got the Spanish Netherlands. The Dutch did not gain much territory. This treaty shows the balance of power enacted by the European powers and ended the French expansionist policies. It also solidified Spain's descent as a major power, and grew the British Empire. McKay 7th p. 545-546

Montesquieu

18 1721 1755 Montesquieu was a political Enlightenment scholar. He used satire and wit to assert himself as a member of the public, especially with "The Persian Letters," and then moved on to his historical and political study. He was a noble under Louis XIV, so he was motivated by his upset over restricted noble powers under the absolutist king. In his book, "The Spirit of the Laws," Montesquieu outlined the conditions that would create liberty and prevent tyranny. He argued for a separation of powers, with a judicial, executive, and legislative branch in the government to check each other's power. He liked how the English had separate bodies to do different jobs, and advocated for it. He did not believe in equal power for all though, and did not see a place for the uneducated poor people in the government. In this way, he was not a democrat. His influence is clearly seen in the US Constitution. McKay 7th p. 608-609 & Enlightenment Political Theory Matching

Last Plague in Europe

18 1721 The Black Plague was a deadly disease that would wipe out populations of people. Its disappearance from Europe in the 18th century allowed (with other factors) for population growth and sustainment. In 1721, a ship from Syria brought plague to Marseilles and in a few week kill 40,000 out of the city's 90,000. The plague continued through the south of France and claimed large numbers there as well, especially in the larger towns. Then the plague disappeared from Europe. It was mostly by chance and luck, but stricter quarantine along the Austrian-Turkey border and Mediterranean ports helped as well. McKay 7th p. 639

Madame du Châtelet

18 1730 1749 Chatelet was one of the first women in science. As a companion of Voltaire, she gained some credibility. The rest came from her great accomplishment of translating Newton's "Principia" into French from English. This meant that the not only spoke English and French perfectly, butt that she understood the complex physics presented in the book. She valued equal education for boys and girls and if she had the power she would have presented educational opportunities for all. She was constantly annoyed that the Church did not accept the heliocentric truth of the universe. Philosophe Notes

Rococo Art

18 1730 1780 Rococo art emerged during the reign of Louis XV in France and it was a direct response to Louis XIV's reign. The art style spread throughout England, South Germany, Italy, Austria, and Russia. The art was more feminine and playful due to the increase in elite women's influence in places like salons. Key characteristics were shells, rocks, waves, asymmetry, pastels, gilded and ornate, intimate scenes, facial expressions, and Greco-Roman inspired things like Cupid. Fragonard's "The Swing" was the epitome of rococo art as it showed the playfulness of the nobility, intimate scenes, and cupids. Rastrelli's architecture of Catherine's Palace and Couperin's composition of "The Little Windmills" also showed the key characteristics of Rococo art. Rococo Art Slideshow

Surgeons

18 1730 Surgeons began studying anatomy to improve their understanding and practices, and thus increase their social standing. Most surgeons learned much of their practices on the battlefield since there was no shortage of wars in Europe at this time. These army surgeons learned that limbs could be saved if they were cauterized with fire and the procedure was done on a flat surface. Surgeons would often amputate limbs and then cauterize the wound to reduce the chances of death. Almost all operations were done without painkillers because they were thought to be too dangerous and mysterious. Many patients died from the shock of having their limbs chopped off. These procedures were all done in unsanitized areas with unsanitized tools, so small things could get infected and lead to death. McKay 7th p. 675 - 676

Wesley and the Methodists

18 1738 1791 Wesley was a very organized student while he was studying to be an Anglican clergy member. He formed a group with other students like him and they became known as Methodists for their extremely diligent work. Wesley became an Anglican priest, but was not happy with how the government used the Church to give jobs to its favorites. Even though the population was growing, the government was not building new churches so people could no longer sit in church. He then had an emotional experience with God, and he was convinced that any person -- regardless of education, class, etc -- could have a conversation with God like he did (Wesley was influenced by Pietism). Wesley traveled to spread this doctrine, and since churches were overfull he would preach in open fields. He attracted many people, especially with his rejection of predestination. His work resulted in a new denomination: the Methodists. McKay 7th p. 681 - 682

European War of the Austrian Succession

18 1740 1748 With the Pragmatic Sanction, Emperor Charles VI of the HRE established that his daughter Maria Theresa would take power. However, many countries did not respect Maria's ascension to the throne, despite their promises to Charles VI. Frederick the Great of Prussia invaded Maria's wealthy German province of Silesia. Other powers wanted to try and grab for power, and it turned into the European War of the Austrian Succession. Maria's army was weak and diverse, which was no match for the Prussian army and their precise attacks. As a result of the war, Maria had to forfeit Silesia to Frederick the Great which doubled the Prussian population to six million, making it an even greater power. The war was very expensive for many, including France which experienced a financial crisis. McKay 7th p. 616 & 622

David Hume

18 1740 1776 A figure of the Scottish Enlightenment, Hume was skeptical about almost everything. He argued that the mind is just s bundle of impressions and that because of this our reason reflects or experiences so reason cannot tell us any truth. EH undermined the other philosophe's core tenant of rationalism. He was an atheist, and his views were not accepted widely at all. He would question all physical objects and question if it existed even though he could see it. He had the Hume's Fork, which was the two ways he believed on could reach a conclusion: facts or abstract ideas like equations that you know are true despite there being no physical representation. McKay 7th p. 611 & Philosophe Notes

Maria Theresa of Austria

18 1740 1780 As an empress and a solo woman ruling the Habsburg lands, Maria faced many obstacles throughout her rule. After losing Silesia, Maria was determined to strengthen her state so she instituted a series of reforms. Maria instituted reforms that included limiting the power of the papacy, and bureaucratic reform. She worked to fix issues between provinces and redid the tax system to tax nobles without specific tax exemption. She also worked to help the peasants who worked in agriculture and reduced the power of the nobles over their workers little bits at a time. Her son, Joseph, would take these base outlines and make radical changes from them. McKay 7th p. 620-621

Frederick the Great of Prussia"

18 1740 1786 After almost losing the Seven Years' War, Frederick reformed parts of his country to strengthen his state. Frederick allowed his people to have free religious and philosophical thoughts, and ven patronized philosophes like Voltaire. He encouraged the advancement of knowledge, improved schools, and allowed scholars to publish their works. In a further attempt to improve the lives of the everyday people, Frederick simplified the laws, abolished torture of prisoners, and required judges to come to verdicts quickly and impartially. However, he never tried to change the social structure and did not free the serfs. He gave the nobility lots of power because he felt that they were imperative to his rule over Prussia. Jews were forced to live in ghettos and were legally barred from most professions and business and could be expelled from the country at any time. McKay 7th p. 616 & 618

England's Energy Crisis

18 1740 People needed large amounts of power available to power industry. Wood was important because it heated homes and was an important material to many industries. Processed wood is charcoal, and it is an important ingredient to make pig iron. Unfortunately, the growing English population led to most of the forests being cut down and replaced by grain fields, seriously reducing the supply of wood. This shortage of wood resulted in the stagnation of the English iron industry in 1740. Russia had many large forests, so they became the leading producer of iron. Most of the iron they produced was then exported to England. McKay 7th p. 730

Illegitimacy Explosion

18 1750 1850 Illegitimate births rose significantly in this time period because fewer people abstain from sex and less men married the women they got pregnant. There are two main reasons for this. The cottage industry gave people jobs where they no longer had to be tied to the land. As the cottage industry grew, courtship became freer. The second reason is that growing cities caused many young people to go there looking for jobs. In the towns and cities, people would have flings, talk about marriage, have sex, and then the man would leave the woman behind. It was getting harder to make men marry women after the impregnate them. McKay 7th p. 665 - 666

Consumer Revolution

18 1750 Consumption of goods increased as more became available throughout Europe, known as the Consumer Revolution. This revolution caused people to derive their identities from what they consumed, what they worked as, and what their place in the production place was. Individuality developed as there was more products for people to choose from, and find pieces that express themselves. Merchants used marketing and fancy boutique windows to attract customers. The nobility had previously set the fashion trends, but these new shops took over due to their quick turnover of style. Clothing consumption was one of the biggest indicators of a new consumer society. McKay 11th p. 592 & 594

Slave Wars

18 1750 Due to the increase in slave trading, the African traders were getting more European products. However, they tended to buy mostly guns and gunpowder which did not help consumers in their countries and just added to the violence. The search for slaves by countries like Portugal undermined African monarchies, destroyed African political unity, and created disorder. One example of this was in the Congo. Other African ntions, like the Kingdom of Dahomey, built up armies to go and capture slaves to sell to the Europeans. They became a major supplier and protifed a lot. Small-scale raids for slaves also became common McKay 7th p. 650 - 651

The Importance of Potatoes

18 1750 New foods, including potatoes, corn, squash, and tomatoes, were introduced to Europeans from the Americas. Of all of them, potatoes were the most important. Potatoes have lots of carbohydrates, calories, and the vitamins A and C that the people lacked so badly. The potato could replace the green vegetable during the winter months. Potatoes eve replaced bread for the extremely poor people. This was most prominent in Ireland since they were oppressed by the English and forced to live off of tiny bits of land. in other parts of Europe, people did not like potatoes so they fed them to their livestock. However, famines from the Seven Years' War caused people to begin eating it, and it was better than any old famine food. McKay 7th p. 674

New Attitudes Towards Slavery

18 1750 Up until this point, Europeans felt that the slave trade was a legitimate business. This may be because slaves were never brought to north western Europe because there was already plenty of cheap labor. Some individual slaves came to England and France, but if they ran away the poor people and the courts tended to support the slave, not the owner. Now, the freed slaves were entering society and in places like London, communities of free black slaves were not uncommon, as well as interracial unions. Beginning in 1775, British people campaigned for the abolition of slavery. From 1788 to 1792, the British people participated in their first peaceful movement for change that mobilized mass amounts of British citizens. WOmen were at the center of this fight. In 1807, British Parliament outlawed slavery in Britain, but not the colonies. McKay 7th p. 651 - 652

The Seven Years' War in the Colonies

18 1753 1776 New France was centered in Quebec, but it had forts and trading posts for the fur merchants through the Great Lakes, Ohio country, and down the MI River. They were allied with many native groups so they biltmore forts there. While there were many more people in the 13 English colonies, the French and canadian forces were under the direction of a experienced marquis, who led them to victory until 1758. However, the ties turned when England diverted money from the European War to the American one, while most of French resources stayed in France at in Versailles. Britain used their advanced army to destroy the French fleet and their worldwide trade. Finally, British forces seized the marquis de Montcalm's fortress, and France lost the war. McKay 7th p. 647 - 648

Seven Years' War

18 1756 1763 Maria was continually fighting against Prussia for Silesia back, and France and Britain were competing over the creation of a colonial empire. Maria allied herself with Russia and France for the Seven Years' War, and their goal was to conquer and divide all of russia. Frederick tried to fight back, but his army was inferior to the combined forces attacking from all sides. He was only saved by the ascension of a new Russian monarch, Peter III, who called off Russian involvement due to his admiration for Frederick. Frederick's near-loss made him consider how more human policies would strengthen his state. For France, there were financial hardships after fighting an expensive war. Louis XV tried to keep the emergency taxes active after the war's end, but Parlement challenged and said he had no right to do so and stated that the king's power needs to have limitations to ensure the people's liberty. Louis XV withdrew the taxes. McKay 7th p. 616 & 622

Olaudah Equiano

18 1756 1797 The son of a village elder from Benin, Equiano and his sister were kidnapped from their family compound and sold as slaves when Equiano was only 11. His owner was a member of the Royal Navy who made sure he got some kind of an education while in England. He worked at his owner's side throughout the Seven Years' War and hoped that his loyalty and strong Christian faith would get him free, but his owner forced him onto a ship to the Caribbean. He was sold to Robert King, a merchant from Philadelphia, and worked his way up to first mate on the ships (no longer a slave). He decided to return to England as he did not like the dangers of being a black person in the Americas. He expanded his father, and became a leader in London's black community. Equiano urged Christians to treat blacks fairly and to actually live by the tur Christian principles. He was a fierce opponent of slavery, and confronted white oppressors, even becoming friends with some white people in England. He went on to write a book, "Interesting Narrative," detailing his experiences as a slave. He advocated for abolition throughout Britain and Ireland. McKay 7th p. 653

Josiah Wedgwood

18 1759 1795 Pottery and beautiful tableware became a new obsession for consumers that even extended to monarchs who built royal china works. Wedgwood perfected a new green glaze and became a master potter. He opened a factory where he made teapots and tableware all finished with his unique glazes. Some of his products also had printed scenes that were much better than any made by his competitors.HIs success kept increasing as he became more popular and added new products like classic Greek pottery. Competitors were copying his products and selling them at lower prices, so Wedgwood got the business of the elite to create the image of superior taste. He eventually was able to get into the middle class. When the luxury goods for the elite were out of style or season, he made some small changes and sold it to the middle class. He was a lead businessman and contributed to the growing factory system through his advanced and large factories with canals and new technology and many workers. McKay 11th p. 656 - 657

Rousseau

18 1762 1778 Rousseau thought that society and nationalism were destroying the individual person, not liberating them. He believed that man's basic goodness had to be protected from the corruption of society. He believed that all people were born equal so stay equal we all must relinquish our rights to one another. His book, "The Social Contract," discussed the concept of the general will or the common interests of the people which should be reflected in the monarch's policies since the people are giving him power. However, the general will does not equal the will of the majority all of the time. Sometimes a minority can decide what they think is best for the majority. In this way, the concept of general will has been used in democracies and dictatorships. Philosophe Notes & Enlightenment Matching

Catherine the Great of Russia

18 1762 1796 Catherine plotted against her husband to become empress. She chose an officer of the military as her lover, and with his four officer brothers they depose Peter III militarily and the brothers killed him. Catherine proved to be a true enlightened absolute monarch and worked to westernize Russia. She brought in architects, scholars, artists, and more from the West to bring sophistication to her land. She also patronized philosophes. Catherine allowed limited religious freedom and restricted the legality of torture. She made attempts to improve the education system and support local governments. Catherine also hoped to territorially expand Russia, which she achieved through both partitions of Poland and the conquering of the Crimean Tatars. McKay 7th p. 618-619

Rousseau's "Emile" and the move toward tenderness

18 1762 Many parents were indifferent and even abusive to their children. There was a movement i the mid-eighteenth century that advocated for loving your child and being tender toward them. Rousseau's book, "Emile," advocated for this, and simultaneously put forth new teaching methods and stitch gender roles. Others like Rousseau also advocated for foundling homes, to try and reduce infanticide, and breastfeeding, They were trying to convince noble women to breastfeed their own children. They also spoke out against swaddling. Babies used to be wrapped tightly to "straighten them out," but they succeeded in getting parents to dress their kids in looser clothing. McKay 7th p. 669

Temporary Dissolution of the Jesuits

18 1763 The Jesuits were an arm of the Catholic Church, and were teachers, missionaries, and agents of the pope. In Catholic countries, Jesuits had lots of influence since they held political positions and their schools were shaping the minds of the next generation of Catholic nobles. However, their political plays angered many, especially the kings who felt threatened by the Jesuits. Louis XV made all of the Jesuits leave and took their property. France and Spain then convinced the pope to dissolve the group, which he did. The Jesuits were officially reinstated after the French Revolution. McKay 7th p. 681

Voltaire

18 1764 1778 Voltaire was a political philosopher. His ideas were so controversial that he spent a lot of time in jail, so he switched to using satire. He believed in freedom of expression, thought, the press, religion, and more, and his influence is seen in the US BIll of Rights. He wrote the 'Philosophical Dictionary," in which he wrote on the freedoms of the press and expression and complemented the English government;s model. He was a deist and did not support organized religion. While he believed that the people should not be censored, he did not think that they should have power. He was patronized by Frederick the Great of Prussia, so he had to play nice with absolute monarchs. He saw his mistress Madame du Chatelet as an intellectual equal which helped her status as a woman in the Enlightenment. Philosophe Notes & Enlightenment Matching

Cesare Beccaria

18 1764 1794 Naples experienced its own period of Enlightenment following its independence from the Habsburgs. Scholars of the time tried to take some power away from the nobles and the church. Beccaria was a central figure of this time and was educated in Jesuit schools and the University of Pavia. His book, ''On Crimes and Punishments," advocated for change in the judicial system, specifically the outlawing of torture, random imprisonment, and the death penalty. He argued that people should be more focused on preventing crime than relying on the idea of harsh punishment to stop it. His book was translated into French and English and became impactful throughout Europe. McKay 11th p. 521

Enlightenment in the New World

18 1765 Enlightenment ideas from Europe made it to the New World and definitely had influence. The Scottish Enlightenment and its emphasis on common sense, ethics, and self improvement majorly influenced the 13 British colonies. American leaders like Benjamin Franklin show the combination of the Scottish Enlightenment and classic Enlightenment figures like Rousseau. Many founding fathers of America were secret deist, like Franklin and Jefferson. The biggest influence from the Enlightenment on the colonies was the ability to question authority and hope for autonomy. McKay 11th p. 567 & 569

Spinning Jenny and the Water Frame

18 1765 These two inventions allowed the cotton industry to really take off because they allowed for a more efficient and productive system. The spinning jenny was invented by James Hargreaves and it allowed women to spin thread faster. Now the weavers, who were always low on thread, could work until their full capacity because they had sufficient thread. The water frame was invented by Richard Arkwright and it used water power to spin coarse thread. That thread was the disturbed and respun on the jenny. Since the water frame used waterpower, it was much larger and required large mills and lots of workers from the start, whereas the jeny was operable by one person. McKay 7th p. 728

Moses Mendelssohn

18 1767 1786 Born in a German ghetto, Mendelssohn traveled to Berlin (Prussia) to embrace the Enlightenment and update Jewish thinking. Mendelssohn learned Jewish law masters German, Latin, Greek, French, and English, all languages unlike his native Yiddish. he studied math and philosophy, gaining fame within the Jewish community as a high-capable tutor. An Orthodox Jew, Mendelssohn believed that Enlightened philosophy could strengthen religion, and wrote "On the Immortality of the Soul." He argued the immortality of the soul without using putting religion and critical thinking against each other. He is a prime example of how the German Enlightenment embraced religion while the French rejected it. His work was widely read and people were shocked that a Jew wrote it. Mendelssohn advocated for religious tolerance, and spoke up against the oppression against European Jewry. Mendelssohn briged the Orthodox Jewish world and the world of the Enlightened philosophes. McKay 7th p. 617

Watt and Steam Engines

18 1769 Savery and Newcomen had invented functioning steam engines as sources of power but they were inefficient. What was a employed at a Scottish university that asked him to repair a steam engine. After examining the engine, Watt realized that energy could be conserved by making only a small change to the design. This separate condenser made steam engines much more efficient. Watt found skilled workers who were able to build, install, and repair his new engines which were more sophisticated than past technologies. Over the next 20 years, Watt continued to acquire more precise parts and to improve the steam engine. This steam engine was the most fundamental new technology to the Industrial REvolution since it solved the energy crisis and gave people unlimited power, at least for a while. McKay 7th p. 731

General Hospitals

18 1770 For most of the 18th century, hospitals were horrifying. There was no isolation of patients and people could be stacked up to six in one bed. Operations were performed right in the bed, and nurses are old, cormorant, and usually drunk. Fresh air was considered dangerous, so the patients were made to stay in, so infections were everywhere and would spread. The peasants of Paris thought that hospitals were a scheme to kill them off, and would refuse to go. Denis Diderot's frightening article about the hospital situation led to a movement to reform hospitals. Europeans tried to improve ventilation and clean the floors in an attempt to get rid of "bad air." While the reason was preposterous, i=the cleaning did help stop the spread infections by reducing germs. McKay 7th p. 678

Foundling Homes

18 1770 Parents with unwanted children began to abandon them on church steps so that if they died they would at least die baptized. Saint Vincent de Paul of Notre Dame was upset about all of these abandonments and created a foundling home ( a home for abandoned children). In England, following his example, Parliament created a foundling hospital to try and stop infanticide. These homes became a favorite charity for the upper class. Many babies were abandoned to these new foundling homes by unmarried and married couples alike; the standard of living was so low that even married couples had to abandon children. In the foundling homes, not many children. In the best homes, 50% of babies died in the first year, and in the worst that number was 90%. Foundling homes became known as legalized infanticide. McKay 7th p. 667 - 668

Body Linen

18 1770 The early effects of the jenny and water frame were seen in the reduced prices of cotton goods. Since the goods were chepare, people from all classes were able to buy them and benefit from them. Body linen, was underwear, which previously only the wealthy could afford. The poor people were stuck wearing nothing under their itchy and dirty clothes. With the reduction to cotton prices, everyone could now afford to wear cotton undergarments. McKay 7th p. 729

Jacques Necker

18 1771 1790 One of France's biggest flaws under Louis XVI was its debt and lack of a national bank to address that problem. He hired Jacques Necker, an experienced Swiss banker, to be his financial officer. Necker knew that Louis was going to have to tax the first two estates to save France, and proposed a property tax on them. Louis tried to pass the tax by decree, but the courts (Parlements) would not allow it. Louis could not institute the tax through typical Parlement action either, since the Parlements were made up of members of the first two estates and would never tax themselves. The only other option was to call the Estates General which was inactive since 1614, when its founder, Henry IV died. French Rev PowerPoint Notes

Pugachev's Rebellion

18 1773 1776 Pugachev was a Cossack soldier who revolted against Catherine with the serfs. He declared himself to be the "true" tsar and declared serfdom to be abolished as well as taxes and army service. He had the support of thousands of serfs who murdered landlords and officials throughout southwestern Russia. These serfs were obviously not trained well though, and Catherine's army overpowered them. They betrayed Pugachev and he was horrendously executed. This rebellion made Catherine give the nobles complete control over their serfs and extended serfdom into Ukraine. Hse also freed nobles from taxes and army service. SHe now thought that the serfs were too dangerous to be freed and needed the support of the nobles to subdue them. McKay 7th p. 618

Adam Smith

18 1776 1790 Adam Smith was a Scottish philosopher and economist who believed in free trade and freedom of enterprise. In his book, "Wealth of Nations," he was critical of mercantilism due to the unfair monopolies it created and the high amounts of government involvement. He believed that the government should be laissez faire -- hands off -- and only provide things that the individual cannot provide for himself. Those three thing are military defense, police and court systems, and public good and institutions like roads. He argued that an economy does not need government involvement, just the everpresent self-interest to create proper economic behavior. Smith wrote about the "invisible hand" of free competition. This concept means that prices, amounts of goods produced, and the wage rate, will move to the place that's best and most desirable for society because of humanity's self-interest. His beliefs became the foundation for economic liberalism and unregulated capitalism. McKay 7th p. 655-656

Marquis de Lafayette

18 1777 1834 Lafayette was a French nobleman who joined other groups of Frenchmen to voluntarily come to Virginia to fight alongside the Americans. this was mostly a way to get revenge on the British who had defeated them in the Seven Years' War. Lafayette became one of George Washington's most trusted generals. After the American Revolution, Lafayette returned to France instilled with a love and desire for liberty and republicanism. Lafayette was one of the French fighters who returned from America who helped to spread the Enlightened ideas that started the American revolution. Lafayette became involved in the French Revolution, and after the Storming of the Bastille he was appointed as the head of Paris's armed forces. McKay 7thp. 695, 697, & 702

Joseph II of Austria

18 1780 1790 Joseph II of Austria was an Enlightened absolute Habsburg ruler who brought radical change after his co-rule with his mother, Maria Theresa. He controlled the Catholic Church to ensure the protection of his citizens, and brought religious toleration for all. He abolished serfdom. and later decreed that all peasant laborers had to be given cash payments. The nobility violently opposed this, as well as the peasants surprisingly. The peasants had no money and only barterd, and between the abolition of serfdom and the decree on cash payments, they bartered with their lords. Joseph also instituted a public school system for all, and parents who sent their kids to private school had to pay extra taxes. He was so radical, that when he died his brother Leopold revoked all of the changes. McKay 7th p. 620-621 & Salon Prep

Critics and Proponents of Factories

18 1780 1850 "The conditions of work for British factory workers attracted lots of attention. It is widely agreed that conditions improves after 1850, but in the initial Industrial Revolution there were opposing views on the working conditions. Poets like William Blake were outspoken opponents of ""satanic mills"" and the terrible living conditions that accompanied factory life in London. William Wordsworth was upset by the pollution of the land and water and destruction of rural life by the factories, The Luddites, were an extreme English group who smashed machines that they believed were taking their jobs.

Industrial Revolution in England

18 1780 1850 England had the advantage of being separated from the continent of Europe, so they could avoid many conflicts due to their distance. They also had a stable constitutional monarchy, and established cottage industry, proletarians, and a surplus of food from its agricultural revolution. All of these things allowed England to industrialize 35 years before the continent. Since England had such a good structure and the advantage of being the first, industrialization was much more organic with entrepreneurs opening factories and cities growing around the factories. The government was laissez faire, and encouraged personal initiative, technological development, and free markets. Paired with the banks that would give out loans to businesses, industry all across England became more modern and more efficient. England also pioneered many developments that aided industrialization. For example, they had excellent canals, roads, railroads, and other infrastructure that allowed them to transport their goods for sale easily. Industrial Revolution in England v. the Continent

Romanticism

18 1780 Romanticism is defined by its belief in unrestrained imagination, lots of emotion, and spontaneity. Some of the earliest romantics in Germany called themselves the Sturm und Drang, living life with emotional intensity. There were frequent duels, mad illnesses and suicides. Romantics were not materialists, and sought to escape into the spiritual world through art. They emphasized individualism and believed that the highest purpose of someone's life was to find their uniqueness. They were fascinated with nature, color, and diversity. McKay 7th p. 766 - 767

Child Labor in the Industrial Revolution

18 1780 The working conditions in the factories were worse than in the cottage industry, so factories sometimes had trouble finding workers, As a result they went to parishes where parents had abandoned their children and apprenticed them. These kids could be as young as 5, and they were forced to work in the factories for up to 14 years. THe kids were essentially slaves, being locked up nightly in their dorms. The kids usually worked 14 hour days and suffered brutal physical punishment. Parliament eventually passes laws to prevent child labor. McKay 7th p. 729 & 744

Edict of Idle Institutions

18 1780 There were a few Catholic rulers who thought that monasteries and convents should be doing something productive, not just praying. Mari Theresea strictly regulated entry into orders like this, but her son and heir Joseph II took it a step further. Drawing on the radicalness of the Protestant Reformation, he issued the Edict of Idle Institutions. This Edict abolished ordered that only thought or prayed, and required all ordered to do something practical and helpful like educating people, nursing, or helping the poor. The money that the state acquired from the dissolution of the monasteries was put into charity or to increase the salary of priests. McKay 7th p. 681

Mental Illness, Hospitals, and Reforms

18 1790 There was very little known at this time about mental illness. The people believed that mental illness was caused by exposure to moonlight (hence lunatics), acne, epilepsy, and masturbation. The typical treatment for these illnesses was bleeding and cold water, which obviously did nothing. Violent people were chained to walls and forgotten about. William Tuke founded the first humane mental institution in England, and Pinel in Paris removed the chains and treated these people as [patients, not prisoners. McKay 7th p. 678 - 679

David Ricardo

18 1796 Ricardo was a wealthy businessman who was just as pessimistic as Malthus. He believed in the iron law of wages meaning that wages will always sink to subsistence level because of population growth. He thought that whenever there was a wage increase, more people would enter the industry causing employers to lower wages to employ everyone. At the end of the day, wages would be just enough to keep people from starving. Due the Ricardo and Malthus pessimism, many began to call economics the "dismal science." McKay 7th p. 734

Edward Jenner

18 1798 Edward Jenner was the one who created the smallpox vaccine and saved million of people as smallpox was a disease that claimed many before his discovery. There are rumors that milkmaids didn't get smallpox because of their contraction of cowpox, so Jenner put this theory to test. He also looked at procedures like that of MOntagu who had inoculated her child with the pus of a smallpox patient. He combined the two, and used matter from a milkmaids cowpox as a vaccine for smallpox. It worked. The vaccine spread, and smallpox pretty much disappeared in Europe. McKay 7th p. 679

Thomas Malthus

18 1798 Malthus's piece, "Essay on the Principle of Population," so the pessimism held by some due to the increased population that industrialization allowed. Malthus argued that population grows exponentially, while land grows in a linear fashion. What this means is that population will always grow faster than the food supply and everyone will eventually starve. His solution was that people should marry later in life to have less children. He also believed in a general glut in which there would be more products than buyers. This has been disproven as humans have unlimited desires; they may have enough food but never enough stuff. McKay 7th p. 734 & Worldly Philosophers

Napoleonic Era

18 1799 1815 For these 16 years, Napoleon, a military general, ruled France. He saw the need to end the people's plight to consolidate his rule, and he did. He also succeeded in creating unity along the way. Throughout his rule, Napoleon fought many wars and won some of them. He considered himself to be a glorious man of destiny and an excellent man of war. He was ultimately destroyed by a massive coalition of European powers that were finished with his ambition to take over Europe, and thus ended his era. McKay 7th p. 712

Combination Acts

18 1799 1824 The Combination Acts outlawed unions and strikes in England, which was in the midst of an Industrial Revolution and a growing working class. There was also a law from 1563 that regulated the wages of artisans and the conditions of apprenticeships, that was repealed in 1814. As a result of this repeal, some artisans and workers felt that capitalists were aggressively attacking them and infusing their fields with women and children to lower wages. The Combination Acts were overwhelmingly ignored, and many workers and artisans formed unions to protect themselves. They used unions to make apprenticeships more elite and collectively bargained over wages. The unions also would strike, in open rejection of the Combination Acts. Parliament saw that the unions were active, so they outlawed in Combination Acts in 1824 and tolerated unions. McKay 7th p. 748 - 749

Treaty of Paris 1763

18 2 10 1763 The Seven Years' War was inconclusive in Europe, but in the French and English colonies, it was conclusive: England won. The British victory in the colonies was solidified with the end of the war and the signing of the Treaty of Paris of 1763. Under this treaty, France had to give up its mainland occupations in North America. Canada and territory east of the Mississippi River went to England, and Louisiana went to Spain. France gave it to them as compensation for the Spanish loss of Florida to England. Additionally, France gave up its territory in India, paving the way for England to come in and dominant India. McKay 7th p. 648

American Revolution

18 4 1775 1783 The British North American colonies had the highest standard of living in the world and were taxed less than the average English citizen. However, after the Seven YEars' War, England started to tax them more with taxes like the Stamp Act in order to make up for the expenses they laid out t protect the colonies during the war. The colonists also got fed up with the mercantilist policies of Great Britain, and the monopoly they had on tea as a result. As the colonists revolted, the French came to their aid and helped them win the fight because the French wanted to get back at England. The down side was that another war put France into more debt. The American Revolution was the first tangible enactment of Enlightenment ideals and spread the ideas on the importance of liberty and equality. It was a catalyst to the spread of Enlightenment ideas in France and to their revolution. McKay 7th p. 694 - 697 & French Rev PowerPoint Notes

War with Austria

18 4 1792 Since the Constitution stripped the king of his power, the Legislative Assembly now had most of the power and with that power they declared war on Austria. The radical Legislative Assembly considered their revolution to be people against the kings, and fighting King Francis II of Austria was a part of that revolution. Austria and Prussia allied themselves against France in the War of the First Coalition. In order to have enough soldiers, France instituted the levee en masse: all 18 - 25 year old men were drafted. While the French conquered more territory, they abolished feudalism and brought the revolutionary idea with them. However, the National Convention became less of a hero and more of an invader. They declared war on GB, Spain, and Holland, in addition to the war they were already fighting, resulting in France fighting most of Europe. Additionally, the peasants began rioting against the draft. To make matters worse, there was infighting between the Girondists and the Mountain groups of the National COnvention. Ultimately, France was only saved due to Austria and Prussia disagreeing on the partition of Poland. McKay 7th p. 707 & French Rev PowerPoint Notes

Committee of Public Safety

18 4 1793 The National Convention instituted the Committee of Public Safety to ensure the safety and wellbeing of the people. In the revolutionary context, the Convention gave the Committee dictatorial powers to carry France through its troubled times of internal revolutions. Danton and Robespierre came to dominate the Committee. The Committee instituted the planned economy to try and address the high bread prices. Under this plan, quality and price control were set on bread, and only brown bread could be sold to equalize all people. They also instituted rationing to ensure that there was enough for all. They also created national workshops to create jobs and solve the unemployment crisis. French Rev Powerpoint Notes & Robespierre Defense Notes

French Revolution

18 5 5 1789 11/9/1799 The French Revolution took place over 10 years and experienced five different forms of government. While the American Revolution sparked the spread of Enlightenment ideals, this revolution is more important throughout history and throughout Europe as it marks the beginning of modern politics. It was caused my many political, economic, intellectual, and social factors, including the financial crisis. France was in massive debt and without a central bank there was nothing that the king could do to manipulate the economy. A lack of print money meant that the treasury couldn't alter its value to dig themselves out of debt, and since all of the people they owed money to were their own citizens, the French government couldn't declare bankruptcy. other problems included the unemployment of the working class and the unaffordable price of bread. French Rev PowerPoint Notes

Louis XVI calls the Estates General

18 5 5 1789 Necker had convinced Louis to call the Estates General. The first and second estate each brought 300 delegates, and the third brought 600 even though each estate got only one vote. The estates were asked to come with cahiers, or a list of grievances, and they were surprisingly all similar; everyone was finished with absolute monarchy and wanted a constitutional one. EVen though the ideas were similar, nothing was getting accomplished because the Third Estate refused to pass anything. They knew that the first and second estates were aligned with each other and would vote with each other, making every choice 2:1 automatically. Until they got proportional voting, the Third Estate would do nothing. French Rev PowerPoint Notes

Fight of the King and the Declaration of Pillnitz

18 6 1791 Emigres were nobles who were fleeing France trying to escape with their life. Since they were the main financiers of the French government, this only made the financial crisis worse. Likewise, Louis tried to escape with his family while disguised as beggars. They were caught at Varennes, and the common people arrested the royal family. Louis's attempted escape only made the people distrust him and the aristocracy more, which allowed more radical groups to find their platform. THe arresting of a monarch made other monarchs, especially in Austria and Prussia, worried. They worried that their own people would try to revolt, so with the Declaration of Pillnitz they vowed to only get involved in the French Revolution if Louis and his reign was threatened. This made the people more nationalistic because they all united under the threat of an outside invasion. French Rev PowerPoint Notes

National Assembly and the Tennis Court Oath

18 6 20 1789 8/27/1789 Since the Third Estate would get nothing passed, Louis got fed up and locked them out of the meeting hall. The Third Estate was not going to give up on fixing France, so they found the next biggest place that could hold all of the delegates which turned out to be a tennis court. At the court, the Third Estate declared themselves the National Assembly and sympathetic members of the first two estates joined them. Many clergymen from lower down in the hierarchy were born into the Third Estates so they were the most common to join from the First Estate. Louis declares the National Assembly invalid, and in response the National Assembly passes the Tennis Court Oath in which they promised to not disband until France had a constitutional monarchy. MAny more members of the first two estates joined now in their quest for a constitution. Louis was eventually forced to validate the National Assembly to save himself after the Storming of Bastille and forced all members of the Estates General to join. The Estates General was dissolved. French Rev PowerPoint Notes

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

18 7 12 1790 The National Assembly passes the Civil Constitution in an attempt to fix the French financial crisis. It nationalized the Catholic Church's land o that the government could sell it and use the profits to backup the new paper currency they were trying to implement, the assassinate. The CCOTC secularized France and took away power from the Church. Now, the Catholic clergy were to be elected by the people and payed by the crown, not the pope. Additionally, the National Assembly wanted all the clergy to pledge allegiance to France, but only about 50% did it. Ultimately, this alienates the peasants from the revolution as they were more traditional than the middle class and relied more heavily on the assistance given to them by the Church. French Rev PowerPoint Notes

Storming of the Bastille

18 7 14 1789 Throughout the summer, there had been rioting throughout Paris. there had been crop failures, people were starving and angry, and 150,000 of Paris's 600,000 people were unemployed. Additionally, the people were annoyed that Louis fired Necker as they saw him as their advocate. As a result, an angry mob mostly made up of the working class (part of the Third Estate), stormed the Bastille. The Bastille was a prison that also had weapons. The guards, who were also part of the Third Estate, did nothing to stop the mob. The mob killed the governor of the prison and the mayor, and put their heads on pikes and paraded them through the streets. As a result, Louis validated the National Assembly and rehired Necker. This is seen as the first major development of the people's rebellion. McKay 7th p. 702 & French Rev PowerPoint Notes

The Great Fear

18 7 17 1789 8/3/1789 The energy and sentiments of the Paris riots were spreading to the countryside. Peasants spontaneously began to revolt violently. They destroyed land, burned documents specifying the feudal obligations, and ransacked manor houses. This was truly a revolt of the lowest peasants, and no middle class landowners or large-scale farmers were spared. Some peasants even tried to reverse the agricultural changes and reclaimed common lands and tore down fences that marked enclosures. The NAtional Assembly responded with the August Decrees which ended feudal privileges. Now, with all people legally equal and all people having to pay taxes, the peasants were satisfied and for them the revolution pretty much ended. McKay 7th p. 702 & French Rev PowerPoint Notes

Reign of Terror

18 7 1793 7/27/1794 Under the Committee of Public Safety, led by Robespierre, France spent one year in what is known as the Reign of Terror. In this single year, 40,000 people were executed including the royal family and Georges Danton. Special courts tried and executed those that they considered to be enemies of the revolution and of France. No one was spared based on their class: if they were suspected, they could be tried and killed. However, the Reign of Terror was so destructive that he had to end. When Robespierre had Danton executed, other peers feared that Robespierre would turn on them next and deemed him to be threatening to the state. He was executed. McKay 7thp. 708 & French Rev Powerpoint Notes

The Directory

18 7 1794 The Directory promoted middle class interests and solved the unemployment crisis by employing men as soldiers and having other produce weapons for the soldiers to use. However, they were unable to solve the debt crisis and the food shortages. Under this five man rule, there were massive riots and Napoleon was called in to help. This led to Napoleon becoming the head of the French military. One positive thing accomplished by the Directory was the end of the War of the First Coalition. French Rev Powerpoint Notes

Robespierre

18 7 27 1793 Robespierre would become one of the most hated and controversial figures in history as he was responsible for the reign of terror, but he initially gained power through a republican election, just like the revolution was advocating for. He was a radical Jacobin lawyer who was a leader in both the National Convention and the Committee of Public Safety. While leading France, he was doing the work of a king but only collected the salary of a deputy, showing his dedication to the people however misguided. French Rev Powerpoint Notes & Hero or Villain Reading

Thermidorian Reaction

18 7 27 1794 On this day, known as 9 Thermidor in the revised calendar, Robespierre was overthrown. THe reaction was fueled by moderates, and the changes the implemented were similar to the changes made early on in the Revolution by the moderates. The National Convention, Jacobin Clubs, the planned economy, and the Committee of Public Safety were all disbanded. A new constitution was written in August of 1795 that set up a new, more moderate system. The new French government was a republic with a two house Parliament as the legislative branch, and a five man Directory as the executive branch. The Parliament was elected, but only 25% of French people could vote. This was a time of lots of self indulgent and excitement since the Reign of Terror was over, and many nobles who had fled returned. French Rev Powerpoint Notes

The Three French Estates and the August Decrees

18 8 1789 Prior to the French Revolution, society was split up into three distinct classes, or estates. The first estate was the clergy who were a miniscule part of the population yet owned 15% of the land. The other two estates were forced to pay them tithes, but the clergy did not have to pay any taxes to the state. The second estate was the nobility, 1.5% of the population, and they owned 20% of the land. They had to pay no taxes to the state and were split up into two subgroups: nobility of the sword (old, hereditary families, "those who fight") and the nobility of the robe (bought their titles). Finally, the third estate was the rest of the people, 97% of the population. The third estate was further broken down into the peasants, urban workers, and the bourgeoisie. The third estate was responsible for most of the revolting. In response to the Great Fear, a peasant revolt, the National Assembly issued the August Decrees which got rid of feudal privileges and the first two estates. All people now have legal equality. French Rev PowerPoint Notes

Constitution of 1791

18 9 1791 The National ASsembly finally made good on their Tennis Court Oath and finished a constitution, with the Declaration of the Rights of Man as its preamble. The constitution set up a constitutional monarchy with Louis acting as the executive branch and the newly formed Legislative Assembly was the legislative branch and was more powerful than Louis. The Legislative Assembly was to be popularly elected and France was split up into 83 equal districts for voting. THe members of the National Assembly made themselves ineligible to join the Legislative, so the people who got in were younger and more inexperienced. The Legislative Assembly did do good things for France. Women got the rights to inherit property, get a divorce, and get financial support for illegitimate children from their fathers. Jews and Protestants were also given religious freedom. McKay 7th p. 704 & French Rev PowerPoint Notes

Jacobins, The Mountain, and Girondists

18 9 1792 Within the National Convention, there were three groups of people. The Jacobins and the Girondists were the two main parties while the Mountain was an even more radical faction of the Jacobins called so due to their high seating position in the meeting hall. THe Jacobins were fairly radical and had lots of influence from the urban class. The Girondists were more moderate and have more support from the less urban provinces. While all agreed that the international wars were imperative to the revolution, their dividing factor was what to do with Louis . The Mountain wanted to kill him, and others were unsure. He was already disposed so the more moderate members of the Convention just wanted to detain him. French Rev Powerpoint Notes

National Convention

18 9 21 1792 10/26/1795 Louis XVI wanted more protection as he saw the Legislative Assembly become more radical. However, instead of giving him protection, the LA decided to just depose him all together and create a true republic with no monarch. The LA renamed themselves the National Convention as they tried to write the new constitution. The National Convention instituted big changes in France. For example, they got rid of the Gregorian Calendar and created a new one with 1792 as year one. All months, weeks, and days were renamed to reflect Greco-Roman themes. Additionally, religious holidays were replaced with national ones (BAstille Day), informal French was instituted as the official language, and Catholicism was replaced with a new religion. THis religion was the Cult of the Supreme Being which essentially Deism where everyone was told to worship reason. THe National COnvention secularized France further than the Civil COnstitution of the Clergy had. French Rev Powerpoint Notes

Congress of Vienna

19 11 1814 6/1/1815 After the Napoleonic Wars, the conservative monarchies of Prussia, Russia, Austria, and England got together to establish a peace treaty. Klemens von Metternich, the Austrian Foreign Minister, was a strict conservative and a major leader of the Congress. The leaders wanted peace, but they just had to make sure that the treaty would not be the spark of another war. They were successful on that end because the balance of power in Europe was reestablished; Prussia could not take all of Saxony, Russia only got parts of Poland, and in order to balance out France's power, Belgium and Holland combined into one kingdom and Prussia got more territory along the eastern French border. Additionally, as compensation, Austria got rich Italian provinces, Polish lands, and territories along the Adriatic Sea. Towards France, the Congress was very kind since they wanted stability and peace. The Bourbon dynasty was reinstated, France got it 1792 borders, which were bigger than the 1789 ones, and only had to pay small reparations after Napoleon's 100 Days. Prior to the 100 Days the Congress wasn't going to make France pay any reparations. The Congress was successful because the next major European war wasn;t until WWI which would take place in ~100 years. McKay 7th p. 757 - 758

Berlin Conference

19 11 5 1884 2/26/1885 With most of Europe competing for land in africa, Jules Ferry and Otto von Bismarck arranged an international conference to establish the rules of imperialism in Africa. According to the conference, to officially claim land the country had to occupy the land. This way, no country could take over the entire continent and it resulted in each country pushing into Africa from the coastline. Additionally, the conference recognized the personal rule of Leopold II of Belgium over Congo, and promised to try and stop slavery and the slave trade. This conference is another example of how the Europeans did not consider the Africans at all, only their own imperialist ambitions. This was also seen in how the Europeans drew arbitrary lines for their land, without thinking about established cultural or tribal lands of the Africans. McKay 7th p. 871

Oppression of Liberalism in Russia

19 12 1825 There were fires across Europe that were trying to keep conservatism as the status quo and to oppress liberalism and other new ideas. While the German states had the Carlsbad Decrees, Russia had a similar policy. Wehn 3000 liberal inspired army officers marched in St. Petersburg protesting the new tsar, they were crushed. Nicholas I, the new tsar, had troops loyal to him who attacked the revolting group of officers. 60 were dead, surviving leaders were publicly hanged, and the other survivors were exiled to Siberia. Russia was not tolerating any attempt at progress or change. McKay 11th p. 690

Romantic Music

19 1780 Music allowed romanticism to reach its highest peaks. In music, composers could stretch free expression and emotional intensity as far as they pleased. They broke traditional and defined structure to create music that would evoke many intense emotions. They also tripled the size of tradionatiol orchestras adding instruments and musicians to make the experience more powerful for the listener. This made musicians more prestigious than ever, as music became valued for itself and not its addition to a party or ceremony. Beethoven is the most famous romantic composer who used contrasting themes to make his music dramatic, full of conflicts and then satisfying resolutions. McKay 7th p. 770

Bank of France and the Bureaucracy

19 1800 "Napoleon and their bankers established the privately owned Bank of France. It served the interests of France and the few people who ran it financially. The bank allowed the government to regulate the economy and try to solve some of its financial issues. It confirmed the gains made by both the middle class and the peasants throughout the revolution, because there was now a body to ensure financial success in France.

Romantic Literature

19 1800 By 1800, romantic literature in England was was flourishing more than in any other country. While prose was written, romanticism really came through in poetry. English poets like Wordsworth and Coleridge wrote about nature with flowery language. The other ideologies of the time could be seen shining through the romantic literature. Walter Scott wrote translated the famous "Gotz von Berlichingen" by von Goethe. The story was about a knight who pushed back against the authorities and emphasized individualism. In central and eastern Europe, romantic literature often went hand in hand with nationalism. Romantic writers searched through their own histories to write unique characters which was inspiring to others. Authors like the Brothers Grimm of "Grimm's Fairy Tales" looked to old folk tales for inspiration. McKay 7th p. 768 - 770

Joseph Lister

19 1865 After Pasteur discovered that there are germs in the air. Lister realized that airborne germs could infect wounds. As a surgeon, Lister had seen lots of infections and used all of this information to theorize that a chemical disinfectant applied to a wound could kill the germs. This was known as his antiseptic principle, and it led to more surgeons discovering ways to sterilize wounds and save lives. It also led to the realization that not only wounds should be sterilized, but also hands, equipment, and clothing. McKay 7th p. 792

Women in the Merchant Class

19 1800 The status of women in industrial nations continued to fall from its already decreased standing during the Napoleonic Era. The wives and daughters of the merchant class businessmen now had fewer chances to work outside of the home. With the elimination of home based industry, women lost their position in business on top of their fewer opportunities outside of the home. Women were now mostly valued for their femininity. It was believed that women should focus on their roles as wives and mothers in the home, far away from the "undignified" and "ruthless" industrialized world. This is where women were more confined to the home than ever before in social classes besides the nobility. Men saw no place for women in this new industrialized world. McKay 7th p. 742

Civil Code of 1804

19 1804 Napoleon wanted to ensure that he had the support of the middle class. With the Civil Code of 1804, Napoleon reasserted two of the fundamental ideas of the early moderate revolution in 1789. The Code stated that all men -- meaning male humans -- were equal before the law and that all wealth and private property would be protected. This Code was part of Napoleon domestic policy that aimed to end people's problems. HE used his mass of power to do so. McKay 7th p. 712

Muhammad Ali of Egypt

19 1805 1848 Muhammad Ali was appointed by the Ottoman sultan to run Egypt. He got rid of his political rivals and began to create and Egypt that was powerful and that had a European style army. He drafted the peasants of Egypt into the army and hired Italian and French officers to come and train these new soldiers and the Turkish officers Muhammad wanted to improve. Under his leadership, Egyptian forces restored order is Muslim holy lands and conquered parts of Sudan. He was also successful in reformed the government and communication, as well as cultivating more land for farming. He had created a strong, nearly independent state, that attracted the admiration and desire of many European nations. McKay 7th p. 862 & McKay 11th p. 769

Grand Empire

19 1806 Napoleon began seeing himself as a European emperor, not just the French one (crowned himself emperor in 1804). His Grand Empire had three parts. The first one included GB, Holland, northern ITaly, and Germany east of the Rhine. The second part included dependant satellite kingdoms in which he placed loyal members of his family as the local rulers. The third part was Austria, prussia, and Russia, which were allied. Napoleon expected all of his allies and satellites to support his continental system that caused an ending of trade with GB. This had some positive effects on the non-French European people. For example, he brought French revolutionary ideals, like the ending of serfdom, to all of these locations. On the other hand, he made the people pay heavy taxes. This caused them to see Napoleon as a tyrant, and ultimately led to other revolutions spurred by their nationalism. McKay 7th p. 715 - 717

Klemens von Metternich

19 1809 1859 Metternich was an Austrian prince who started out politically as a foreign minister. As a government official, he fought to be loyal to his class and defend its rights. As a result, he was a diehard conservative and royalists, and was opposed to all liberal ideas and revolutions. He saw liberalism as the reason for all of the violence and blamed them for stirring up the lower classes, making him hate it even more. Liberalism was also dangerous to Metternich as an aristocratic Austrian. Liberals believed that each national group could create their own country, and Austria had many diverse groups and languages. If liberalism were allowed to spread in his country, Metternich could lose his privileges. Metternich was opposed to all forms of liberalism and nationalism. He was a good statesman, though, and led the Congress of Vienna to making useful and productive peace. McKay 7th p. 759 - 761

Constitutional Charter

19 1814 After Napoleon's exile to Elba, the Quadruple Alliance countries (Russia, Austria, Prussia, and GB) reinstated the Bourbon dynasty and put Louis XVIII on the throne. He tried to gain support from the people by using the Constitutional Charter, a document that acknowledged and accepted many of the new revolutionary rights that and liberties that the French had gained, and promised their continuance. The Charter Also set up a constitutional monarchy, it was similar to the one from 1791, except that fewer people could vote for representatives in the Chamber of Deputies. McKay t7h p. 718

Industrial Revolution on the Continent

19 1815 1850 The continent was far behind England in terms of industrialization because of the Napoleonic Wars. Everyone was too busy fighting Napoleon to even consider industrializing, but once he was removed from power the continent knew that they had to catch up to England. Since they were playing catch up, the governments of the continental nations knew that they would have to be more involved, so they created economic policy to help push industrialization. Prussia, for example, wanted to encourage railroad construction so they promised to pay the interest on the bonds if the private companies couldn't. This encouraged people to join the railroad industry because they knew that someone had their backs. They also had the advantage of not being the first. England had gone through iterations of technology to find which one was best, and now all the continent had to do was obtain those designs. While it was illegal to take designs out of England, many smuggled them out and other nations profited from not having to develop the technology themselves. Industrial Revolution in England v. the Continent

Italian Unification

19 1815 1870 Since 1815. Italians had begun thinking about unification. However, they were stuck under foreign rule and manipulation. The congress of Vienna just reorganized Italy, and the Italians wanted to reorganize themselves into a unified state. There were three main approaches to unficiation. The first was a grouped who looked to Sardinia-Piedmont, a powerful autocratic kingdom, to unify under. Others, under Gioberti wanted a federation of states under a progressive pope. The final approach was personified in Mazzini and it called for a democratic republic based on universal male suffrage. The leadership appeared to be the safest and best chance that the Italians had. Victor Emmanuel, the king, had kept the liberal constitution from 1848 and the people saw Sardinia as the ideal progressive state to unite them. Italy was successful in 1870. McKay 7th p. 826 - 828

Great Migration

19 1815 1932 For many, the imperialism wasn't the greatest change of this time, but western expansion that allowed for the Great Migration and increased western influence worldwide. European population more than doubled in the 19th century, and yet during the Great Migration 60 million people left Europe. The migrants went mostly to neo-Europes, or areas where the settlers were mainly European, like North and South America, Australia, New Zealand and Siberia. Across the time period, migration occurs the most in countries about 20 years after THEIR individual population grew. Many left in search of jobs, and leaving their home countries often gave them better opportunities to escape poverty. McKay 7th p. 863 - 864

European Migrants

19 1815 1932 Many Europeans at the timer were migrants, meaning that they moved temporarily to a different country but ultimately returned. This can be seen with the Italians, who were very poor and could only farm half the year in Italy. FOr the other half, many traveled to places like Brazil who needed labor after the abolishment of slavery, and they would plant there before returning to Italy to plant there. Others would move for a loner period, but them return home. Many common migrants were small peasants landowners or craftsmen who needed somewhere new to do business for a year without the threat of mass produced goods at every turn. These people there were not typically dirt poor, but usually someone trying to stay ahead of poverty so they were enthusiastic which helped the countries they went to. Very few people were true immigrants, meaning they never returned to their homecourt,. THese were typically the people who had nothing to gain from going home. Among them were Irish Catholics, and all that was left in Ireland wa eternal poverty under strict landlords. Another example was Russian Jews who were desperately trying to escape the brutality of pogroms and anti-semitism. However, as people gained more political and social rights, migration and immigration slowed. McKay 7th p. 865 - 866

Conservatism

19 1815 Conservatism was an ideology that was predated the nineteenth century as it was the ideology of absolute monarchs and the landed nobility. IT is also the ideology of the peasants who are more traditional and do not like uncertainty. Conservatism stresses the balance of power in Europe and distress the bourgeoisie because they think that they corrupt the working classes. It emphasizes the defense of the old regime and tradition, another reason that the peasants support it. Conservatism does not mix well with liberalism as liberalism is searching to establish a new order to society. It does however mix well with Romanticism as they are both backward looking ideologies. 19th Century Ideology Chart & Tom Richey "Isms" Video

French Utopian Socialism

19 1815 Early socialists had a diversity of thought that ultimately led to their destruction. There were, however, some defining characteristics. Socialists had a complete lack of trust of private property which was the reason that peasants did not support them. Peasants finally had some land and they were not willing to give it up. While they did not support a violent revolution, they did want changes in society. They saw the rich getting richer and the poor getting poorer which made them upset because they did not think that the workers were getting their fair share. They saw the workers as the doers of society and the upper classes as parasites. They advocate for a planned economy, and were some of the earliest feminists. 19th Century Ideologies Chart

Asian Imperialism

19 1815 Europeans did not limit their imperialist desires to Africa, they also extended into Asia. The Dutch owned one small island in the East Indies, and gradually obtained almost the entire archipelago. While the Dutch had control, they had to share profits with the Germans and the British. France, under Ferry, gained control of Indochina. Britain had control of India, which extended beyond modern day borders into countries like Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar. Other imperialist powers were involved in Asia that were not European, like America and Russia. America obtained the Philippines and was involved with the opening of Japan. Russia gained territory along their borders and were competing with Japan for the Korean peninsula. McKay 7th p. 872

Liberalism

19 1815 Liberalism supported liberty and equality. By equality, they wanted equality under the law and a representative government. By liberty, they wanted freedoms of speech, press, assembly, and from arbitrary arrests. Liberalism was a upper middle class ideology, and as such supported laissez faire capitalism. Liberals did not want universal suffrage. They were definitely misogynistic and did not believe in a woman's right to vote, but they're= also did not want all men to be able to vote. They wanted their to be property qualification to vote, as they had a similar view as the Enlightenment philosophies. They saw themselves as educated and progressive, but everyone else is incapable of reaching their level. McKay 7th p. 762 & 19th Century Ideologies Chart

Nationalism

19 1815 Nationalism, like all new ideologies of the 19th century, rose after Napoleon's fall in 1815. While there were many factors leading up to nationalism, the immediate ones were the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars. Nationalists found unity in common language, history, culture, and territory. They wanted political borders to mirror the cultural groups so that each culture could thrive as a nation. AMass education was also introduced by the nationalists as a way to ensure that everyone spoke the same language instead of a bunch of little dialects. Nationalists also united their people through history, and created holidays for independence and patriotism, like Bastille Day in France. Nationalists also had a we-they outlook on the world, seeing themselves and their nation against everyone else. All classes were involved in nationalism. McKay 7th p. 762 - 764 & 19th Century Ideologies Chart

Republicanism

19 1815 Republicanism was an ideology pushing for representative governments and constitutions. They also wanted the government to abolish slavery and the death penalty. While they supported capitalism, they wanted the government to moderate it so the rich didn't just get richer and the poor poorer. They were advocating for national workshops to ensure employment. They also wanted safer working conditions for those working in factories. There were two groups of republicans. The moderates were middle class people and they did not support universal male suffrage, much like the liberals. The radicals were the lower classes and the craft unions and they wanted the right to vote to be extended to all men. 19th Century Ideologies Chart

Robert Owen

19 1815 Robert Owen was a successful cotton manufacturer who was against child labor. He believed that employing kids under the age of ten was hurtful to them and of not benefit to the manufacturer. In his mills, he was no longer employing young children and instead advocated for them to go to school. He actually cared about the health, safety, and hours of his workers. Owen was responsible for the creation of the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union, the largest union created yet (1834). While it collapsed, the British labor movement was working in the right direction. McKay 7th p. 746 & 749

Concordat of 1801

19 7 15 1801 In 1800, the French Catholic clergy was still split between those who took the oath of loyalty to France and those who did not. Napoleon didn't care about religion, but wanted peace within the Catholic Church so that there could be peace and order among the people. He signed this Concordat with Pope pius VII to do just that. It gaev French Catholics the opportunity to worship freely, but all political power went to Napoleon. HE could now nominate the bishops, pay the clergy, and exert his influence a over the Church. McKay 7th p. 713 - 714

Tariff Protections

19 1815 The continent was far behind England on industrialization and needed to catch up quickly. As a result, their governments were more involved in industrialization on the continent than they had been in England. One way that the government got involved was through tariffs. After Napoleon lost power, the Continental System crumbled and continental nations were hit with an influx of cheap British goods. The tariffs made the British goods much more expensive and made the continental goods cheaper, soothe people began buying their own domestic goods. This allowed the nations on the continent to industrialize faster, without the threat of losing to British goods. McKay 7th p. 738

Corn Laws

19 1815 When Napoleon was in power, he had the Continental System against England which didn't allow her to export or import any goods. As a result, whatever trade laws they had were unimportant since the only grain people could buy was English anyway. When Napoleon was exiled and the Continental System was taken down, the landed aristocracy worried that they would lose all business since cheap grain could be imported from other nations. As a result, they pushed laws through Parliament that made it illegal to import any grain unless the domestic price got exorbitantly high. This was a revision to the preexisting Corn Laws. This law only benefited the landowners, but hurt everyone else because of the high food prices. There was an Anti-Corn Law League that rose to try and get them repealed. At the same time, there was the Irish Potato Famine was threatening to result in English starvation, not only Irish. As a result, the Tory Prime Minister Robert Peel temporarily removed the Corn Laws to prevent a famine. While this helped many, it also resulted in the permanent divide in the Tory party between the landowning Tories and everyone else. McKay 7th p. 773 & Victorian Britain Reading

Fritz Harkort

19 1816 Harkort served as an officer in the English army during the Napoleonic Wars. He saw the English advancements and was determined to see Germany make all of the same advancements as soon as possible. He created hs workplace in the Ruhr Valley in the hope to build steam engines and become the german equivalent of Watt. It was difficult because there were not skilled laborers who could build the engines, so he had to spend a lot of money to import them from England. He also had to spend a lot of money to import the necessary materials like iron boilers. He was able to pull it off though, and successfully built and sold engines, becoming famous. However, he was too ambitious and he was forced out of his company by its finances due to too much loss. McKay 7th p. 738

John Cockerill

19 1817 John's father, William, built cotton spinning equipment in Belgium in 1799, despite it being illegal under British law to take any of the new technologies out of Britain. In 1817, John bought a palace and converted it into a factory that built machinery, steam engines, and trains. John Cockerill also established coal mines and ironworks. Cockerill's plant was constantly gathering new information and then spreading t across Europe. he attracted many British workers who came illegally to work for him. They brought with them the latest secrets to british industry. Cockerill would brag that only ten days after a new advancement in England, he would have it in Belgium. McKay 7th p. 738

Stephenson's Rocket

19 1825 In coal mines, the miners had been uses plank roads and rails to move coal wagons and effectively reduce friction, making the movements easier. Once a rail that was sturdy enough to support a train was developed, inventors began experimenting with steam engines to see what could happen. After 10 years, George Stephenson built a useable locomotive called Rocket that moved at 16 miles per hour. This new locomotive operated on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, and was the world's first important railroad. Seeing its success, many private companies built more railways and within 20 years, the main lines of Britain were laid. McKay 7th p. 732

French Revolution of 1830

19 1830 After the French Revolution, France was the largest nationalist country. Louis XVIII passed the COnstitutional Charter which created a constitutional monarchy to guarantee the people's civil rights. Louis XVI's brother, Charles X was a conservative reactionary who wanted to take France back to the times of Luis XIV. A liberal majority was elected to Parliament in 1830, and in response Charles X made many changes. He restricted voting rights, censored the press, dissolved parliament, changed the laws to make sure that a conservative majority was elected, and most importantly revoked the Constitutional Charter. The liberals revolted in the "Three Glorious Days" causing Charles X to flee and in his place was Louis Philippe, a king who promised to uphold the Constitutional Charter. He also adopted the French flag and extended voting rights to very few more people. This ended divine right and firmly established the fact the government is ruled by the people, and right now the people ruling it are the middle class. 19th Century Revolutions

Class Consciousness

19 1830 As factories got larger, opportunities got smaller because it was harder to enter industry without a connection. It was no longer easy for a poor worker to start a small business and end up a wealthy merchant. People began relying more on connections or family positions. Additionally, formal education for men was becoming important to be successful and to advance in business, but the upper levels of education were expensive which was a barrier to many poor workers. By 1830 in England, it was more common that leading businessmen had inherited an already successful business, not built it from the bottom up themselves. All of these things, and industrialization in general, widened the gap between the rich and the poor, and there was a sense of class consciousness. The workers and the owners were aware of the gap between them and the shoperes that they were supposed to stay in. McKay 7th p. 742

Auguste Comte

19 1830 Comte was an early social scientist who was originally a student of Saint-Simon. In Comte's book, System of Positive Philosophy, he argued that all intellectual activity has predictable stages. He noted how the explanation of the universe shifted between stages from theological to metaphysical to scientific. By using the scientific method and his argument, Comte believed that he could find the eternal laws of human relationships. Comte's ideas of knowledge stages was just another way that the obsession with evolution manifested. McKay 7th p. 813 - 814

Joseph Fouche

19 7 1804 6/00/1810 Since Napoleon was busy with war, he left duties such as law and order to various ministers. Fouche was the minister of police and had a reputation for brutality that he acquired in the Reign of Terror. Under his rule, the people were under 24/7 police surveillance through his spy system. Anyone suspected of unlawful activities was arbitrarily detained and put under house arrest or into a mental institution. McKay t7h p. 714

Corporate Banks

19 1830 Corporate banks played a big role in industrialization on the continent. Previously, most banks were private and therefore conservative with loans since they could lose everything from a bad investment. Belgium was the first to get permission for a corporate bank in which there were stockholders who held limited liability because they could only lose the amount they agreed to put in. With reduced risk, Belgian banks got many investors, large and small, and they were able to promote industrialization. These kinds of banks also developed in Germany and France. In France, Isaac and Emile Pereire created the Credit Mobilier of Paris. This bank accumulated thousands from many small investors, and also had the resources of a few large stocks. The Credit Mobilier helped to promote railroad building. McKay 7th p. 740

Charles Fourier

19 1830 Fourier was one of the early French utopian socialists. He disapproved of the urban wage system and instead wanted there to be small self-sufficient communities who worked both agricultural and industrially to support themselves. Fourier was also critical of family and marriage, believing that marriages were just like prostitution. He saw women "sold" for dowries and advocated for the complete abolition of marriage as a result. He wasn't unions to be based on love and freedom. Many middle class people found this idea too radical ad were hesitant to see the liberation of women and workers. As a result, many did not support him. McKay 7th p. 764 - 765

Condition in 1830's Cities

19 1830 Towns in pre and post industrial Europe had bad conditions for its people who lived and worked there. There were more people who died in the towns than that died in the rural areas. Disease spread quickly through the crowded streets. Especially as industrialization increased jobs in the cities and urban populations grew, these problems became even worse. Most people lived in small cellars or attics with large families. In the 1820s and 30s people in England and France became aware that the conditions were ghastly. One big concern was the sewers. Along the streets ran the sewers, and the outhouses that did exist were often shared by many people. These outhouses filled up and overflowed, resulting in sewage seeping into cellar homes. McKay 7th p. 788 - 790

Charles Darwin

19 1831 In 1831, Darwin went on a five year journey as an official naturalist and collected many samples of the plant and wildlife that he encountered. Once home in England, after studying his amples, Darwin became doubtful that a supreme being was created everything. On the contrary, he believed that all life had evolved from a common ancestor in a constant battle to survive. Thi was put into his book, "On the Origin of the Species," published in 1859. Influenced by Malthus, he concluded that only the strongest and most easily adaptable animals survived. Sine those traits of strength and adaptability were the only ones that survived, the offspring got it and it real\ulted in a stronger species. Due to his great impact, Darwin became known as "the Newton of Biology." McKay 7th p. 814 - 815

Factory Act of 1833

19 1833 Working conditions in industrial England were appalling, and any children were employed in these dangerous conditions. The Factory Act of 1833 was the first piece of legislation passed to try and improve the working conditions of the people. The Act limited the workday of children between 9 and 13 to eight hours per day. For people aged 14 to 18, the work day was now limited to 12 hours. This act only applied to kids to worked in factories though, and the Act did nothing to help kids who worked at home or in small businesses. The factory owners were also made to create elementary schools for children under nine. This Act resulted in the disbanding of whole families working in the factories. Women now had to choose between staying at home to care for the kids or hiring someone on the already limited wages to babysit. McKay 7th p. 746

Zollverein

19 1834 The Zollverein was a customs union between Prussia and the German Federation that excluded Austria. The customs union set tariffs collectively on all foreign goods and established free trade within the Zollverein. This allowed for the German economies to grow without the threat of cheap British goods. Since the countries were each pretty small, it was helpful to be able to trade freely within themselves so that the people could get all of the goods they needed without Britain. Friedrich List was an advocate of the Zollverein as he believed that high protective tariffs were important to allow other nations to grow and develop without the threat of England. McKay 7th p. 739 & Industrial Revolution in England v. the Continent

Victorian Era

19 1837 1901 AScending to the throne at age 18, Victoria became England's longest reigning monarch. In her youth, she was dominated by her mother and her chief advisor John Conroy. As a queen, however, she was very active politically but was still cognizant of her advisors. The era of her reign in known as the Victorian Era and is characterized by religion. There was a strict observance of the Sabbath, bible study, family devotions, appropriate dress, morals, and manners. At the same time, the era was highly optimistic and looked toward progress. Many famous authors flourished under her rule, like Darwin and Tennyson. It was during Victoria's reign that the monarchy's power was reduce. By the end of her era, the monarchy was more of a symbol and an advisory for the monarchy, not a power executive branch. During this era, was also the time when the precedent was set that the monarch chooses the prime minister from the majority Parliament house. Victorian Britain Reading

Chartist Movement

19 1838 The Chartist movement was a result of popular agitation. At the core of their grievance, Chartists wanted universal male suffrage. They petitioned Parliament three times for suffrage, and the third time they ever collected 2,000 signatures. However, Parliament declined every time. The Chartists, led by William Lovett and Francis Place drafted "The People's Charter" that summed up their ideas and the ideas of 19th century liberalism. There were six point to the Charter: universal male suffrage, equal electoral districts, secret ballots, annual general elections, no property qualifications to be a Parliament member, and payment for Parliament members. THe salaries for Parliament members was important because before it was essentially a volunteer job and one had to be able to leave their jobs to serve. Now that it's like a job, more people can be part of Parliament. McKay 7th p. 775 & Victorian Britain

Opium Wars

19 1839 1860 Trade with China was very difficult as the government strictly regulated foreign trade. The British, though, introduced opium they grew in India to the Chinese and got many Chinese people addicted to smoking it. The Chinese government made it illegal because not only did they dislike the practice, it was causing China to lose silver. All of the silver was being used to buy opium from the British. In 1839, the government began to prosecute drug dealers in China and decreed that all foreign countries had to follow their laws, which meant not selling opium. The BRitish merchants would not stop selling, so they were kicked out of China which sparked the war. Using Indian troops, England took control of the seas and occupied Chinese coastal cities. The Chinese were forced to surrender and agree to the Treaty of Nanking which opening four cities to foreign trade with low tariffs, and more importantly gave the island of Hong Kong to England. McKay 7th p. 860

Tanzimat

19 1839 There was a growing political and economic competition between the Europeans and the Ottomans because the Europeans preferred a weak Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans knew that they had to catch up to the Western Europeans powers to keep their strength and try to keep their respect. As a result, they launched the Tanzimat, meaning reorganization, which implemented reforms to modernize the Ottoman Empire based on the West. The height of these Tanzimat reforms was with sultan Mejid, who passed the Imperial Rescript after the Crimean War. This law created equality in front of the law for all regardless of religion, modernized the army, and allowed for private property. The Ottomans also used free trade policies to pay for the Crimean War and removed tariffs to allow for foreign merchants to enter and trade. McKay 11th p. 769

Realism

19 1840 1910 The historical context of realism included the industrialization of Europe and the 1848 revolutions. Realism focused on representing ordinary people and aspects of life realistically. There was an emphasis on realistically portraying the working class that had previously been ignored in art, and the harsh condition they were living in working in as a result of the Industrial Revolution. The literature was written more objectively than the ROmantics who infused lots of emotion, and was more often written in prose. Realistic literature also explored taboo subjects like sex, strikes, alcoholism, and violence. In art. realism is characterized by dark colors, shadows, depth perception, perspective, anti-institutional, and the focus on the ordinary person in his daily life. McKay 7th p. 815 - 817 & Realism Presentation

Friedrich List and Economic Liberalism

19 1841 List was a major proponent of the growth of industry in Germany, as he saw it as the best way to reduce poverty. He was also a nationalist who believed that promoting industry defended the nation. This was because a poor and agricultural nation was weak and could not protect its independence, so a nation must be industrialized to be strong and protective of its indepedance.In his book, National System of Political Economy, he focuses on the need for railroads and tariffs. List did not believe in the British system of free trade, and believed that tariffs were necessary protection. This became known as economic nationalism. McKay 7th p. 739 - 740

Edwin Chadwick

19 1842 Chadwick was a Benthamite, meaning he believed that all public problems should be dealt with scientifically to bring the most good tpo the most people. He used this idea in his job as a British commissioner. He believed that disease and death caused poverty because people who are sick can not work and orphaned children are doomed to be poor. He collected reports from Poor law offices and published his finding which proved that disease was linked to dirty environments which were actually caused by poor sewer systems and lack of garbage collection. His report became the foundation for England's first public health bill which created a national board of health and gave cities the ability to improve sanitary conditions. McKay 7th p. 791

Mines Act of 1842

19 1842 In the English Mining industry, all people contributed to the backbreaking labor. Many women and girls had to drag carts, without wheels, filled with coal through the underground passages. The job was hard and the heat was excruciating, so many workers, male and female, worked with very little clothes on. Most women worked for family members, so this was not an issue but there were still some miners who were opposed to women working in the mines. As a result, Parliament the Mines Act which outlawed underground work for all women and boys under ten. If the women were in families who could still manage financially, they were usually happy with the law. However, there were some self-supporting women who were mad at this law because underground mining offered some of the highest possible wages for a working class woman. McKay 7th p. 748

Austrian Revolution of 1848

19 1848 "Austria was very diverse culturally, which made nationalism dangerous to them. IF they allowed any revolutions to break out, the Habsburgs were at risk of losing all of their power. There was still serfdom in Austria and a corrupt government, which made the people even more willing to revolt. There were beginning revolts in Vienna, causing the emperor to end serfdom which made the peasants lose interest in the revolution. At the same time, the working class began making more socialist demands, making the middle class try and separate themselves. There was also a major revolt happening in Hungary, as the Hungarians became much more nationalist. The conservative regin pit all of these nationalist groups against each other to make them all weaker.

German Revolution of 1848

19 1848 Frederick William IV was the Prussian king and he was very conservative, relying on the Junkers. Inspired by the February revolts in France, there were various riots in Prussia, despite the strength of the Prussian army and economy. Prussian liberals also wanted a constitutional monarchy. Frederick William IV agreed, and the Constituent Assembly met in BErlin to start and write the constitution. At the same time, middle class Germans met in a National Convention to write a German constitution intended to placate the radicals with universal suffrage, among other liberal ideas for the middle class as well. The National Convention began arguing with =Denmark over Schleswig-Holstein. The Germans believed it was Germany, so they asked the Prussian military to invade. There was no international support, and Frederick William IV used this to show Germany's weakness and he created a separate treaty with Denmark. Frederick William deposed the Parliament that the Constituent Assembly in Prussia had created, and he refused to become the constitutional monarch of a unified Germany. Frederick William reasserted himself by divine right. Radicals created barricades, but the Prussian army destroyed them. Austria forced Prussia to renounce any ideas of unification. 19th Century Revolutions

Marxist Socialism

19 1848 Marxist socialism was created by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels Communist Manifesto. Marx believed that the interests of the working and middles classes were inherently opposed and that there would be a violent revolution of the working class to take power away from the middle class. He believed that this uprising would be throughout Europe as the working class revolts against their exploitation by the middle class. He saw an abolishment of government after the revolution because it would eliminate all social classes and issues. Marx also believed that capitalism would self-destruct. Marx saw all capitalist profit as stolen wages from the workers. He believed that family and marriage should be illegal. He was also a women's rights advocate. 19th Century Ideologies Chart

Italian Revolution of 1848

19 1848 Since the Habsburg-Valois Wars, Italy had been ruled by foreign power. Lombardy, Venetia, and Milan were ruled by Habsburgs, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was ruled by a Bourbon. This made Italy the perfect location for the rise of liberalism and nationalism. The nationalists and liberals convinced the rulers of Sardinia-Piedmont to pass a constitution. They also ensured civil liberties and a Parliament. To meet the desires of the conservatives who wanted an end to foreign rule, the leaders of Sardinia-Piedmont to declare war on Austria. The Austrian forces were much stronger, and Charles Albert, the leader of Sardinia-Piedmont, had to abdicate to his son Victor Emmanuel II. Mazzini and Garibaldi attempted to make Rome a republic, which forced the pope to flee. This made the French troops enter Italy and restore the Papal Laws.These revolutions ultimately failed because of the lack of leadership administration, a divided revolting group, and a disinterest in the revolutions by the peasants. 19th Century Revolutions

Camillo Benso di Cavour and the War with Austria

19 1850 1861 For eleven years, Cavour was the leading politician in the Sardinian government. While he was from a noble family, Cavour embraced the economic doctrines and practices of the middle class. Cavour worked very hard to create a Sardinian state ruled by a constitution that would be strong enough to unite northern Italy. He gained Northern support by opposing clerical privileges, building better infrastructure, and by expanding civil liberties. avour knew that he couldn't get Austria out of Lombardy and Venetia alone, so he looked to Napoleon III. In a secret agreement, Napoleon agreed to back Sardinia after Cavour initiated war with Austria. However, Napoleon all of a sudden decided that he didn't want a powerful southern neighbor, so he made another secret agreement, but this time with the Austrians. The Treaty of Villafranca in 1859 left Sardinia with Lombardy only, and the rest of Italy was unchanged. Cavour resigned in a fury, but ultimately returned to power when the people in Northern Italy voted to unite. McKay 7th p. 828

Care for Infants

19 1850 AS health improved and more kids lived past early stages of childhood and mothers were forced to stay home as young kids were no longer allowed in factories, parental affection increased. One example is how more women began breastfeeding their children instead of hiring wet nurses. An author name Droz was successful in encouraging father to spend time with their babies. There was also a decrease in illegitimate births, especially in France. THis doesn't mean that there was no premarital sex, just that men started marrying the women they impregnated out of wedlock again. Additionally, people stopped the practice of swaddling and let their children move freely. Women began to enjoy being mothers. McKay 7th p. 810

White Collar Workers

19 1850 After industrialization, the lower middle class was growing and diversifying. As a result, white collar workers -- salesmen, bookkeepers, store managers, clerks, and more -- became more common. These white collar workers had no land and were usually not paid more than a skilled or semi-skilled worker. Despite this wage equality, white collar workers were committed to the idea of a middle class and moving up in society. As an example, in the Balkans clerks grew their fingernails out to show that they were not laborers. Some white collar groups were trying for better positions in society. Elementary school teachers gained a more respectable status and so did the nurses. Dentistry also became a middle class educated job, not a job for barbers. McKay 7th p. 797 - 798

Lower Class Women

19 1850 Among the unskilled workers, was a large group of domestic service made up of many women. The work was hard, the pay was low, and there was the constant danger of possible sexual exploitation. The women working as domestic servants were constantly cooking, cleaning, babysitting, and shopping. Despite the hardships, many country girls came to cities to work since they were already used to the hard work required to work and could at least make some money. It was also easier to find a husband in the city than in the country. Other women worked at home in smaller versions of the cottage industry and were paid by the piece of clothing. McKay 7th p. 802 - 803

Separate Spheres

19 1850 By 1850, distinctly separate spheres for men and women grew. The men earned the money through their jobs in factories and offices and the women stayed home and managed the household and children. There were very few industries where it was like pre industrial times when men and women worked side by side, and factory employment for married women decreased as factories no longer hired whole families. The only places in which women were expected to work outside of the home in we're the very poor families. Married women were by law inferior to their husbands and lacked many legal rights. If she managed to get permission from her husband to work and find a job, all of her wages went to the husband, WOmen also acked rights regarding property, divorce, and child custody. While the separate spheres were not ideal, women dod gain more control in the household as it became their stronghold. Many women were wholly in charge of organizing the finances and the sentiment that behind every man is a stronger woman began in this time as well. McKay 7th p. 807

Middle Class Marriage

19 1850 By 1850, marriages for love were becoming much more common, however the middle class still had major economic considerations when it came to marriages. Marriage was seen as an economic transaction, and many middle class men always had money on the mind. As a result, the men, especially in France, tended to marry late and choose young wives leading to matrimonial tensions. Romantic life before marriage looked different for middle class boys and girls. Boys were watched, but not too closely, and usually had some amount of sexual experience before marriage. This was usually with prostitutes or servants. The girls were watched vigilantly, mostly by their mothers. Her mother was looking for the best marriage. so the girl had to stay a virgin. Once the girl was married, her loyalty to her husband became the next great thing to protect. McKay 7th p. 805

Working Class Leisure

19 1850 For the working class, while drinking was still a large activity heavy drinking declined as it became less socially acceptable. THis was in part due to the strict morality of the upper classes. Simultaneously, drinking became more social as pubs and cafes become more welcoming and drinking as a couple did as well. Sports and music halls also rose in popularity as leisure activities. The cruel sports like bull baiting lost popularity and were replaced by more civilized sports like soccer and racing. Music halls were the working class equivalent of the opera. These halls were very popular and did not shy away from controversial topics lie sex, pregnancy before marriage, marriage problems, and issues with mothers-in-law. McKay 7th p. 804

Labor Aristocracy

19 1850 The highly skilled members of the working class made up the labor aristocracy. The highest up in this class were the construction bosses and factory foreman, as well as the highly skilled handicraft workers whose crafts had not been mechanized. The labor aristocracy was constantly growing as more and more non-mechanized artisans, like shipbuilders, entered the field. These men had raised through the ranks and they were protective of their new status. They had a strict rule of stands to maintain their superiority. They were dedicated to family and education, strictly moral, valued good housing, and saved money. People would judge others who did not meet the standards. They also had definite political and philosophical beliefs. McKay 7th p. 799 & 802

Care for Adolescents

19 1850 The love begin given to the infants carried over into adolescence. Older kids now had more supportive families. There was actually a reduction in family series, which was a result of parents wanting to allow their kids to improve in the social and economic worlds. Since there were less kids, parents could give their children more. Kids now had music lessons, summer vacations, college educations, and dowries. However, especially among the middle class not the upper and upper-middle classes, became too concerned about their older kids. It resulted in intense pressure for the kids. McKay 7th p. 811

Children's Relationships with their Fathers

19 1850 There were strict gender roles even in the expectations of parental relationships. It was thought that the mother naturally loved the child and that the father was more of a stranger. People believed that a man's world of business made him far away from the mother's world of affection. The fathers were also demanding and expected their children to succeed in all areas. This made the love of a father conditional and kids had to work for it. The strain of a father-child relation and it destructive qualities was so common and prominent that it became the topic of novels. The Brothers Karamazov by Fyodor Dostoevsky explored four sons who are working against their father, whether they know it or not. McKay 7th p. 811 - 812

Feminism

19 1850 There were two main responses to the decreasing rights of women ithin the new feminist movement. The first was a middle class movement following in the footsteps of Mary Wollstonecraft. They fought for equal legal rights and access to higher education. THey also wanted unmarried women and widows to be able to adequately support themselves. They were not successful until about 1880 when married English women won property rights. The second movement was inspired by socialism and did not agree with the middle class movement. These women argued that the only way to liberate working class women would be to liberate the entire working class. For those reasons, they had to work for socialism. McKay 7th p. 807 - 808 & McKay 11th p. 741

Middle Class Values

19 1850 While the middle class was divided into its upper, middle, and lower parts, it was overall united by by a code of morality and behavior. This code stressed hard work, self-discipline, and personal achievement. If people were criminals they were held accountable for their actions. The middle class stood by traditional Christian morality which heavily denounced drinking and gambling. Sexual purity and loyalty in marriage were considered to be the highest of virtues. The people were expected to know right from wrong and act accordingly. McKay 7th p. 798

"Opening" of Japan

19 1853 Japan had a strict policy of isolationism, but the United States wanted to open Japanese ports to the world and bring Japan into the ":civilized: world. This was clearly motivated by imperialist and Social Darwinist beliefs. When the Americans had no luck diplomatically, they sent Matthew Perry to Tokyo Bay to demand negotiations with the emperor. While there were many who were not in favor, the leading officials realized how vulnerable they were to a naval attack, so they negotiated. They signed a treaty that opened up two ports for trade and the rights of traders expanded over the next few years. America "opened" Japan for trade using only the threat of war. McKay 7th p. 861

Rebuild of Paris

19 1853 Napoleon III of France thought that rebuilding Paris would lead to more jobs and better conditions, and also glorify his country. He placed Georges Haussmann in charge of the rebuild. Under Haussmann, entire buildings were destroyed in order to create straight roads through the center of the city, as well as side quarters. These roads were wider, not only to prevent the building of barricades but also to allow traffic to flow easier. While doing all of this, some of the worst Parisian slums were destroyed which allowed for nicer housing typically inhabited by the middle class. Haussmann also built in parks to allow for leisure and community activities. McKay 7th p. 792

Crimean War

19 1854 1856 This war was started by the decline in power of the Ottoman Empire and and Russian desire for more water control. England was threatened by Russian expansion due to their large presence in India. There was a debate between Orthodox and Catholic clergy over who would control the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, which was on Turkish territory. France sided with the Catholics and the Russians with the Orthodox, and Tsar Nicholas I moved his troops into Turkish principalities. The Ottomans and the French were now at war and when the Russians sank a Turkish fleet England and France declared war on Russia. The war ended when Austria entered and forced Russia to leave the Turkish principalities. In the Treaty of Paris, Russia had to give up its claim to protect Orthodox rights in the Ottoman Empire and they had to stay out of the Black Sea. The Treaty also upheld the independence of the Ottoman Empire. Victorian Britain Reading p. 245 - 246

Louis Pasteur

19 1854 Pasteur was a French chemist who developed a way for brewers to monitor fermentation and to prevent the brews from spoiling. He discovered that fermentation depended on living organisms and that the organisms can be stopped by heating the liquid. This is now known as pasteurization. From this process, it was discovered that diseases were caused by these same living organisms, known as germs. This led to the development of the germ theory and the thought that germs can be controlled in people just like in drinks. McKay 7th p. 791

Great Rebellion

19 1857 1858 By 1848, the British East India Company conquered the last independent state in India. However the traditionals were not okay with this, and they tried to force out the English using military force. This rebellion, also known as the Sepoy Rebellion, was also caused by the new ammunition given to the soldiers. Many of the soldiers were Hindu or Muslim Indians, and the new ammunition was supposedly greased with pork or beef fat and the only way to uncap the ammunition was to use your teeth. With this offensive move and the increased English power, the Hindu and Muslim soldiers were the ones to revolt. It took ENgland a full 10 months to subdue this widespread rebellion. Once they did, the English used this rebellion as an excuse to rule India more directly. From spring of 1858 until they left for good, the English had complete economic and political control over India. McKay 7th p. 878 & Imperialism PowerPoint

Second Industrial Revolution

19 1860 1914 There was a second Industrial Revolution, this time led by the United States and Germany. It was started by a sudden increase in industrial creativity and new and improved technologies, and it allowed for economic growth throughout the last part of the 19th century. That economic growth allowed for urban reform and rising standards of living. With the rising standards of living came the push for new and beneficial technology to help all, not just the rich. These technologies included indoor plumbing, street cars, and electricity. McKay 11th p. 743 & Industrial Revolution in England v. the Continent

Abolishment of Serfdom in Russia

19 1861 Tsar Alexander II abolished serfdom, but not because he was the most liberal ruler ever. It was in response to growing serf rebellions and runaways, as well as the decrease in its profitability.The Law of 19 of February was the official law that ended serfdom in Russia. The serfs got about 1/2 of the land, and the land was owned collectively. However the peasants had to pay high sums for this land, and that was challenging because of collective ownership. This collective ownership made it hard for individual Russians to leave their villages or make agricultural improvements. Even though they were emancipated from serfdom, the like of the new Russian peasants was still very hard. McKay 7th p. 835 & McKay 11th p. 766 - 767

Otto von Bismarck

19 1862 1890 King Wilhelm I brought Bismarck in to the government to lead a ministry to defy the Prussian Parliament. In addition to pride from his noble heritage, Bismarck was a steadfast supporter of the Prussian king. He had lots of passion and was stubborn, which helped him in his quest for German unification. One of his most impressive traits was how flexible he was. While he was a conservative, he knew that he had to look at all options for success and kept all windows open. While at first the people opposed him they grew to appreciate his dedication to the cause. Bismarck is considered to be one of the three most important German figures in history (Bismarck, Luther, Hitler). McKay 7th p. 830

Schleswig-Holstein and Austro-Prussian Wars

19 1864 1866 The Danish king tried again to take the land of Schleswig-Holstein to be put under Danish rule. Prussia and Austria actually allied in this war and quickly put down Denmark. despite their help, Bismarck thought that he had to keep Austria away because he was convinced that only Prussia should rule the Northern, or the German Confederation. Only two years later, he fought a seven week war against the Austrians. The Prussians used their superior weapons and railroads to outmaneuver the Austrians. As a result, Austria agreed to stay out of German affairs. While Austria lost no land to Bismarck, Venetia did go to Italy. Finally, the German COnfederation was dissolved and the North German Confederation was created. McKay 7th p. 830

Contagious Diseases Act

19 1864 1886 During this time, people became more concerned with their health and with public health. In response, the government especially focused on prostitutes who they believed were major players in spreading disease. With the British Contagious Diseases Acts, prostitutes were placed under more surveillance and police man dressed as regular people required "common prostitute" to be medically examined biweekly. If there were any signs of an STD, they were sent to a hospital until they outward signs of it were gone. There was a group of feminists who were advocating for the prostitutes from the beginning saying that the law abused than women, violated their constitutional rights, and made it okay for men to have immoral behaviors. PArliament repealed the bill. McKay 11th p. 736

Zemstvo

19 1864 Part of Alexander II's reforms was the zemstvo, a form of local government. Members of the zemstvo were elected through a three class system that included towns, communes/villages for peasants, and the landowners. There were district, provincial, and federal branches and each branch elected the one higher than it, while the district was elected by the people. The zemstvo was successful in creating local initiative, and bringing education, food reserves, improved infrastructure, medicine, and insurance to the people. However, it was no match for the bureaucracy and strong nobility. The court system reforms were much more effective than the creation of the zemstvo. McKay 7th p. 835 & Russian Monarchs Chart

Leopold II of Belgium

19 1865 1909 Leopold II thought that colonies were important to his country's future, but his government and people did not support this choice. As a result, he created a private company called the International African Association and hired Henry Stanley to go into the Congo and create a colony. Stanley was able to establish trading posts agree to "treaties" with African kings to accumulate lots of land. He ruled this colony independently and his ambition made the rest of Europe worried. His first step into africa made the other European nations worried about power, and because of him all of the countries rushed into Africa to claim territory. McKay 7th p. 869 & Imperialism PowerPoint

Women's Suffrage Movement

19 1865 1918 The suffrage movement was the broadest expression of feminism in the last half of the 19th century. In 1865, John Stuart Mill in Parliament tried to get them to change the word man to person in the voting rights laws. While he was turned down, many local suffrage movements began to be created. In 1897 all of the local groups joined a national organization called The National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies. This organization was not able to make much progress, but they worked tirelessly for thee right to vote. The movement was split in two in 1903 when Emmeline Pankhurst formed the Women's Social and Political Union. These were the more radical and militant women who gained the title of suffragettes. One of the biggest things that the women used to tried to be heard was interrupting political meetings, especially before elections. The women tended to be arrested, and once in jail they would go on hunger strikes. It took until 1918 for English women to be able to vote. Victorian Britain Packet p. 252 - 253

Constitution for the North German Confederation

19 1866 After victory in the Austro-Prussian War, Bismarck wrote a constitution for the newly created North German Confederation. In this constitution, it becomes clear that Bismarck was willing to make liberal concessions in order to achieve his dream of a unified Germany. Each state had its own local government, but the king of Prussia became the president of the confederation. The federal government, which was only the king and the chancellor (Bismarck) were in charge of foreign affairs. The legislature had two houses. The first house had delegates appointed by the states, but the second house had delegated elected through universal male suffrage. The first house is clearly conservatively based, but the second is liberal; a good compromise. McKay 7th p. 831

The Creation of Austria-Hungary

19 1866 With Russia's help in 1849, Austria repressed the independence of their subjects, the Hungarians. However, the Hungarians never stopped wanting freedom from Austrian rule. After the Austro-Prussian War, Austria was seriously weakened and they were forced to make an agreement with HUngary to create a dual monarchy, known as Austria-Hungary, While both states shared ministries of finance, foreign affairs, a few more, and both had Franz-Joseph as their executive, each state had their own domestic rule. The vast amount of nationalities within Austria did not change, even with the separation of Hungary, and Austria now had to rule by decree to get anything done due to the competing ethnicities, and even economic nationalism failed to unite them. In Hungary, there were many other nationalities besides for Hungarian and those nationalistites hated Hungarian rule as much as they hated Austrian rule. Only 1/4 of the men could vote, even though they had reinstated the constitution of 1848. McKay 7th p. 844 & Responsive National State Notes

Impressionism and Post-Impressionism

19 1867 1905 From 1867 - 1886 was the artistic time period known as impressionism. It was created with the backdrop of an increasingly hectic world from the Second Industrial Revolution, state controlled artistic academies, and the need for less realism in art due to the invention of the camera. Impression is characterized by uncommon angles, everyday subjects, emotional intensity, thin brush strokes, a focus on movement, and a focus on the impact of light. Post Impressionism was from 1886 - 1905. The subjects painted in this time were even less realistic than the ones painted during impressionism. Figures were reduced to a more basic shape, the colors were not as harsh, it captures fleeting moment and symbolism, and exemplified pointillism. Both art movements were expressed through literature, music, art and painting, but literature was more of a post-impressionism medium and music was more of an impressionism medium as music does not change as quickly as other art forms. Impressionism PowerPoint

Benjamin Disraeli of England

19 1868 1881 Disraeli began as a radical, but his support of imperialism drew him to conservatism. He ended up leading the conservative party, the Tories, as Prime Minister of England. While in office, he was able to institute many reforms. He gained control of the Suez Canal stock, and led England during the Berlin Conference. He also passed the Public Health Act which improved sanitation in homes and factories. There had been a Reform Bill of 1867 which loosened the property requirements to vote, allowing more of the labor aristocracy and almost all of the middle class to vote. While this expansion resulted in the election of mainly liberal people, Disraeli teamed up with Gladstone in 1884 to further extend voting rights. This bill allowed for universal male suffrage and was lobbied for by the Chartists. Responsive National State Notes

William Gladstone of England

19 1868 1898 Gladstone was a Tory who became a Whig party leader. He was more of a liberal, as he opposed imperialism and the oppression of other people. As prime minister, Gladstone instituted many reforms. He ended the Anglican Church's superiority in mainly Catholic Ireland, passed the Education Act of 1870 that gave free public education to all, and simplified the court system. He also passed the Ballot Act that created the secret ballot. This was important because men really had the right to vote for whoever they wanted, and no one with authority over them could intimidate them or discriminate against them based on their vote, because those were noe secret. Finally, he made sure that government workers passed a civil service test of qualification to serve, and created promotions based on merit. Responsive National State Notes

Chemistry Developments

19 1869 Chemistry was a field in which there was rapid scientific development. A Russian chemist, Mendeleev, developed a way to weigh atomic masses to identify different elements. This allowed him to create a periodic table. There was also the development of organic chemistry, the study of carbon compounds. This allowed German chemical companies to take coal tar and crate it into synthetic dyes. Another subdivision was electromagnetism that allowed Michael Faraday to create the first generator. This generator allowed for new technologies such as the telegraph, electric motor, and streetcar, to be developed. McKay 7th p. 813

Franco-Prussian War

19 1870 1871 The South German states had still not joined Bismarck, so he decided that a nationalistic war against France would encourage them. Bismarck essentially manipulated Napoleon III into attacking Germany. As soon as fighting started, the southern states supported Bismarck. The combined german forces under Prussian leadership successfully defeated and humiliated the French. French patriots declared a third republic in response, and vowed to keep fighting. After five months of starving, France surrendered and the southern states had already joined into Germany. Bismarck had harsh terms to his peace treaty that France had to accept because they were starving. France had to pay Germany 5 billion francs and give Alsace Lorraine to Germany. To make it even worse, Bismarck had the treaty be signed in the Hall of mirrors at Versailles. McKay 7th p. 832 - 833

Kulturkampf

19 1870 1878 This was an eight year policy enacted by Bismarck in Germany. Pope Pius IX had written "Syllabus of Errors" in which he condemned nationalism and reaffirmed papal authority superiority over state authority, as well as papal infallibility. Bismarck and liberals were mad at this, and decided to attack the Catholic Church, as it was making German Catholics decided between loyalty to the Church and Germany. With the Kulturkampf, meaning struggle for civilization, Bismarck tried to repress German Catholicism, which gained him support of the National Liberal Party. however, he got no support from the Catholics and their political party, the Catholic Center Party. Bismarck ultimately dropped the policy in return for the Catholic Center Party's support for his new tarrifs. McKay 7th p. 839 & Responsive National State Notes

Public Transportation

19 1870 Mass public transportation helped to improve living conditions in urban environments. The earliest example was when city governments gave private companies the rights to set up horse drawn street cars. These street cars were able to take people around the growing cities and streets. The next phase was Europe looking towards America for inspiration. An electric streetcar was created that was more comfortable, reliable, cheaper, and faster. These allowed millions of Europeans to get to work and school. On weekends streetcars took people on outings to parks and theaters and more. Since there was no mass public transportation, people could live further outside of cities and it improved conditions in the city. McKay 7th p. 794 - 795

Prostitution in the 19th Century

19 1870 Men of all social classes patronized prostitutes, despite the upper classes' outward moral codes. Men from higher social standings did not usually think of their wives as someone to have sex with, they were more about family ties and money. Since their wives weren't involved with them, these men fed the prostitution business. For many girls, prostitution was just a life stage like being a domestic servant. They would be in the business for a few years while in their 20s, and then move on to get married and raise families. Paris had hundreds of thousands of registered suspected prostitutes. McKay 7th p. 806

Westernization in Japan

19 1871 "After the Meiji Restoration, Japan's leaders realized that Western society had the superior military and production capabilities, and they decided to reform Japan to bring it into the modern age. THey were hoping to achieve the dual revolution of the West to catch up. Japanese leaders abolished the feudal structure of society and created social equality, just like in the French Revolution. They allowed people the freedom to travel, as before it was criminal to go abroad. To industrialize, Japan created a free, competitive, and government-stimulate economy. This helped them lay railroad tracks and build factories quickly and efficiently. These freedoms resulted in a create spirit among the people.

British Bailing Out and Occupying Egypt

19 1876 1956 Under the rule of Khedive Ismail, Egypt was in financial distress. He tried to sell stock of the Suez Canal to the British government, but it didn't work and Egypt had massive debts that it couldn't pay back. Egypt owed money to many Europeans, so France and Great Britain stepped in to protect Europeans bondholders. With their new power over Ismail, the British and French forced him to appoint British and French workers to watch over Egypt's finances. This way, europeans ensured that the debt would be repaid. This gave Europeans direct control over the Egyptians and their country since they controlled the economy. This foreign rule inspired the creation of the Egyptian Nationalist party in 1879, and when foreign forced Ismail to abdicate to his ineffective son Tewfiq, they revolted. The British used their army to subdue the revolts and kept forces in Egypt until 1956 despite saying the occupation was temporary. McKay 7th p. 862

French Public Education

19 1879 1886 Under Jules Ferry, many French towns and villages passed laws during this time frame that made free and mandatory public elementary school for both genders, adn expanded taxes for education to help support the schools. This extension of schooling was an important factor for the countries to increase nationalism as in schools they can advocate for patriotic curriculum and practices. This free education was education with secular republican values, not the traditional church values that had dominated education for all of time before. The government encouraged their teachers to get married to another teacher and then they would send the couple to a French village or town to teach together. This made it easier for the government to send teachers to more remote locations, because they at least had each other. It also allowed people to teach throughout their lives, and women id not have to choose between motherhood and a career. This also showed a sharp contrast to the unmarried nuns and priests who dominated schooling before. McKay 7th p. 841 - 842

Cecil Rhodes

19 1880 1902 Rhodes was a ruthless imperialist who conquered large portion of Africa. He firmly believed in the expansion of the British Empire and created the De Beers Mining Company and as able to monopolize the diamond trade in South Africa. He served as the Prime Minister of the Cape COlony from 1890 - 1896 for the British government. As prime minister, his goal was to dominate the Afrikaners and expand British rule to as many lands as possible. His agents forced African kings to accept British rule and suppressed all rebellion with their superior weaponry. He had resign from his post when he supported and did not call off a huge failure of an attempted invasion in Transvaal. However, as prime minister he had no qualms about removing rights from the black population and he laid the foundation for apartheid. McKay 7th p. 873

New Imperialism

19 1880 1914 New Imperialism was the imperialism that occurred during the late 19th century as opposed to the imperialism of the 17th and 18th centuries that resulted in the old colonial empires. New Imperialism was characterized by a rush to claim as much territory and rule as may people as possible. As a result, there were tensions that arose between European nations, and war broke out or were rumored to be brewing. New imperialism, was aimed most at Asia and Africa, and Europeans used it most successfully in Africa where all but two small countries was taken over by European nations. New imperialism was motivated economically in Great Britain more than anywhere else. No nation wanted to be excluded from certain markets or have to pay high tariffs to enter them, so the countries would need their own markets. Second, many people were convinced that colonies were necessary to constitute a great nation. McKay 7th p. 868 - 869 & 872

Women's Fashion

19 1880 At this point in history, fashion, especially for middle class women, became very important. It was the first consumer industry as ready to buy clothes and department stores became popular. Most changes to fashion started in Paris. In the early 19th century, dresses were still extremely expensive and tailored to the person. By 1875, the large poofy dresses were replaced by smaller dresses made with less heavy fabrics. It was also at this point that the department stores would take the fashion of the wealthy elite and recreate it for the middle class. By 1893 in England, there was an "alternative dress" that was menswear made more feminine. It was essentially an early pantsuit that was a dress and jacket instead of separates. These alternative dresses became the choice for most working class women. McKay 7th p. 800 - 801

Scramble for Africa

19 1880 In the early 19th century, Europeans controlled not much of Africa. France had begun to take over Algeria in 1830, and by 1880 France, Spain, and Italy all had colonies but it only added up to about 10% of the continent. However, by 1880 European nations inspired by imperialism and Social Darwinism, began frantically trying to claim land in Africa. BY 1900, the entire continent except for Ethiopia and Liberia was claimed by a European power. Portugal, Belgium, Spain, Britain, France, Italy, and Germany all had possessions in Africa. Until the outbreak of WWI, the European nations established colonial government to establish and firmly rule their new empires. McKay 7th p. 869

Working Class Religion

19 1880 In the last few decades of the 19th century, both church donations and attendance lowered, especially for the the urban working class. This does not mean that the people completely gave up on religion, but overall people became more secular. One reason is because the construction of churches didn't keep up with the growing population. There were not enough religious services to balance out the secular themes of urban life. Additionally, both Catholic and Protestant churches were protectors of conservatism. As the urban workers became more aware of politics, they began to realize that the church was holding them back from political reforms in some way. Churches insistence of adherence to the status quo was not something that many workers appreciated. While many people were anti church, they were not necessarily antireligion. They disagreed with the institution, not the doctrine, However, if the religious institution was never linked to the state and was just a source of ethnic unity, ike Russian synagogues and Irish Catholic churches, then their congregants tended to remain loyal. McKay 7th p. 804

Technological Developments

19 1880 One of the reasons that the Europeans could so easily dominate the Africans were their superior weapons and technologies that they developed during their industrial periods. One example iwas the Maxim machine gun that cold fire 500 rounds per minute. This was the weapon that allowed the British do destroy the Sudanese at Omdurman. Malaria was a disease that was claiming any European lives, and quinine was a new medicine that was able to save lives. Now, Europeans could enter into the mosquito infested interior Africa and still survive. Finally, the steamboat and telegraphs allowed Europeans to quickly communicate and out more troops wherever needed. All of these things gave the Europeans a massive upper hand over the Africans. McKay 7th p. 875 & Imperialism PowerPoint

Missionaries in Africa

19 1880 Since Europeans had taken over Africa and ruled it politically, the lands were relatively peaceful. Since it was a time of peace, European missionaries could come in and spread Christianity to the African people. South of the Sahara, Christians had to compete with Muslim missionaries, so they built schools to sek converts and educate people about Christianity. For many Africans, the first time that they really communicate with Europeans was in mission schools. In Africa, the missionaries were successful in Christianizing some areas. This can be contrasted to missionaries in India, China, and the Islamic world wherein missionaries were unsuccessful. McKay 7th p. 875 - 876

Domestic Opposition to Imperialism

19 1880 There were many people back home in Europe who did not agree with Imperialism. Some critics argued that nations used imperialism to distract them from domestic issues. They thought that the government were hoping that the people would be so caught up in the nationalism involved with expanding their influence that they would not realize the rampant issues at home that needed to be addressed. Other critics simply opposed the racism that was an underlying factor of imperialism, and they did not agree with the brutality that the nations used when taking over other lands. Additionally, many liberals saw this as a direct opposition to their values as these countries were denying the Africans and Asians basic liberties and equality under the law, which the liberals rested all of their doctrine on. McKay 7th p. 875 & 877

Great White Walls

19 1880 With slavery being abolished, there was a need for cheap labor not only in America but in Hawaii and Australia. These jobs attracted many Asian migrants, but the conditions in the mines and farms were inideal. As soon as possible, Asian migrants left the rural areas for the towns to access trade opportunities. However, once in the towns, there was conflict between them and the European settlers. The Europeans wanted to end the stream of Asian immigrants allowed into their country. America and Australia implemented great white walls which were discriminatory immigration laws constructed to keep out Asians. The European settlers and migrants very kuch had a "whites only" policy and it is clear that white Europeans benefited most from migration. McKay 7th p. 867 - 868

Alexander III of Russia

19 1881 1894 Alexander III was a reactionary after seeing the assassination of his father by the Will of the People radical group. Alexander II had been a liberal tsar, reforming the military and court system and even abolishing serfdom, but Alexander III pushed back. He got rid of all of his father's plans for the Duma, the legislative. He wanted a homogenous Russia united under him to avoid any uprising, so he began Russification, this process made all education be in Russian, and forced people of all nationalities to speak Russian. He forced people to convert to Orthodox Christianity, which became oppressive to the Russian JEws who were also suffering from state sponsored pogroms. He weakened the smetsvo, his father's attempt at local government, and he even entered into the Holy Alliance with austria and Prussia. This was an alliance dedicated to oppression liberalism, which shows how different he was from his father. Russian Monarchs Chart

Rule of the Traditionalists

19 1881 With this influx of Western influence, many Africans and Asians worked very hard to preserve their unique cultures. While there were some who were modernists and thought that the Westernizers were actually better, everyone was ultimately subjected to foreign rule. HOwever under this rule traditionalist leaders always arose because the reality was that foreign rule was not ideal and those who conformed to foreign rule tended to not have as much energy as the traditionalists. This was also a result of the growing desires for basic human dignity that people didn't think was possible under foreign rule as well as the desire for liberty and equality that seemed possible through these traditional leaders. McKay 7th p. 877

Bismarck's Social Security

19 1883 Bismarck, a conservative, was fearful of socialism and its strength within Germany. In an attempt to end the need for socialism, Bismarck made some socialist inspired reforms. He created the first social security laws in all of Europe. Under these laws, national health insurance, accident insurance, pensions for all workers, and retirement benefits were created. These acts were all funded by taxes, and now the people could rely on the government in their times of need which was a big help. While it was not totally successful in stopping people from voting socialist, it gave them something positive within the government that they wanted to protect. McKay 7th p. 839 - 840 & Responsive National State Notes

Hindu Indian National Congress

19 1885 Indians were completely subject to British rule, and the British oppressed the Indian people. No matter how educated teh Indian people got, they could never be equal to a white ruler, even if the British government desperately needed a service they could offer; the Indian population was always less than the British. This angered the elite, who not only wanted rights, but also knew about how the Westerns fought for and achieved freedoms and equality. The Hindu Indian National Congress was a group of this elite who advocated for equality and self-government, just like Britain had given to its white colonies in Canada and Australia. The radicals in the group began calling for complete independence. The moderates were hoping for Indian rule through an elected parliament. McKay 7th p. 878

Irish Goals of Autonomy

19 1886 After the famine in Ireland, England was willing to give in to more Irish demands such as the removal of the Anglican Church's authority in Ireland. Gladstone actually introduced two bills to give Ireland self-rule, but both failed. In 1906, when the Parliament was trying to pass the People's Budget the Irish nationalists in Parliament said that they'd support it in exchange for self-rule for Ireland. There was one problem, and it was that the North of Ireland was Protestant and did not want to be a part of an Irish Catholic country. They compromised, and said that southern ireland could get self-rule and that the north could stay a part of the United Kingdom. It all seemed to be working for Ireland, but it was all shoved aside and rendered insignificant when WWI broke out and demanded the attentions of the government. McKay 7th p. 843 and Victorian Britain Packet p. 248

Europeans in South Africa

19 1889 1902 Afrikaners, Dutch people who had settled in South Africa, declared independence and fought back against the British when Britain claimed to have annexed all of the Dutch settlements in Cape Town. The Brits and the Afrikaners really began to hate each other and fought for control of South Africa not only against each other but also against the various African groups who had always lived there. As the conflict progressed, the British forced the Afrikaners fighter islands, and the Afrikaners in turn pushed the natives off of their land. This ultimately culminated in the Boer War, in which the afrikaners and the British engaged in bloody combat. The British defeated the Afrikaners, and all of the territory was united into one colony by 1910. The colony was mostly autonomous, and the Afrikaners took advantage of their larger numbers than the British, and took political control gradually. McKay 7th p. 869

Sigmund Freud

19 1890 As a doctor for the mentally ill, Freud observed that hysteria appeared to originate in childhood experiences wherein children were forced to repress their feelings. Once these repressed memories were brought to light, they could be dealt with and the patient could improve their happiness. Freud had other influential ideas like the tensions that existed between father and son for the love of the mother. He also noted that there are defense mechanisms used by people unconsciously motivated by deep emotional needs. These deep emotional needs are caused by pent up sexual energy. McKay 7th p. 812

Dreyfus Affair

19 1898 Dreyfus, a Jewish captain in the French army, was falsely accused and convicted of treason on made up evidence. This was truly anti-semitism personified. Pope Leo XIII was more liberal as far as popes go, and had been easing the tension between the Church and France, until the Dreyfus Affair. One the side against Dreyfus were anti-semites, the army, and the Catholic Church. On the other side was his family, radical republicans, and many prominent intellectual thinkers like Emile Zola. While the conviction was overturned, this event still caused the French government to cut ALL ties with the Catholic Church: the government stopped paying the salaries of priests, and Catholic schools were given no support. This was also the event that convinced Theodor Herzl that the Jewish people needed a homeland. Mckay 7th p. 842

Revisionist Socialism

19 1899 As European people gained more rights, like the ability to unionize and the right to vote, society became more moderate. There were socialists who began to realize that they could gradually and peacefully affect change, adn these revisionist socialists became less about violent revolution and more about using their rights and voices in politics to change society. The growth of nationalism in the late 19th century emphasized nationalist over social class, so many working class felt less of a gap between them and the upper classes since they were all English, French, etc. The standard of living also increased with the Second Industrial Revolution, so the people felt less of a need to revolt right now and were willing to wait to change through the government. This new REvisionist Socialism was exemplified by Bernstein's book "Evolutionary Socialism: that argued that Marx's prediction of a poorer lower class and richer and smaller upper class leading to violent rebellion was FALSE. McKay 7th p. 849

Kipling's "White Man's Burden"

19 1899 Kipling's poem was written as a celebration of and support for the Americans annexing the Philippines. It was originally aimed at middle class Americans, as a large part of it encouraged nationalistic feeling. The poem idealized imperialism and considered it to be not only a nationalistic value, but a Christian one. Many Europeans and Americans genuinely believed that they were doing the right thing by spreading Western culture to Africa and Asia, and considered this to be their "burden."This "burden: was a deciding factor for the Americans when they decided to annex the Philippines and not give it tis indepence like they had previously stated they would. McKay 7th 875 & McKay 11 p. 810 & Sherman p. 173

French Revolution of February 1848

19 2 1848 Louis Philippe was not receptive to the ideas of the working class and would not reform the electoral laws that would give more people more accurate representation. There was a sense of injustice among the middle and working class due to their lack of voting rights. Louis Philippe's resistance resulted in the people revolting and putting up barricades. Louis Philippe tried to use the National Guard to stop the revolters, but the troops were mainly part of the lower and middle class, so they switched sides. Louis Philippe abdicated to his grandson, but the people would not stand for another monarchy -- they wanted a republic. They created a provisional government to create a constitution for France's second republic, and in the meantime created a ten man executive branch and passed universal male suffrage. The middle class did not want more socialist reforms, as they saw universal male suffrage as the ultimate concession. But, the lower class were committed to socialism. This caused a divide in the revolutionaries. 19th Century Revolutions

Greek Independence Movement

19 2 21 1821 02/01/1830 Greece had been under the ottoman Empire for about 400 years, but their language and Greek orthodox religion kept them united as a people. In the 19th century, there was a growth in the desire for a revolution, and in 1821, the revolution began. It was led by Alexander Ypsilanti, a Greek patriot and an officer in the Russian army. The Great Powers, especially Metternich, were conservative and did not believe in any kind of revolution. For that reason, they did not support Ypsilanti. However, the education Europeans and Americans respected Greece for her ancient culture and the Russians respected her for her Orthodox piety. This popular support led the British, French, and Russian governments to step in and encourage the Turks to accept an armistice in 1827. When the Turks refused, Russia took some of their territory in the present-day Romania area and all three powers destroyed the Turkish navy. In 1830, Russia, France, and England declared Greece to be independant and put a German prince n as king in 1832. McKay 7th p. 771 - 772

100 Days

19 3 10 1815 7/8/1815 The people were not satisfied under Louis XVIII, and Napoleon seized the opportunity of the political unrest on mainland France to leave his exile and return. Supported by French people, Napoleon once again took power and Louis fled. He was only able to rule for 100 days, because the alliance was against him. At the Battle of Waterloo, GB, Russia, Prussia, and Austria defeated Napoleon for the last time and banished him to the island of St. Helena off eh western coast of Africa. Far away from France this time, Napoleon's time in power was over. McKay 7th p. 718

Paris Commune

19 3 1871 The people of Paris fought valiantly against the Prussians and refused to surrender, eating zoo animals and rats to survive. However, the majority of conservatives and monarchists who were elected to the National Assembly decided to try and give in, and gave Alsace and Lorraine to the Prussians. The people of Paris lost their minds, and declared the Paris Commune. The leaders of the COmmune wanted to rule Paris without any interference from outside villages ro authorities. The National Assembly, under Thiers, ordered the army to crush the commune, and it did. Thousands of Frenchmen died in this fighting, and it was like June 1848 when Paris fought against the provinces. McKay 7th p. 841

Fourth Coalition & Quadruple Alliance

19 3 9 1814 Napoleon refused to see France reduced back to its historical size, so Austria and Prussia joined GB and Russia in the Fourth Coalition to try and take out Napoleon's Europe-wide tyranny. The Treaty of Chaumont had these four countries tied together in a Quadruple Alliance that would be held up for at least 20 years. When they defeated Napoleon, he was forced to abdicate and they exiled him to Elba. McKay t7h p. 718

Louis Napoleon / Napoleon III of France

19 4 20 1808 1/9/1873 After the 1848 revolutions, Louis Napoleon was elected to the presidency for a four year term via universal male suffrage. He won based off of name recognition from his uncle, his clear plan to help France, and his firm rule that people expected him to have that they wanted as they feared a socialist revolution from the working class. Louis Napoleon felt very strongly that the government should represent the people and help them economically, so he always protected universal male suffrage. To achieve this protection, he also believed that in order for it to be a true direct democracy, he would need no barriers between him and his people, so he thought he had to rule as a strong, nearly authoritarian, leader. After his four year term, the National Assembly would not change the constitution to allow Louis Napoleon to run again. In response, Louis Napoleon teamed up with the military, illegally dismissed the National Assembly, and got power through a coup. With universal male suffrage, he asked the people to legalize his coup. 92% of the population voted to give him a 10 year presidency, and a year late 97% voted to make him emperor for life. McKay 7th p. 824

Napoleon's Attempted Invasion of Russia

19 6 1812 The continental system, a blockade to stop the flow of British goods, had backfired on France but Napoleon did not want to take the blame. He instead blamed Alexander I of Russia who had continued trade with Britain. As a result, Napoleon invaded Russia with a massive army made up of French troops as well as other drafted from satellite kingdoms. Alexander evacuate and burned Moscow when Napoleon tried to reach it, leaving napoleon's army stranded there . After five weeks in Moscow, Napoleon had his men retreat. The Russian harsh winter, starvation, and the Russian army took out large proportions of Napoleon's army. Napoleon abandoned his troops and returned to Paris. McKay 7th p. 718

French Revolution of June 1848

19 6 1848 When the Constituent Assembly was elected, it was the first time that many Frenchman could vote. The majority of the representatives were not socialists since both the middle class and the peasants were opposed due to its threat to private property. The new government stopped the national workshops. The lower class was very mad at this and once again built barricades in the 'terrible June Days". The National Guard stopped the revolt this time (many of them peasants). They were lead by Louis Cavignac, who soon adopted dictatorial powers. By December there was a new constitution that had a strong executive branch and a one house legislature. Louis Napoleon was elected as the next leader due to his emphasis on law and order. He also was assisted by name recognition. Many French people liked the rule of Napoleon in the early 19th century and were willing to give his nephew a try. 19th Century Revolutions

Irish Potato Famine

19 9 1845 1852 Ireland was in impoverished nation. The majority of the population was Catholic, and the Anglican English landlords charged high rent and taxes. The Irish people lived in inescapable poverty, and despite the fact their population was growing. With more people, the Irish became more and more dependant on potatoes. In 1845, 1846, 1848, and 1851 the potato crops failed. Plants rotted, there was widespread starvation, and then came fever epidemics. Since Great Britain had a laissez faire policy, they reacted slowly to the famine. When is finally did, their efforts were inadequate. Landlords still collected high rent and taxes, resulting in many people becoming homeless. The Great Famine led to a sharp decrease in population, making Ireland the only European country to see its population fall in the 19th century. Finally, British inaction solidified and intensified the hate the Irish felt for the British. McKay 7ht p. 776 - 777

Holy Alliance

19 9 26 1815 1848 The Dual Revolution was a time where the political and social ideas of the French Revolution combined with the economic ones of the Industrial Revolution. Conservatives, like Metternich, were not okay with this and wanted to keep it from developing any further. Under Alexander I's leadership, Russia, Austria, and Prussia united under the Holy Alliance. It was a symbol of the conservative nations' goal to repress liberal and other new ideologies. This idea of oppression was carried through by Alexander I at the Conference at Troppau in Austria with the Quadruple Alliance (Holy Alliance members plus England). There, he vowed to to interfere in revolutions to keep the autocratic regime in power. All three countries would help in this. McKay 7th p. 759

Nicholas II of Russia

19TH CENTURY 11/1/1894 -3/12/1917 Nicholas II was an ineffective leader that should never had been tsar. He was a decent man, but was not cut out to be the leader of such a vast, backwards, and multiethnic country. Nicholas II was trying desperately to hold on t supreme royal power, but in the 20th century that is not what any of the people wanted. He did not trust the Duma or the citizens, and instead relied on old bureaucratic institutions. This was a big mistake, as the people had no reason to fight for him when his power was in trouble. Nicolas II temporarily dismissed the Duma, which was the only semblance of representation that Russia had, and went to "lead: the troops on the frontlines of WWI. THis was a mistake, as it left his incompetent wife Alexandra and Rasputin in charge of Russia. The people wouldn't stand for Rasputin And were sick and tired of WWI which was killing thousands and resulted in famine. The Duma gained the support of the people. and successfully got Nicolas II to abdicate his throne during the revolution of 1917. McKay 7th p. 904 - 905

Georges Clemenceau

20 11 16 1917 1/20/1920 Clemenceau was a French ruler who came to power amidst the defeatism and war weariness in France because of his ruthlessness and effectiveness. Accordingly, his nickname was "The Tiger." He established a dictatorship for himself, and censored the press. Anyone who mentioned peace with Germany in a news source was jailed. Clemenceau was equally as repressive towards strikers, who did not allow to voice their grievances. At the peace talks following the war, Clemenceau wanted revenge against the Germans for the humiliation of the Franco-Prussian War. As part of the treaty, he wanted a buffer state between the two nations, permanent German demilitarization, and large German reparations. McKay 7th p. 903 & 914

Revolution in Germany

20 11 1918 Military defeat brought upon political revolution in Germany. The people in Germany rose up and dethroned the autocratic leader, instituting a provisional government. The socialists and liberals controlled the government, while workers' and soldiers; councils formed countergroups. Ultimately though, the socialists and liberals beat the radical councils. The German revolution ended up being the first part of a Crane Brinton revolution, when the moderate bourgeois take power; there was no radical phase. This happened for many reasons. The Marxist Socialists were pink, not red like in Russia. These leaders were looking for the gradual elimination of capitalism and real liberty. Additionally, nationalists did not want violence and civil war, so they did nothing to instigate one. The most important reason that the German Revolution didn't turn out like the Russian one in 1917 is how the German Social Democrats left the war when they lost and did not try to prolong it to turn the tides. This made sure that the soldiers and the people still supported the government, because they didn't see the government sending more troops into battle to be killed. McKay 7th p. 911 - 912

Balfour Declaration

20 11 2 1917 British foreign secretary, Arthur Balfour, issued this statement announcing his support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine that was being advocated for by Zionists across Europe. The declaration did state that is had no intention of infringing upon the civil and religious rights of the non-Jewish people in Palestine if and when the homeland was created. While some members of Parliament really did support Zionism, others were motivated to support the Declaration because they thought the approval of American, German, and Austrian Jews would help their war effort. This declaration did upset the Arab populations in the Ottoman districts that wounds become Palestine, and they were the overwhelming majority at the time. Since a homeland would result in a Jewish leadership, violating majority rule which made the Arab majority angry. McKay 11th p. 853 - 854

British Reforms in India

20 1858 From 1858 on, India was ruled by the British Parliament in London. While they were mindful of the massive peasant population in India, the Parliament still used job discrimination, social segregation, and were overall racist. However, the British still put effort into reforming India, inspired not only by Social Darwinism, but mostly by their business interests. For the people, the British set up English secondary education institutions, and upper class Indians became liaisons between the British and the Indian population. Overall though, the reforms had to do with business. Thanks to Britain, India had the third largest railroad worldwide, and this was to help with the transport of British goods and materials. They also instituted irrigation projects to allow them to grow more crops and materials. These changes on the whole, both in infrastructure and education, did not do much to help the peasants, who were the majority of the population. McKay 7th p. 878

The Boxer Rebellion

20 1900 1903 In China, there was a growing anti-foreign sentiment that was exemplified by the traditional Boxers. Their motto was :protect the country, destroy the foreigner." These conservative groups often had conflicts with missionaries as they saw missionaries as threats to their society. Secret societies, like the Boxers, revolted and killed over 200 foreign missionaries and thousands of Chinese Christians. In response to the Boxer Rebellion, foreign armies entered China and suppressed the Boxers. The power of the Qing Dynasty was diminishing, and the anti-foreign sentiment grew even after the rebellion. It ultimately resulted in the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty. McKay 7th p. 882

J. A. Hobson's "Imperialism"

20 1902 In response to the Boer War, Hobson wrote his criticisms of imperialism down into "Imperialism." His work was highly influential and reached as far as Lenin. Hobson believed that the push for imperialism was a result of capitalists having excess capital and needing something to do with it. He saw no major economic benefit of the imperialism though, only for those in charge. The profits that these capitalists made, were at the mercy of the taxpayer but also the oppressed native, according to Hobson. He also thought that governments were using imperialism to distract the people from domestic problems, and he identified that problem as being the growing gap between the rich and the poor. McKay 7th p. 876

Russian Revolution of 1905

20 1905 With the Russian loss in the Russo-Japanese War, political upheaval followed domestically in Russia. The Russians wanted all of the things that other Europeans revolted for in 1848 -- like equality and freedom and voting rights -- and wanted to turn their autocratic government into a representative body like a constitutional monarchy. The revolution was also able to break out because the Russian army was occupied with Manchuria and Russian influence abroad. One of the early parts of the rebellion was what became known as Bloody Sunday. Father Gapon led a successful march to the Winter Palace to give Tsar Nicholas II their petition, but the tsar wasn't there. In his absences, the troops fired into the crowd and killed many Russian demonstrators. This made many ordinary workers turn against the government, THe rebellion was ultimately successful and Nicholas II was forced to issue the OCtober Manifesto. This was a constitution that gave the people civil rights and created the Duma, a real legislative branch. Russia was now a constitutional monarchy. McKay 7th p. 837 - 838

Young Turks / Committee of Union and Progress

20 1908 Sultan Abdulhamid reversed many Tanzimat reforms and was an oppressive ruler. He was not able to stop foreign powers from taking over Ottoman territories, and these failures resulted in the reemergence of the Committee of Union and PRogress. Unofficially called Young Turks, this was a group of multiethnic radical reformers. In 1908, they used a coup to gain power and forced the sultan to issue reforms. They were unable to stop the rise of anti-Ottoman sentiment in the Balkans, but they did help to lay the foundation for the secular Turkey that would be created after WWI. McKay 11th p. 770

Leon Trotsky and the Bolshevik Rise to Power

20 1917 1940 With Lenin in hiding, his supporter Leon Trotsky took charge and got the Bolsheviks into power through his military genius. First, he convinced the Petrograd Soviet to form a special military committee and to make him the leader of it. Despite the Bolsheviks now being in power, Trotsky convinced the people that power was not taken in the Bolshevik name, but in the name of the ordinary workers and the Petrograd Soviet which gained them support. However, the Bolsheviks then took power from the provisional government and moved on to the Congress of Soviets wherein they got a Bolshevik majority. With that majority, the Bolsheviks made Lenin the new head of government. In short the Bolsheviks were able to get their power because of three reasons: Russia had been in total anarchy, Lenin and Trotsky were great leaders, and they effectively appealed to the war weary common people. McKay 7th p. 908 - 909

Russian Civil War

20 1918 1921 The Russian Civil War was a three year conflict between the White and Red armies. The Red Army was the Bolsheviks led by Trotsky. The White Army was a collection of troops created by former Russian army officers. The White Army was diverse and did not agree on much except for the fact that they hated the Red Army. The 18 regional governments unter White control attacked Lenin and his army, starting the civil war. The victorious Western powers began to send money to the Whites after the conclusion of WWI, but is actually worked against them because Lenin made that out to be anti-Russia. Ultimately, the Red Army won. This was due to the Bolshevik control of central Russia, the Whites being too conservative to unite the massive country, Trotsky simply being a better military leader, and the Bolsheviks mobilizing the home front with war communism. War communism was total war from WWI but applied to the civil war, and it rationed food,set up national banks, ad improved industry. McKay 7th p. 910 and Russian Revolution Notes

Mustafa Kemal

20 1920 1938 Kemal was a Turkish leader who led the resistance against Western nations tearing apart Turkish lands. Kemal successfully led his troops against the British at the Battle of Gallipoli, gaining him an opportunity to negotiate with England. He successfully got the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) passed which recognized the territorial integrity of Turkey and got rid of the special powers European nations had given their citizens who were living in Ottoman lands. As a nationalist, Kemal wanted Turkey to modernize along with the West. He created a republic, was elected president, and then instituted a one party system. Kemal also wanted to secularize Turkey, and limited the power of religion and religious leaders in daily life. He called for separation of church and state and a secular public education system. McKay 11th p. 855 - 857

Provisional Government in Russia

20 3 1917 After the abdication of Nicholas II, the Duma created a provisional government. This government wanted to create a democratic republic, not just a constitutional monarchy. This government, let by Alexander Kerensky was actually supported by all social classes and ideologies. The provisional government rejected social revolution and the redistribution of land and wealth, but they still instituted many reforms. They gave all Russian citizens equality before the law, unions were legalized and got the right to strike, and the people were given the freedoms of assembly, religion, and speech. While nearly everything the provisional government did was approved of by the people, they made one big mistake that the people were enraged by: Kerensky kept Russia in WWI. Russia was loding, and the people were done with the war, but the government kept it going on. This did give Lenin an eventual foothold, as promising an end to the war gained him lots of support. McKay 7th p. 905 - 906 & Russian Revolution Notes

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

20 3 1918 The provisional government under Kerensky had kept Russia in WWI despite its failure. When the Bolsheviks took power and made Lenin their leader, Lenin promised to get Russia out of the war. Germany had been transformed nearly into a dictatorship, and they exploited the Russians in their desperation to get out of the war. Germany took many lands from Russia, and it resulted in Russia losing a full 1/3 of its population. This loss of territory would be a driving force in Russia's future foreign policy as they try to take back the and they had obtained over 300 years of rule. McKay 7th p. 911 & Russian Revolution Notes

Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies

20 3/12/1917 -1924 The Petrograd Soviet emerged as a rival to the provisional government in Russia. The soviet was was made up of thousands of workers, soldiers, and intellectuals, and it was a grassroots democracy. As a rival to the provisional government, the Petrograd Soviet wanted to assert its power so it issued the Army Order No. 1 among other radical orders. Army Order No. 1 was particularly harmful as it declared that military power should be in the hand of the soldiers, not the officers. The soldiers went dissolved into anarchy and began killing their superiors and running away. Overall, the entire army discipline dissolved. McKay 7th p. 906 & Russian Revolution Notes

Vladimir Lenin and his Return to Russia

20 4 1917 Lenin was a student of Marx and was exiled to Siberia from Russia for socialist agitation. While in exile, he developed his own socialists ideas, loosely based in Marxist socialism. Lenin essentially made Marxist socialism work in his backwards Russia. Lenin had three main ideas, the first being that capitalism would only be destroyed through violence. Second, he believed that a socialist revolution was even possible in industrialized Russia, Third, he saw an elite group of intellectuals leading the workers into rebellion. In April of 1917, Germany paid for Lenin and other socialists to return home to Russia in the hope that they would undermine the Russian war effort. Lenin attacked immediately with the Bolsheviks. However, his first attempt at taking power that July failed, and he went into hiding. McKay 7th p. 906 - 908

Duma

20 5 1906 The Duma was the legislative branch created by the October Manifesto. It passed the official constitution, the Fundamental Laws, that gave the tsar lots of power, but still kept the Duma strong and elected indirectly via universal male suffrage. However, the tsar kept the power of the ultimate veto for anything the Duma tried to pass nad was still the one who appointed ministers and did not need the approval of the Duma. THe middle class was the majority of the Duma and they did not agree with the Fundamental Laws, and began to not be willing to cooperate with the tsar so much. As a result, the tsar dismissed them but a more hostile Duma was reelected. In response, the tsar completely rewrote the electoral laws and essentially only gave the upper class voting rights, so the next Duma was loyal to him. McKay 7th p. 838

Treaty of Versailles

20 6 28 1919 America, England, and France were the major powers at the peace conference. American President Wilson championed the idea of a League of Nations to prevent future aggression. France and England, though, just wanted to punish Germany. Ultimately, the Treaty made Germany pay major reparations and dramatically reduce the ze of their army. Additionally, Germany lands populated with Polish people was given to the newly created Polish state. America never ratified the treaty though, because Congress felt that the LEague of Nations took away their Constitutional right to declare war. At the Versailles peace talks, Arab leaders were present to present their desires. Arab leaders mainly wanted autonomy like they had been promised from England, but only the kingdom of Hejaz was given independence. The Grand Syrian Congress was formed to try and get the indepence denied to them from the Treaty of Versailles, but it failed. Ultimately, France and England divided the former Ottoman Empire in the MIddle East between them as dictated by the Sykes-Picot Agreement. McKay 7th p. 912 - 914 & McKay 11th p. 854

Cuban Missile Crisis

20TH CENTURY 10/16/1962 - 10/28/1962 After the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion in 1961 run by the American CIA, Castro felt threatened by America and turned to Khrushchev for aid. Khrushchev was emboldened by Kennedy's lack of action with the building of the Berlin War, so he agreed and sent missiles to Cuba. In response, Kennedy blockade cuba. This action was a form of indirect communication between Kennedy and Khrushchev, showing each other that they didn't want war but also didn't want to appear weak. The US and USSR come to an agreement: the US will not invade Cuba and will remove their millies from Turkey, and the USSR will remove their missiles from Cuba. This action, while smart, was the beginning of the end for Khrushchev because many hardline Soviets saw this as a major concession. McKay 11th p. 956 & Foreign Policy of the 60's Notes

German Unification Take Two

20TH CENTURY 10/3/1990 After the Berlin Wall fell, reform communists came to power in East Germany. These new leaders wanted to preserve socialism by making it responsive to the people and actually democratic, known as their "third way" which was in between Stalin and capitalism. These communists also tried to get on better terms with West Germany. Over the course of the year, West Germany absorbed East Germany. West German chancellor Kohl presented a detailed ten-point plan for reunification that cooperated with the East but also the entire international community. He was sure of American support, and then promised East Germany that the West would absorb the troubles in their economies and transfer the pensions and savings into the much more valuable Western currency. The Alliance party got 50% of the votes in the East German elections, which was much more than the socialists received. Kohl was able to carry out the plan, because he met with Gorbachev and reassured him that they would never create atomic weapons and stated his peaceful intentions, which appeased Gorbachev who was wary of a strong country on his border. In October, the East was peacefully absorbed into the West as one democratic nation with constitution. McKay 11th p. 1001 - 1002

Vietnam War

20TH CENTURY 11/1/1955 -4/30/1975 Vietnam got independence from France in 1954, and President Eisenhower gave S. Vietnam military aid to combat the guerilla fighters (Vietcong) who were supported by the Communist North. Under President Kennedy the number of military officially stationed in Vietnam increased, but it was under President Johnson that the situation truly escalated. It was reported that an American ship in the Gulf of Tonkin was attacked by N. Vietnam, so Johnson got the approval from Congress to declare war. In the Tet Offensive, the Vietcong and N. Vietnam attacked American presence and major S. Vietnamese cities. The American people were getting sick of this war, as it was too costly. When President Nixon was elected, h was able to deescalate the situation. He used Vietnamization, a system that reduced American presence and gave S. Vietnam responsibility for the war. American forces left Vietnam with the Paris Accord, but the civil war waged on. By 1975, the northern Communists had taken over all of Vietnam. McKay 11th p. 978 - 979 & Foreign Policy of the 60's Notes

Tehran, Yalta, and Potsdam Conferences

20TH CENTURY 11/28/1943 - 9/2/1945 These three conferences are the most important of the many WWII conferences. Tehran was the first time that the Big Three all met. The main purpose was to discuss the Anglo-American offensive in Western Europe and Southern France. Stalin promised to enter the war with Japan, and early plans for the UN were formulated. At Yalta, the Soviet Union was given many lands including the occupation zone of North Korea in exchange for their assistance in the war in the Pacific (they never had to fight here, but still got N. Korea). American and GB agreed to recognize the independence of outer Mongolia, and to GIVE POLAND TO THE USSR. The Big Three also agreed to support post war government elected through free elections. Finally, Potsdam declared the unconditional surrender ultimatum for Japan. They also discussed the postwar status of Germany, and told Stalin that he could take whatever he wanted from his German occupation zone for reparations. WWII Conferences Packet

Kristallnacht

20TH CENTURY 11/9/1938 HItler had already enacted anti-Semitic laws in Germany by 1935. The Nuremberg laws stripped JEws of their citizenship and outlawed German Jews from having a relationship with a non-Jew. Additionally, laws kept Jews out of professional jobs and the public education system. Tensions were rising and culminated in Kristallnacht, the Night of Broken Glass. Destruction and boycotts of German businesses and synagogues had been occuring, but this night was widespread and planned. Even the Nazi Youth programs were encouraged to participate. 7000 Jewish homes and businesses were looted, burned, and destroyed, while the same thing happened to 200 synagogues. Dozens of Jews perished. While there her Germans who did not agree with this violence, the majority were bystanders to the whole situation and there was no opposition loud or public enough to stop the violence. McKay 11th p. 914

Fall of the Berlin Wall

20TH CENTURY 11/9/1989 The Hungarian communist leadership got popular support when they welcomed Western involvement and agreed to hold free election, and they wanted to increase that support. Therefor, Hungary opened her border to East Germany and tore down the barbed wire separating Hungary and Austria. This gave East Germans a way to get to West Germany, so they began pouring into Hungary. From there they would travel to Austria, and then make it to West Germany. Some stayed in the East and tried to convince other to stay because they thought democracy was still possible, but they were ineffectual and East Germans were still leaving in masses. The East German government wasted to stabilize the situation in Berlin, and also now realized that the wall was ineffectual because their people can access West Germany from another route. They opened the wall and tried to monitor it as a border, but they gave up due to the massive amounts of people trying to cross. The people themselves brought demolition tools and tore down the wall. McKay 11th p. 1000

Fall of the USSR

20TH CENTURY 12/25/1991 The Soviet Union had already been crumbling, as nationalists in the satellite states called for autonomy and the Russian Soviet Republic elected democrats and anticommunists when given free elections. In Lithuania, the people elected a nationalist leader who declared independence. Gorbachev placed an embargo on Lithuania, but would not send in the military, he knew that he couldn't afford that. Even though Gorbachev got a new constitution passed that limited the PArt's control of political power, he was still elected president and would not allow universal suffrage. This strengthened Yeltsin, his opponent and mayor of Moscow, who was elected parliamentary leader in May of 1990 due his position as a democrat. Yeltsin declared that Russia was independent from the USSR after the attempted coup on Gorbachev. After Russia left, all of the other republics did as well, and Gorbachev had only one choice: to dissolve the Soviet Union. McKay 11th p. 1002 - 1003

Modern Art

20TH CENTURY 1900 -1945 "Modern art overall became increasingly abstract and rejected classical and traditional artforms. However, it does have 5 distinct subcategories that have their own defining characteristics. Cubism shows complexity of geometric shapes, zigzagging lines, sharp angles, overlapping planes, and shifting viewpoints. Dadaism portrayed outrageous content and attacked standards of art, saying that if there was a signature on it then it was art. This led to someone signing a urnialand calling it art, and another artist painting the Mona Lisa with a mustache. Surrealism centered around dream worlds and fantasy, using complex symbols and imagery. Pointillism used tiny distinct dots to represent a picture. hen looking at is upclose it is abstract, but from farther away the picture can be seen. Finally, futurism glorified future technology and scientific achievement, like skyscrapers and factories.

Modern Music

20TH CENTURY 1900 -1945 Composers used new techniques to reflect the chaos and uncertainty of the time. The composers completely abandoned harmony and tonality for harsh atonal music. Notes were no lner organized by key, but were unrelated to each other, creating no recognizable harmony. Composers also tried to convey emotional intensity through expressionism, a focus on the form of an object, not a concrete expression of it. This is most clearly seen in ballets and other dances, where the music reflects the scenes on stage. Expressionism also transferred over into operas like "Wozzeck" that showed the harsh reality of a soldier. McKay 7th p. 933 & Modern Art Presentation

New Developments in Physics

20TH CENTURY 1900 New developments in physics reflected how the world was uncertain and ever changing. One scientist, Heisenberg, literally discovered the uncertainty principle of electrons, which perfectly encapsulates the uncertainty in the Age of Anxiety. For centuries, Newtonian physics seemed rational and perfect, but then Einstein came and said that all of NEwton's principles were relative with his theory of relativity, and once again that made a certain world uncertain. Additionally, the traditional view of atoms as dense and permanent balls was disproved by Curie and Planck. Finally, Rutherford found that the atom could be split. This discovery made the world less safe, as this was the piece needed to create atomic bombs. Overall, the science world was completely shaken up, reflecting the uncertainty and change of the time. McKay 7th p. 926 - 927

Modern Literature

20TH CENTURY 1900- 1945 Just as the general attitude of this time changed with the Age of Anxiety, elements of literature changed as well. In order to reflect the irrationality of the human mind, authors used first person narration instead of an omniscient narrator. They also used a stream of consciousness technique which allowed the author to spew thoughts down onto the page, muich like the confusion that is everyday life. James Joyce wrote Ulysses to show the aimless wanderings of his main protagonist. Additionally, people began to rely that utopias were a complete fantasy. Instead, anti utopia were written that showed nightmare versions of the future. This is exemplified in Orwell's 1984. McKay 7th p. 929

Rasputin

20TH CENTURY 1906 - 12/1/1916 Rasputin was a a man who had mysterious healing powers. The only son of Alexandra and Nicholas II, Alexei, suffered from hemophilia. Rasputin, for some reason, was the only one that could stop Alexei's bleeding, as this gained him a close relationship with Alexandra. Alexandra had blind faith in him, and when Nicholas II left for the homefront, Rasputin's power grew. While Alexandra tried to rule as an absolute leader, Rasputin was her highest trusted advisor. The power of this uneducated preacher made the aristocats angry. Combined with that, and the rumors that he was having an affair with Alexandra, the aristocrats plotted to kill him. They succeeded in assassinating Rasputin. McKay 7th p. 905

Algeciras Conference

20TH CENTURY 1906 Britain and France had a tenuous relationship, and their foreign ministers decided to compromise. The French accepted British rule in Egypt, and the British accepted French rule in MOrocco. This agreement led to the Anglo-French Entente. Germany was annoyed that England turned to France and they decided to see if the Entente was strong. Germany insisted that there be an international conference on the ruling of Morocco. What followed was the Algeciras Conference, which was a complete disaster for Germany. THeir actions made the English and French closer, and it left Germany alone except for Austria-Hungary. McKay 7th p. 890

Freudian Elements of the Subconscious

20TH CENTURY 1910 Freud believed that all human behavior is irrational, and he said that the most important factor in understanding the mind is through the id. The id is the irrational unconscious that is driven by sexual and aggressive desires. The id is in constant battle with the other elements of the unconscious. The ego is the rationalizing conscious which sas what a person can do. The superego is the moral compass and says what a person should do. Freud believed that human behavior is the result of all of these elements interacting with each other and dominating one another. By 1910, Freudian psychology was an international movement, but it took until 1918 for it to get popular attention. His ideas of repressed sexula urges causing many problems, led many women to give themselves more sexula freedom. McKay 7th p. 929

Women in WWI

20TH CENTURY 1914 -1918 With the war taking the lives of so many men and enlisting even more, it was up to the women to fill the gaps and keep the home fronts running. Women were able to get jobs in many fields, such as office work, industry, transportation, and more. Not only were there more jobs available, but there were more VISIBLE jobs available like mail carriers, bank tellers, and police officers. Women were not being hidden at home, but instead were at the forefront of many fields. On the war front women were serving as doctors and nurses to hurt soldiers. After the war, Britain, Germany, and Austria, all gave women the right to vote because they realized that women were capable. Women got more independence, and showed this through their shorter haircuts and skirts, and by smoking in public. McKay 7th p. 902

Schlieffen Plan

20TH CENTURY 1914 The Schlieffen Plan was German chief of staff Count Alfred von Schlieffen's plan for a two front war. The first step was invading France via Belgium, and then attacking the other front, Russia. Belgium was the only thing between Germany and France, and it had remained neutral since 1839, so they refused to allow Germany to march through their country. The Germans did not care, and they stuck to the Schlieffen Plan. They attacked Germany brutally on their away to attack France. There were two big results of the Plan and the attack. First, anti-German propaganda became much more common as "The Rape of BElgium" was plastered all over Entente countries. Secondly, and more importantly, this caused England to join the war because their ally France was threatened. McKay 7th p. 894

Logical Empiricism

20TH CENTURY 1914 WWI caused philosophical thinkers to revolt against rational thought, and from this grew logical empiricism. Logical empiricism rejected almost all traditional thought, rendering happiness and the existence of God to be meaningless. Philosophers like Wittgenstein believed that questions like the existence of God, freedom, mortality, and more were useless to think about since whatever answer one gets cannot ever be scientifically proven. This makes it clear to see why logical empiricism is also called logical positivism. McKay 7th p. 925

The German Homefront of WWI

20TH CENTURY 1914- 1918 Since Germany was fighting a two front war, they needed to not only mobilize solidaris, but also the homefront to support the war effort. The War Raw Materials Board rationed and distributed raw materials. The board also synthetically created substitutes for common goods that were in low supply. Rubber was replicated, but more importantly they recreated nitrates which replenish the soil and allowed agriculture to keep up. There was also an intense recycling campaign, which recycled anything and everything to help the war effort. Germany also created the Auxiliary Service Law which required all men 17 - 60 to only work jobs that were critical to the war effort, like working in factories, if they weren't already in the army. McKay 7th p. 900 - 901

Great Britain in the Ottoman Empire

20TH CENTURY 1915 During WWI, the British had a major presence in the Ottoman Empire as they tried to take all power away from the Empire. In 1915, England was unsuccessful in getting the Dardanelles and Constantinople from the Ottomans. While they were not successful in battle, they were successful in convincing Arab rulers to revolt against their Ottoman leaders. Hussein ibn-Ali was the sharif of Mecca. With British support, HUssein rebelled against the Turks and declared himself King of Arabs. T. E. Lawrence, A British official helped Arab soldiers rebel against the Turks in a guerilla war in the Arabian peninsula. In Iraq, British troops occupied some cities, and eventually make their way into Syria. As a result, Faisal, the son of HUssein, was made leader of Damascus. Arab nationalists were now hoping for a large and unified Arab state, but the French and British would crush that dream at the end of the war. McKay 11th p. 835 - 836

Existentialism

20TH CENTURY 1918 Existentialism was another way that philosophers rejected rationality. Existentialists believe that life is meaningless and full of despair band that humans come to earth with no preset path or purpose. It is then up to humans on earth to make choices that define themselves and give meaning to their lies, because otherwise there will be no meaning. Absurdity is the existentialist term for the search for meaning in this meaningless world. Additionally, since the world was not created for a purpose, there is no set moral standard. Therefor, if humans want justice or or order we need to make it ourselves through our defining choices. Christian existentialists says that there is a God who created earth and people but that he gave no meaning to the world or purpose to the people. McKay 7th p. 925 & Age of Anxiety Chart

John Maynard Keynes

20TH CENTURY 1919 Keynes was a British economist and one of the first people to vocally opposed the Treaty of Versailles. In his book, Economic Consequences of the Peace, Keynes describes how the harsh reparations will destroy Germany and reduce it to poverty, while also hurting all other nations. This public disagreement struck a nerve with many English speaking people, as they felt more guilty for the reparations and harsh measures. Then, during the Great Depression, Keynes also had some ideas. Keynes wanted government to create agre deficits to stimulate the economy, not cut all spending like many governments did. This way, the economy won;t fal altogether and the government can pay back the debt once the economy has recovered. This idea helped to curb downturn and depression, despite the fact that traditional economists were horrified by it. McKay 7th p. 938 & 944

Bauhaus

20TH CENTURY 1919- 1933 Architecture in this Age of Anxiety was created along the lies of the new principle called functionalism. Functionalism had the goal of getting all buildings to be useful and purposeful, just like industrial products. The Bauhau was a German interdisciplinary design and architecture school founded by Walter Gropius. Besides the functionality of combining many artforms into one school, the building itself showcases other characteristics of modern architecture. The Bauhaus has clean lines, is minimally decorated, and was created using cheap and practical materials. The Bauhaus had international students and under one roof brought together leading architects, designers, and theatrical innovators. McKay 7th p. 931

Revival of Christianity

20TH CENTURY 1920- 1950 There had been some pre WWI Protestant theologians that were trying to reconcile religion with science. In order to achieve this, the supernatural powers of God were not emphasized as much , and some began to see Jesus just as a moral teacher. Others, like Kierkegaard made a commitment to a remote and majestic God to resolve his worries over imperfect nature. Karl Barth was a theologian who tried to recreate the fermor of the Reformation. Barth believed that humans are sinful and flawed, but that religion could save you through God's grace. Barth and others like him went in the opposite direction of other theologians, and firmly believed that there is no way to rationalize god, and that humans just needed blind faith. With the horrors of WWi, many people actually turned to religion for comfort and to have something to believe in blindly and something to be able to attribute the craziness of the world to. McKay 7th p. 925 - 926

Fascism

20TH CENTURY 1922 Fascism was a new kind of outlook on society and government. Fascists wanted to create a community on a national level, as opposed to many Marxists who wanted a global workers revolution. fascists were very focused on nationalism, usually racist, and glorified war. In fascist ideology, the nation is the greatest part of the people, and individual needs are inferior to that of the nation. While fascists promised to help the workers and the economy, they did not try to eliminate social class, but instead tried to unite people through nationalism and to have them forget about class. This unification and nationalism came with strings, as to nation had to be homogenous racially. Fascists used eugenics which were a pseudoscience used to selectively breed people to end up with the most "pure" nation. McKay 11th p. 899

Women in Mussolini's Italy

20TH CENTURY 1922- 1945 Mussolini had a completely traditional view of the family and wanted women in traditional domestic roles.Mussolini wanted all women to have as many children as possible, and for that reason favored heavier women, and considered not having children to be treason. He also did not allow abortions, clearly, or divorce. Mussolini was completely opposed to any form of liberal feminism. In an attempt to gain the support of the women, he created women's clubs and also gave support to pregnant and nursing mothers. McKay 11th p. 910 & Italian Population DBQ

German Inability to Pay Reparations

20TH CENTURY 1923 Germany was already experiencing inflation, but the French occupation of the Ruhr made it even worse. The German economy was stifled and inflation grew out of control. The German government had promised to support striking workers in the Ruhr region, so they kept printing money to pay the workers. However, this obviously just devalued the currency. Germans blamed Western powers, Jews, big business, communists, and workers for the inflation. All of this inflation led to Germans to be unable to pay the high reparations dictated at Versailles. Stresemann took leadership of Germany, and said that Germany would pay reparations but wanted a council to review the airness and probability of the reparation plan. McKay 7th p. 938

Adolf Hitler

20TH CENTURY 1924 -1945 Hitler began his political career by leading the National Socialist German Workers' Party. He was arrested for his attempted uprising known as the Beer Hall Putsch, and while in jail for this crime he wrote his book entitled "Mein Kampf." In this book, he discussed his ideas on the master race and the need to eliminate the undesirables like Jews and Slavs, the need for Germans to have more "living space," and his aspirations as a hypernatonalit fascist dictator for Germany. When the Great Depression hit Germany, the people were desperate and were willing to turn to anyone for answers. The party promised economic revitalization and provided Germans with the easy scapegoat of the Jewish populations. Slowly but surely, the Nazis gained more sezt in the Reichstag. By 1933, Hitler was appointed chancellor by President Hindenburg, and in 1933 he got the Enabling Act passed. This law gave Hitler dictatorial power for four years, but he obviously kept it for longer than that. In this way, Hitler rose to power through completely legal means. McKay 11th p. 911 - 913 & Search for Peace and Stability Notes

Women in Stalinist Russia

20TH CENTURY 1924 After the Russian Revolution, complete equality for women was established as Marxists believed in equality for the sexes. In the following years, divorce and abortion were made legal. However, when Stalin rose to power things changed for women initially. Stalin wanted a traditional social structure and for the population to grow, so he got rid of liberty laws for women. At the same time, higher education became available to many more women, and 75% of all doctors in the Soviet Union were women by 1950. Peasant women still had to work attitude of the home, as wages were very low and a family couldn;t survive on just one. While Strain initially wanted women to sink into the background, he did allow for their advancement in some areas because of need and the capability of women. McKay 11th p. 907

Dawes Plan

20TH CENTURY 1924 Since Germany was unable to pay their war reparation,s the reparations commission created a international board of financial experts to reevaluate the plan. Charles Dawes was the American banker who led the project. According to the Dawes Plan, yearly reparations were to be reduced and depended on the level of German prosperity. This way, Germany never again would have to spend all of its money on reparations since its country was failing to produce enough revenue. Germany was also to receive loans from the United States so that Germany would pay reparations to England and France. America agreed to this because with the reparations money England and France were able to repay their debt to America. France England, and Germany all agreed to this plan. McKay 7th p. 939

Treaty at Locarno

20TH CENTURY 1925 Not only was an economic plan made (Dawes Plan), but a political one was as well to try and solve international tensions. At Locarno, a series of agreements were signed. For example, France and Germany both agreed to accept their borders, adn England and Italy agreed to fight Germany or France if they invaded each other. This restored some balance of power, as France and Germany knew that there would be major consequences if they fought. Stresemann peacefully settled the Poland and Czechoslovakia border disputes and France promised them military support if the Germans attacked. McKay 7th p. 939

Destabilization of the Franc

20TH CENTURY 1926 After the 1924 democratic election in France, the government was ruled by moderates. The government was able to quickly rebuild Northern France which was destroyed during WWI. However, the project was very large and it resulted in a large deficit and inflation. Within two years, the french had fallen 10 percent of its prewar value which led to a financial crisis. Poincare, a conservative leader known for his stability, was called back into office. He cut spending deeply and raised taxes. The franc was stabilized, to about 1/5 of its prewar value. While it was not a shining result, it saved France from financial ruin. McKay 7th p. 940

Five Year Plans

20TH CENTURY 1928 After the disintegration of the NEP, Stain implemented five year plans, which were socialist plans with major economic goals. One part of this plan was the collectivization of agriculture. These angered the kulaks, or better-off peasants who has benefitted from the NEP, did not like this collectivization effort and tried to resist. In response, Stalin took their land and deported them to labor camps. The first five year plan also industrialized Russia. Under the Gosplan, or te State Planning Commission, goals were set for produced goods and raw materials. By 1937, industrial capacity in Russia had quadrupled. McKay 11th p. 903 - 905

Scandinavian Response to the Great Depression

20TH CENTURY 1929 In Sweden and Norway, the Social Democrats were the leading political party. They instituted improvements for both peasants and workers in a new kind of socialism. This socialism avoided revolution, and was flexible, creating cooperative community action on various issues. This cooperative action was important, because when the Depression hit in 1929, the groundwork was already laid to help the people. The government's extended defects to employ people in pubic projects, which kept production up and people employed. They also increased social welfare programs and gave women maternity allowances, unemployment insurance, and subsidized housing. Additionally, they actually taxed the rich highly, and then lowered taxes for each social class in order to keep the programs running. McKay 7th p. 946 - 947

Mass Unemployment in the Great Depression

20TH CENTURY 1929- 1939 The decrease in production during the Great Depression led to mass unemployment. The loss of jobs fed the cycle, as families now had less money to buy manufactured goods, so then more production sites had to close. Not only did unemployment hurt the economy, it was also a major social issue. Unemployment leads to higher poverty rates and government now had to support these people. Most government gave aid that pretty much just kept the people from starving, but not much more. The loss of jobs led to people postponing marriage, which resulted in a much lower birth rate. Additionally the boredom and uselessness these people felt led to an increase in suicides and mental illness. McKay 7th p. 944 - 945

Agricultural Collectivization in Ukraine

20TH CENTURY 1932 Stalin forced land across the soviet union to be collectivized, meaning that the farms were consolidated into large state owned setups. In Ukraine, the collectivization effort was faster and more violent than in other parts of the Soviet Union.The peasants were revolting, the Stalin viewed this as anti-Soviet nationalism that must be squashed. AS Stalin's forces pushed back against the Ukrainian peasants, they also began to be hostile towards all Ukrainians. To make the Iranians suffer, Stalin allows very little food to enter the region. Stalin had created a famine and the people were just one step above starving to death. McKay 11th p. 903

FDR's New Deal

20TH CENTURY 1932 When Franklin Delano Roosevelt was elected president, he promised a New Deal to help the impoverished and unemployed American masses. He reformed capitalism in order to preserve it. He favored government involvement in the economy to socialism or state owned resources. The NEw Deal also stimulated agricultural recovery. The gold standard was abandoned and FDR devalued the dollar, which raised prices and saved rural farmers. FDR also set up the Works Progress Administration. The WPA employed many American workers to build infrastructure like bridges and highways. Under the New Deal, FDR also created social welfare like social security and pension funds, as well as allowing unions to collectively bargain for workers' improvements. McKay 7th p. 946

British Appeasement of Nazi Germany

20TH CENTURY 1933 In 1933, Hitler withdrew Germany from the league of nations and two years later he announced that he would no longer observe the demilitarization rules outlined in the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler started to rebuild the German army, and France was enraged. However, England was still feeling guilty about the harsh measures at Versailles especially due to Keynes's writing, so they began using the policy of appeasement. The goal was to give in to Hitler's demands in order to avoid war, because the English also really did not want to start another world war. This made Hitler bolder, and he marched his troops into the Rhineland, and then even began looking for allies which he found in Italy. The appeasement policy is also what allowed Hitler to take Czechoslovakia without Western opposition. McKay 11th p. 917 - 918

Women in Nazi Germany

20TH CENTURY 1933-1945 Nazi ideology wanted to revert society back to traditional gender roles and to oppress women's opportunities, In order to do this, the Nazi government outlawed abortion, glorified motherhood, and discouraged women from working outside of the home or from getting an advanced education. Along with the glory of motherhood came the expectation that women would raise perfect children in alignment with the Nazi ideals. However, as the there weren't enough people in the late 1930s, the Nazis had to allow women in the workforce. Finally, women were all parts of women's Nazi organizations. In these groups, women organized events and charities and often found their one area of freedom. McKay 11th p. 915

The Purges of Stalin

20TH CENTURY 1936-1938 Stalin would murder everyone who opposed him and his power. These mass killings were known as purges, and under Stalin 20 million people were killed. These two years, however, saw the Great Purge. In the Great Purge, there were public trials where all of the incriminating evidence was false or obtained through torture. All of the old leaders of the Bolsheviks were killed, as well as minor leaders in the party. Stalin accused and convicted union officials, managers, intellectuals, army officers, and civilians of counter-revolutionary actions. These purges added to Stalin's rule through fear attitude, as it clearly showed that no one was safe from the accusations of Stalin. While the purges brought weakness to Russia, they also succeeded in getting more people to join the party and work for the cause. McKay 11th p. 908

The Holocaust

20TH CENTURY 1939 -1945 The Holocaust was the Nazi answer to the "Jewish Question," and was the systematic killing of European Jews, as well as other non-Jewish minority groups. The Holocaust claimed the lives of 6 million Jews, among that total 1 million were children. As the Nazi's conquered more territoy, more Jews came under their control and those Jews were persecuted just as heavily. Hitler really had the intention to rid the world of Jews. Hitler established ghettos, which were cramped urban areas with no sanitation and little food that Jews were forced to live in. Many died in ghettos alone. Others were taken to concentration camps like Dachau and Bergen-Belsen to perform forced labor. Many died there from execution or being worked to death. The other concentration camps were death camps like Auschwitz and Treblinka. Here, almost every entrant was murdered and only a few stayed to work. The gas chambers at auschwitz murdered over 1 million people, the majority of the victims being Jewish. Other Jews were forced on death marches, and even more were forced to dig their own graves before being shot into them. Finally, as transport to ghettos and camps, JEws were forced into cattle cars for days and many died along those dreadful journeys. McKay 11th p. 924 - 927

Nazi Consumer Goods

20TH CENTURY 1939 In order to allow propaganda to reach the people, Hitler had a radio created that was cheap and easy to produce. Every German family now had a radio in their kitchen and all of the programming was state run. Many time, there would be speeches from Hitler of Goebbels. This was the biggest success of all Nazi consumer goods, but there were others. The Volkswagen was known as the "People's Car" and was marketed only to the "superior" Aryan race. There were also attempts at the people's refrigerators and single family home. McKay 11th p. 916 - 917

Hitler's New Order

20TH CENTURY 1939 The New Order was based in National Socialism's tenant of racial imperialism. When teh Nazi's conwuered terriotry, they treated the people there according to their place in the Nazi racial hierarchy. Nordic people receive preferential treatment and the Nazis only set up puppet government there and did not engage in the ethnic cleansing of the Nordic people. Everywhere that the Nazis conquered, Holland, France, Italy, etc., Hitler demanded that the Jews be turned over. Concentration camps jailed Jews from all over continental Europe. To bolster the Nazi war effort, occupied nations not only had to pay for the cost of war, but also the cost of their occupation. In lands where the people were lower down on the racial hierarchy, like the Slavic lands, the conditions were much worse. Hitler wanted to enslave Ukrainians, Poles, and Russians until they were forced to just die out. McKay 11th p. 921 - 923

Denazification

20TH CENTURY 1945 -1948 After WWII, the Allies who now occupied Germany and Austria, began eliminating Nazi ideology and practice from social and political organizations. This was obviously a big job, as the Nazi ideology was everywhere, including in the press and the classroom. Another form of denazification was the Nuremberg Trials carried out by the Allies. This military tribunal tried and charged high ranking military and civilian Nazi officials with crimes against humanity and war crimes. 12 people were sentenced to death, and 10 got long prison terms. By 1948, the Allies stopped denazification because the nations needed stability and many Germans were opposed to the other trials of Nazi offenders. McKay 11th p. 938 - 939

United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA)

20TH CENTURY 1945 -1957 After WWII, there were thousands of displaced persons who needed food and shelter. The displaced persons group was made up of Holocaust survivors, prisoners of war, orphaned children, and everyday Europeans who lost everything during the war. UNRRA, the newly formed relief division of the UN helped these people and opened over 760 DP camps. UNRAA continued to spend 10 billion dollars to clothe, feed, shelter, adn relocate the refugees. Jewish DPs had unique struggles, because anti-semitism was still prominent across Europe and their towns were destroyed, so they were still unwelcome home. The creation of ISrael in 1948 led to many DPs moving there. UNRAA closed the last DP camp in 1957, and they had resettled million of refugees, Jewish and not. McKay 11th p. 937

Christian Democrats

20TH CENTURY 1945 After the radical occupation of the Nazis and the terrible war, old ideas were no longer valid to the people, so new politicians emerged to lead and present new ideas. The Christian Democrats were one of these groups, and they offered a truly center-right perspective and approach to recovery and reconciliation. Christian Democrats won as the leading party in Italy in the first postwar elections. In France, the Christian Democratic party called Popular Republican Movement, gave France its best post war leaders, like Charles de Gaulle. In West Germany, Christian Democrats ruled for twenty years. Christian Democrats were against authoritarianism and narrow nationalism, instead believing in democracy and liberalism. Additionally, they supported free-market economies and the production of consumer goods. McKay 11th p. 944 - 945

Decolonization

20TH CENTURY 1945 Before 1945, European colonial powers had justified their domination over the colonies using self-righteousness and believing that they were more civilized than the natives. However, after tw brutal world wars, these justification were no longer valid. This was a good opportunity for the many collines that had been striving for independence since their conquering. However, Cold War tensions were present in the process, as the US and USSR showed two different ways to run a country and were both trying to get as many allies as possible, especially the US who was practicing containment. Many new nations tried to practice non alignment, but that was hard and many had to choose sides. Most colonies, like Ghana and Tanzania, got independence peacefully, as their mother country (Britain) was more focused on stabilizing Europe and was willing to let colonies go. However, other colonies like Algeria fought long battles to be free. McKay 11th p. 956 - 957 & 961

Big Science

20TH CENTURY 1945 Big Science was the combination of theoretical work and sophisticated engineering in large organizations. This was an improvement from previous science because BIg Science could tackle extremely difficult problems and improve products in both the military and consumer sectors. The down side, is that Big Science is incredibly expensive and requires a government or major company to fund it. Big Science is how nuclear weapons were created, and spurred the Space Race. The Space Race was when the US and USSR competed to get to the moon first. Big Science also helped food production, as the green revolution directed agricultural research to improve and industrial food production. McKay 11th p. 943

Revolt in East Germany

20TH CENTURY 1946 -1953 Life in the East Bloc was hard as central planning led to a lack of basic consumer goods and the leaders expected insane amounts of work from the people in order to "build socialism." This labor was underpaid and in bad conditions. In East Berlin, the construction workers protested their low wages and increased quotas, and it resulted in nationwide revolt. Soviet troops came in with tanks and suppressed the revolts. In response to the revolts, the Soviet authorities reduced quotas, but the whole ordeal actually increased the position of hardline Soviets. McKay 11th p. 949

The Cold War

20TH CENTURY 1947 -1989 The Cold War was a long conflict between the Soviet Union, the UNited States, and their allies. Almost every country in the world chose a side, and very few practiced non-alignment but among them were India and Switzerland. The major conflict was between the US, who wanted to maintain democracy and contain communism, and the USSR who wanted to maintain communism. While they never actually fought, the tensions and threat of war impacted politics for these 40 years. The closest the nations ever got to actual war was in the Cuban Missile Crisis, but the leaders of both nations managed to deescalate the situation. The COld War was ultimately ended with the fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of the Soviet Union. The Paris Accord is the closest thing to a treaty to end the conflict. McKay 11th p. 934, 936, 939 - 940, 942 & Cold War Notes

European Unity

20TH CENTURY 1948 After WWII, politicians and citizens wanted limited state planning, strong economic growth, and democracy. Political groups like the Christian Democrats advocated for cultural and economic cooperation. This resulted in the increasing feeling of a European Unity, not just a French or German one. Many intellectuals believed that only the European Nation could rebuild Europe after the devastation of the World Wars. The Organization for European Economic Cooperation and the Council of Europe both supported commerce and cooperation between nations. The Americans actually required nations to work with other nations in these organizations to receive aid from the Marshall Plan. The European Coal and Steel COmmunity between Italy, France, Luxembourg, Belgium, West Germany, and the Netherlands created a single market without tariffs or quotas. Six years later, this Community signed the Treaty of Rome which create the Common Market. The Common Market combined all the economies of these nations to become almost as big as the United States, promoted free movement of labor and capital, and helped to build shared resources to modernize industry. McKay 11th p. 945

Post WWII Consumer Revolution

20TH CENTURY 1948-1973 During the economic miracle, the consumer revolution fully developed as near full employment and high wages allowed Europeans to buy more stuff. Also, the percentage of that income that was spent on necessities decreased, so Europeans really had extra money. Homes became filled with various electric appliances like vacuum cleaners, washing machines, radios, and televisions. Along with this increase in purchasing came and increase in installment, which was buying on credit. While in the past people were nervous about debt, increased social welfare programs made people less nervous about debt. The consumer goods in the West was also a Cold War tool, as it showed how the West was far superior to the East where they focused on heavy industry and the military. McKay 11th p. 947 - 948

1950's Economic Miracle

20TH CENTURY 1948-1973 Following WWII until the 1973 recession, the West's economy improve and stabilized. The MArshall Plan helped the countries start to recover, and the korean War also helped to stimulate the economy. This improvement was aided by the fact aht economic improvement was important to leaders and citizens, as they were afraid to fall back into a Great Depression-like economy. Governments used a mixture of capitalism and government planning to promote economic growth. Additionally, there were high taxes that allowed the government to have extensive welfare programs. This time became known as an economic miracle because of the rapid growth. McKay 11th p. 944

Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia

20TH CENTURY 1948-1980 The Soviet armies and Stalin controlled all nations in the East bloc, but Yugoslavia managed to escape domination. Tito was a resistance leader and the Communist leader of Yugoslavia, and he stood up to Stalin. Tito was able to succeed, because there was no Soviet Army in Yugoslavia because it was so far away from the USSR. While Yugoslavia was communist, it was not in the Soviet Bloc. As a nation Yugoslavia was able to practice non alignment, so it got aid from both the US and the USSR. McKay 11th p. 948

Simone de Beauvoir

20TH CENTURY 1949 - 1986 Beauvoir wrote "The Second Sex" after WWII as her feminist concerns increased. As an existentialist, she believed that all people must accept responsibility for their lives, and upon studying history concluded that men had made women into a dependant "other." Therefore, Beauvoir saw marriage as unjust, so she wanted couples to instead create free and EQUAL unions. She also believed that through courage women could break out of their bonds. This book, became the basis of Second Wave Feminism, as it advocated for equality and independence among humans. McKay 11th p. 988 - 990

Postwar Migration

20TH CENTURY 1950 Across the poorer nation of Europe, in both the East and West, agricultural workers moved to more developed parts of their country. However, many of these countries did not have much development, so the people moved to the more industrial northern Europe. These northern nations created guest worker programs that allowed the northern countries to get much needed labor as their economies grew, and gave the southern Europeans jobs. While the workers were just supposed to be guests, many stayed in their adoptive country. Another migration pattern was postcolonial migration. As colonies dissolved, many people from Africa and Asia moved to the country that had previously controlled them, as they were able to claim citizenship. McKay 11th p. 965

Economic Supranational Organizations and Non-Governmental Organizations

20TH CENTURY 1950 Following WWII, economic supranational organizations were created. The International Monetary Fund and World Bank were originally created to rebuild Europe, and in modern times give loans to developing countries. These organizations are mainly funded by wealthy Western nations, and developing countries can usually only get loans if they use neoliberal economic policies -- privatization, deregulation, reduction of spending. These two organizations were important in the East following the collapse of the USSR. The World Trade Organization is one of the most influential financial institutions. It has over 150 member countries, and sets tariff and trade regulations and agreements for them all. These organizations typically reflect the views of national governments, but there are also independent organizations known as NGOs. Some NGOs advocate for particular issues, and others are behind international programs. NGOs are financed by governments and private citizens alike. Examples include Greenpeace, Doctors Without Borders, and Oxfam. McKay 11th p. 1020

Five Year Plans in the East Bloc

20TH CENTURY 1950 In the East Bloc, the new Communist governments wanted their economies to mimic that of the Soviets, so they used five year plans. Most industries and businesses were nationalized, which laid the foundation for industrialization that would follow. During the reforms, priority was given the heavy industry and the military, so consumer goods were neglected. Eastern leaders were opposed to gluts of consumer goods, because they thought it created waste, social inequality, and led to too much individualism. The Communist leaders also worked to collectivize agriculture. This was accomplished everywhere except for Poland. Soviets allowed Poland to keep private agriculture because they hoped it would keep them calm. McKay 11th p. 948 - 949

Socialist Realism

20TH CENTURY 1950 The Communist regimes constantly needed an enemy, and that enemy became the West. Censors during the 50's and 60's imposed strict anti-Western values and wanted ideological conformity. The censors therefore required all artists and writers to conform to socialist realism, to make sure that they stayed aligned with the desired values. Social realism idealized the working class, and was the only kind of acceptable art. Many talented artists were forced to crete propaganda and other content for the party. McKay 11th p. 949

Gamal Abdel Nasser

20TH CENTURY 1952-1970 In 1948, Israel declared independence and her Arab neighbors immediately started a war. The Arabs lost, and this started a nationalist revolution in Egypt in 1952. Nasser, the head of the revolution, drove out the king who was pro-Western and by 1954 Nasser was president of an Egyptian Republic. Nasser was one of the non-European leaders who was able to practice non-alignment, meaning he did not take sides in the Cold War; he bought Soviet weapons and got American loans. Nasser caused trouble when he nationalized the Suez Canal Company, which was owned by the British, inn an attempt to bring in more revenue and to symbolically rid Egypt of Western influence. Britain allied with Israel and France to attack, and the Israelis entered through the Sinai peninsula while Europeans bombed Egyptian airfields. The US was afraid that this Western involvement would make all of the Arab nations align with the Soviets, so they joined the Society in getting the French, British, and Israelis to back down. McKay 11th p. 960 - 961

Youth Culture and the Generation Gap

20TH CENTURY 1955 After WWII, the generation of children born known as baby boomers created a distinct culture separate than that of their parents. The UNited States' developments frequently transferred into Europe; groups like the British Teddy Boys and the French Black Jackets were inspired by the characters in American film. American jazz and rock n roll also spread throughout Europe, and this was aided by the invention of the long playing record. Artists like Elvis scared parents and teachers, but energized teenagers. Marketing companies quickly realized that teenagers had their own money (postwar stability and affluence) that they could spend on goods that interest them. With directed marketing, teenagers were buying cosmetics, trendy clothes, record players, magazines, and radios. University attendance also increased, as government subsidies made it more affordable and prosperity grew. This expansion of education applied to women as well as men. However, the down side was overcrowding, and many student began to feel like their needs aren't being met. Worrying the universities just created clones of the same person, there is a direct connection between these thoughts and the student protests of 1968. This "generation gap" that the older people feared, was inescapable across the West. McKay 11th p. 966 - 967

Supermarket Revolution

20TH CENTURY 1957 Supermarkets changed many aspects of society. Before supermarkets, small neighborhood stores and grocers sold goods, but now shoppers bought the prepackaged food of a supermarket. In Florence, there were revolts from small grocers when supermarkets first arrived in 1961. In supermarkets, people had access to seasonal foods year round because of frozen and canned goods, and competing brands used low prices and adds to draw customers to their product. Cities were changed, because traffic increased by the supermarket. It also changed the roles of women as it was quick and convenient to do all of the shopping now. McKay 11th p. 976 - 977

Neocolonialism

20TH CENTURY 1960 Empires crumbled after WWII, but that didn't stop the Western powers from trying to keep some power in those regions. Neocolonialism describes the economic domination that nations established in their former-colonies. The Europeans used the incentives of special privileges to keep close cultural ties with the people. They also invested heavily in education in the French or English languages, which increased Western presence in African Nations. Neocolonialism can also be seen in the British Commonwealth. This was an organization set up by the British government to keep economic ties to the previous colonies, and many newly-independent British colonies joined. McKay 11th p. 963 & Foreign Polciy of the 60's Notes

Counterculture Movements

20TH CENTURY 1960 There was an entire generation of people who were disillusioned from the war and were unhappy with the materialism of society. Others were unhappy with injustice they saw. All of these felling and more resulted in the counterculture movement, which was a movement by the youth andmainyl students to address these problems and fix them. An early example is the Civil Rights movement in America, where African Americans peacefully protested segregation and racial inequality, and got laws changed in their favor. This peaceful protest inspired many other counterculture protests. The counterculture movement brought with it open discussions about sexuality, and what followed was an increase in premarital sex. Additionally, there was teh whole culture of drugs and rock n roll that went directly against the order and conservative expectations of older generations. McKay 11th p. 978

Second Vatican Council

20TH CENTURY 1962 - 1965 During the Consumer Revolution, religious doctrine lost its moral authority. People were giving in to materialism more than they were to religion. In protestant lands, church attendance and membership declined. The same occurred in traditional Catholic nations, and the people began to show an outward faltering in theri Catholic beliefs. The Catholic Church wasn't okay with their development, so they convened the Second Vatican Council in an attempt to combat the decline in religiosity. The Council wanted to democratize the Church, and call for openness in theology. In an attempt to be more inclusive, the Church changed the language of mass from Latin to the vernacular. Despite the effort, the decline in Church attendance didn't halt. McKay 11th p. 975

Pollution and the Environmentalist Movement

20TH CENTURY 1962 Environmentalists were rooted in the 60's, and like feminism had foundational texts. Rachel Carson wrote "Silent Spring," spoke of a future spring where there was no wildlife or animals because of pesticides. By the 70's, pollution was all over Europe, as forests died from acid rain, and rvers turned into sewers. Additionally, there had been nuclear disasters at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl, which further contributed to the rise of environmentalists entering society and government. The main agenda of the environmentalist was to decrease the negative effects of industrial development on the environment, and to raise awareness for the fact that environmental problems only exacerbated human poverty and inequality. in Denmark, environmentalist student activists locked the doors to a natural science conference to raise awareness for polluted lake water. Finally, by 1979 Canadians created Greenpeace, and environmentalists made their way into legislative bodies like in West Germany with the Green Party. McKay 11th p. 990 - 991

New Left

20TH CENTURY 1962 Students in the West were hoping for a more tolerant society with economic justice, so they turned to new forms of Marxism. The New Left was a movement that the Soviet Union had perverted Marxism for its own benefit, but that capitalism was not a good option either. The ideology hoped for a humanitarian socialist society that avoids the horrors of both systems. The New Left advocates were also opposed to conformity that came with the consumer revolution as they saw it dehumanize society. New Left was impacted by the counterculture movements happening all around it in the 60's. McKay 11th p. 978

Women in the Postwar Era

20TH CENTURY 1965 Overall, pregnancy and child care took up much less of a woman's life. Many women had their last child at 26 or 27, so when it went to school they had years of their life left. This allowed married woman to access many more opportunities or jobs outside of the home. There were three major forces that helped women enter the workplace: the economic boom meant that labor was needed, the economy shifted from mining and shipbuilding toward the white collar jobs of teaching, government, health care and more that women were already in in some cases, and there was equal opportunity in the education revolution so women were prepared to work. Even East Bloc nations had large percentages of women in the workforce, and those women even got into traditionally male fields like medicine. Despite all of the progres,, women were still discriminated against when applying for jobs and with their pay. Finally, men were not helping out more in the home so the working mother had what was known nas the double burden. She not only had to take care of her home, but her job as well. McKay 11th p. 965 - 966

Second Wave Feminism

20TH CENTURY 1967 The second wave of feminism wanted to secure gender equality and advocate for the rights and interests of women, like equal pay for equal work. There was an entire new class of feminist authors, like de Beauvoir, who wrote critiques of gender inequality and made many women begin to think about gender relations and the need for change. Additionally, women were able to look back at the Civil Rights Movement and knew that they would have to join together to get reform, so that's what they started to do. Betty Friedan created NOW (National Organization for Women) to help combat her so-call "gilded-cage" which was the oppressiveness of being a housewife. The movement began to advocate for laws that prevented discrimination and the wage gap, as well as for maternity leave and affordable child care. Feminists also advocated for family rights, and supported divorce, abortion, protection from assault, and the needs of single mothers. McKay 11th p. 987 - 990

Ostpolitik

20TH CENTURY 1970 Ostpolitik was West German Chancellor Brandt policy of trying to reunite the East and West. It was exemplified when he went to Poland and laid wreaths at the tomb of the unknown soldier and the Warsaw Ghetto memorial. Brandt also recognized the borders of the East Bloc in order to get a mutual renunciation of the use and threat of force. Ostpolitik was a part of the larger initiative to diffuse East-West tensions known as detente. The peak of detente was the Helsinki Accords. McKay 11th p. 973

Separatist Movements

20TH CENTURY 1972 Groups across Europe began to fight for autonomy and independence based on their region and ethnicity. In Spain's Basque region, the ETA was very violent. They used bombs and assassinations to try and pressure the government into giving them independence. Even after the constitution gave them special autonomy, they continued with the terror attacks and killed over 400 people in the 80's. In Northern Ireland, the IRA wanted to be united with Ireland and get rid of the BRitish who they saw as an occupation force. When British troops killed protestors protesting against anti-Catholic discrimination on Bloody Sunday, the entire situation escalated and became more violent. It took until 1998 for there to be a settlement, and the conflict was bloody for those 20 years. McKay 11th p. 992

Life Under Developed Socialism

20TH CENTURY 1975 Developed socialism was the term used by communist leaders to describe the accomplishments of their society: agriculture was collectivized (except for in Poland), industry was nationalized, and class differences were mostly level as there was extensive social welfare policy. Life under developed socialism was a mixture of outward conformity and private apathy. In public, people were party of the organizations that fit them (youth, women, sports) and participated in the rallies and parades. Privately, however, the people were unhappy with the oppressive system of the USSR. While living standards were above those in the developing world, the East was nowhere close to the West and despite socialists callings for an egalitarian society, women were still secondary. McKay 11th p. 992 - 993

Helsinki Accords

20TH CENTURY 1975 The relaxation of Cold War tension peaked when East and West nations met at Helsinki to sign the Final Act of the Conference in Security and Cooperation in Europe, known as the Helsinki Accords. The 35 nations agreed that political borders could not be changed by force, and they established acts that guaranteed the civil rights and political freedoms of their citizens. While the people in the East Bloc continually had their civil rights violated and did not get full freedom, the Helsinki Accords did help encourage dissidents. Now, the dissidents had actual legislation that they could demand be met by their government. McKay 11th p. 973

Information Age / Postindustrial Society

20TH CENTURY 1978 At this point, the foundation of economies shifted to high-tech industries like computers, and to service industries like medicine and finance. Advances in technology streamlined production, which nullified many industrial jobs. Additionally, heavy industry in the West lost support, which affected shipbuilding, mining, car building, and more. All of these factory closings resulted in rust belts which were industrialized areas that had become deserted lands. Places like Detroit and Birmingham are examples of the rust belts. Unemployment had reached is highest in Western Europe since the Depression, resulting in 19 million being unemployed. As crisi struck, rock music grasped onto the cynicism of the time. To make matters worse, citizens did not want higher taxes, but they wanted more welfare spending so deficits, debt, and inflation rose. McKay 11th p. 984

Cardinal Karol Wojtyla

20TH CENTURY 1978 The 60's and 70's was a turbulent time for Poland, and they had resisted communism from the beginning. Poland had managed to keep ppp most agricultural land in the hands of private citizens and the Catholic Church was still very present. After stagflation in the 60's, the working class revolted and the new Communist leader hoped that importing Western technology and capital would help Poland. Insead, the economy suffered and people were hoping for a miracle. That miracle came when Cardinal Wojtyla was elected Pope John Paul II in 1978. One year later, he returned to Poland and energized the people through his speeches. McKay 11th p. 994

Neoliberalism

20TH CENTURY 1979 Conservartives of the 80's were known as neoliberals, and they believed in a free market and laissez-faire policies, and many wanted to cut social welfare spending. Neo Liberals wanted to cut funding for housing, eduction, and health insurance, and also wanted to limit business subsidies, all in an attempt to stabilize and also get rid of regulations. Additionally, neoliberalism called for the privatization of industry. Margaret Thatcher was a neoliberal elected to be Prime Minister of GB in 1979. She wanted to reduce the role of the government, and she reduced all kinds of social welfare spending as well as taxes. Thatcher allowed low and moderate income people who were renting their apartments to buy them at very low prices, which i created a whole new bloc of property owners, which hurt the socialists in GB. However, during her administration unemployment rose, the wage gap grew, and rising poverty led to an increase in crime. She was ultimately voted out of office. Ronald Reagan was a neoliberal American president who also cut welfare spending. By doing so, he mobilized the liberal forces and moderates turned away. During his administration, the deficit rose and debt tripled. McKay 11th p. 985 - 987

The Internet

20TH CENTURY 1986 The internet began expanding worldwide, and brought with it many changes. Change was increased when smartphones were created and people had portable computers. Letter writing became less common, and people now used texts, emails, Facebook, Skype, and more to keep in touch. Landlines also became less relevant with smartphones and Skype. Internet speed and security led to online shopping, putting into business major companies like Amazon. Books, movies, and music were all transmitted over the internet now as well. the internet also led to the question of privacy, as governments could track search history, location, and more. Advocates for increased privacy worked with legislators to give internet users more privacy. These laws tended to be stricter in Europe than in the US. Social media also helped to spread ideas and protests, like in the Arab Spring. Dictatorships like North Korea and Iran knew how dangerous the internet could be to their rule, and restricted use in their country. McKay 11th p. 1023 - 24

Polish Shock Therapy

20TH CENTURY 1990 Poland also tried shock therapy to reform their economy after they got rid of communism. One of the reasons that they chose to implement it was because neoliberal Western institutions like the World Bank and International Monetary Fund supported and encouraged its use. The Polish government liberalized prices, cut spending to reduce the deficit, raised taxes and privatized industry. At first, the plan resulted in inflation and lower living standards, which in turn led to public protest. However, since the Poles had the support of the West, they received financial support to help them. By the beginning of the 21st Century, Poland had one of the strongest economies in the former East Bloc. McKay 11th p. 1012

Climate Change

20TH CENTURY 1990 The leading case of climate change is the burning of fossil fuels that release massive amounts of CO2 into the air. As average temperatures increase, glaciers melt, freshwater sources dry up, adn weather patterns are tampered with. The EU has been trying to restrict CO2 emissions in order the slow the effects and continuation of climate change. Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands have become global leaders in alternative sources of energy. The Dutch have been building floodgates, levees, and dykes to prepare themselves for the future disasters that global warming can bring. In 2012, 192 countries met at the UN Climate Change Conference which set high goals for the reduction of CO2 emissions by 2020. McKay 11th p. 1037

Global Economy

20TH CENTURY 1990 With the return to stability in Europe as well as new neoliberal policies, economies across the globe were doing very well. New multinational companies linked these economies through their shared interests. An example is Vivendi, a communication and media company centered in Paris that actually control lots of technology-related things worldwide like music, film, broadcasting, video games, and more. Additionally, as financial regulations decrease, international trade is easier than ever. THe quick sending of capital and information, has allowed for interconnected global economies centers in major cities like Hong Kong, London, Moscow, and New York. While this seems okay, the connection of the economy can actually be detrimental for the world. For example, a bank failure in Thailand spread to Japan, Russia, and even Latin America because all business in this world is connected. The Global Economy ensures that a failure in one state will be felt worldwide. McKay 11th p. 1016

Russian Intervention in Chechnya

20TH CENTURY 1991 Putin is an aggressive leader, and that aggression carries over into his interaction with the Commonwealth of Independent States, a loose union of the former Soviet states. Conflict has been centered around the Caucasus region which is rich in oil, as well as religious tension and nationalist sentiment. Chechnya is a small Muslim republic south of Russia that Russia keeps invading ever since they tried to declare their independence in 1991. Putin and Russia do not really have control in Chechnya, but there is still a lot of conflict that has caused casualties on both sides as well as human rights abuses. Russia tried to end the fighting in 2009, but insurgency in Chechnya have continued the fight as they are inspired by radicalism and nationalism. McKay 11th p. 1010

Tariq Ramadan

20TH CENTURY 1991 Ramadan is Europe's most famous Muslim intellectual, despite the controversy that surrounds him. SOme consider him to be a moderate who is connecting Europeans and Muslims, but some see him as an islamic militant. Ramadan is the grandson of the founder of the Muslim Brotherhood, and was born in Switzerland. In Switzerland, he went to public schools and spoke both French and arabic fluently. Ramadan is also highly educated, with a doctorate in Islamic studies and other degrees in French literature. Ramadan believes that Muslims should participate as full citizens in theri Western homes, a realization he came to after discovering that Europe feels more like home to him than his ancestral Egypt. He is a popular speaker in Europe for both Muslims and nonMuslims, but was unable to enter the US because he made donations to a Palestinian charity that had ties to terrorism. McKay 11th p. 1028

Russian Oligarchs

20TH CENTURY 1992 Economic shock therapy in Russia had many unintended results, one of which was social revolution. THe disorganized privatization and high inflation resulted in the Oligarchs, who are a new social elite group of Russia. The Oligarchs have lots of wealth and power and pretty much control industry, while the rest of the Russian citizens are getting poorer. The Oligarchs were mainly former managers, financiers, ad party members who got large shares of industry after privatization, so they controlled everything. The Oligarchs manage to maintain their wealth and status by using corrupt business tactics. McKay 11th p. 1009

European Union

20TH CENTURY 1993 The European Common Market renamed itself the European Union as the 20th century came to a close. The EU's goals were to allow for the free movement of labor, capital, and services throughout itself. There were also some nations that wanted to be unified under a single currency. While this did occur with the euro, not all nations chose to adopt it -- England still uses the pound. The Maastricht Treaty set the standards for acceptance into the monetary union, as well as set legal standards. However, not everyone supports the MAastricht Treaty as some did not like the bureaucracy it created in Brussels which could make laws for all of the EU, and feared that is cause a loss of local tradition. However, most opposition to the EU came because any nations had to cut their budgets to meet the EU financial standards, and this resulted in the cutting of social welfare spending. As a result, many people felt like the EU was being created at their expense. When put to a vote, the Maastricht Treaty was passed by a small margin in many countries. Despite opposition, the EU was created and continues to be a strong and prominent force in world politics and policy. McKay 11th p. 1016 - 1019

Ostalgie

20TH CENTURY 1995 As the East Bloc rebuilt itself after the fall of communism in 1991, the gap between rich and poor continued to grow, with the elderly and the ordinary citizens being the ones to get poorer and young former party members continued to get richer. Not only did the gap between people increase, but the wealth gap between cities and rural region grew as well, with cities being more prosperous. While the people did not want the return of communism, many missed the certainty that came with it. The Soviet state had guaranteed jobs and social welfare which was no longer a reality, and the new competitive nature of capitalism was a sharp contrast. Ostalgie was the term created to describe this nostalgia for the culture and stability of life in the East Bloc. McKay 11th p. 1013

Kosovo Liberation Army

20TH CENTURY 1998 Albanian Muslims living in Kosovo were also hoping to declare independence from Milosevic and Yugoslavia, and the agreement following the Bosnian Civil War had no sections to help them towards their goal. Frustrated militants created the Kosovo Liberation Army and began to fight for their independence. In response, the Serbians increased their oppressive policies and actually attacked guerilla fighters and ordinary citizens. As a result of these attacks, 250,000 Kosovars were displaced from their homes. When Milosevic wouldn't stop, NATO began to bomb Serbia again (1999). In response, Serbians forced 865,000 Albanian Kosovars into exile. NATO increased their attacks, and got Milosevic' forces to leave Kosovar and allowed the exiled people to return home. NATO forces continued to occupy Kosovar, ending 10 years of civil war in Yugoslavia. McKay 11th p. 1015

Globalization Protests

20TH CENTURY 1999 Globalization brought despair to many people around the world, so people began to protest. Protesters said that corporations did not do enough to deal with the problems they created like pollution, inequality, nad unfair labor practices. At the 1999 WTO meeting in Seattle, thousands of protestors from around the globe, inducing environmentalists and labor rights advocates, gather to march and disrupt the meeting. They were protesting the injustices being done as these supranational organization tried to expand their power. The Occupy movement was a group of people who would occupy public places to protest social inequality and the wealth ga. They labelled themselves to be the 99% living with nothing while the richest 1% had it all. McKay 11th p. 1021 - 1022

Mikhail Gorbachev

20TH CENTURY 3/11/1985 -12/25/1991 When Gorbachev came to power in the USSR, the economic situation was abysmal. He was a true communist, but realized that the USSR was not keeping up with the West, so he instituted reforms. Gorbachev realized that the arms race had a negative effect on living conditions, so he actually wanted to help the ordinary person. Gorbachev attacked corruption in the government, and consolidated his power as well as condemning alcoholism. To help the economy, Gorbachev created perestroika. Under this system, government price controls were eased, state industry got more freedom, and private for-profit cooperative were allowed to be created for private services. Glasnost was another reform by Gorbachev. This policy brought openness for media and government. Banned authors were allowed to be published, and public criticism of Stalin was not only allowed but common. Following the glasnost policy, Gorbachev actually updated the people daily about the disaster at Chernobyl. Gorbachev also democratized the USSR, which led to the first free election since the Russian Civil War being held in 1989. He was the premier to pull out of Afghanistan and repeal the Brezhnev Doctrine. McKay 11th p. 997 - 998

The Truman Doctrine

20TH CENTURY 3/12/1947 America was fearful that the USSR was going to try and extend communism beyond the East Bloc, so President truman announces the Truman Doctrine. The doctrine had the intent to "contain" communism, meaning that the United States would use diplomatic, economic, adn military mean to stop the expansion of communism. This was not a plan to end communism in the East, just a plan to keep it in the East. It was first used when Truman requested military aid from Congress to send to Greece to support the anti-communists in their civil war. It was also used when the US sent aid to stop the threat of Soviet invasion in Turkey. McKay 11th p. 941

The Marshall Plan and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance

20TH CENTURY 4/3/1948 After WWII, Western Europe was facing difficulties -- food shortages, high inflation, flourishing black markets -- and America worried that an unstable west would allow communism to grow. Therefore, Secretary of State Marshall created the MArshall Plan to help Western Europe rebuild. The Marshall Plan sent billions of dollars in aid to 15 Western European nations, and it helped to stabilize the region. America was willing to send money to the East as well, but the Soviets didn't want American interference. Instead Stalin established COMECON to recover independently of the West. McKay 11th p. 941 - 942

Civil War in Bosnia-Herzegovina

20TH CENTURY 4/6/1992 12/14/1995 After Tito died, Milosevic took his place as a Serbian leader of Yugoslavia. Bosnia Herzegovina was a multiethnic area of Yugoslavia with the Muslim Bosnians being the majority and the Syrians being the minority. In 1992, Bosnia declared its independence following Slovenia and Croatia. Milosevic was not okay with this declaration, so he called upon Serbs in Bosnia and Serbia to enact genocide against the Bosnians. The Serbians murdered, raped, and destroyed thousands of people and their homes. Many Bosnians who were not dead were now refugees. It took until 1995 for the NATO forces to do something about another genocide in Europe during the 20th century. The NATO forces bombed Serbian sites, and managed to bring an end to the civil war and genocide. President Clinton helped to create a peace treaty. NATO forces stayed in Bosnia to act as peacekeepers, and by 2013 their numbers were greatly reduced. McKay 11th p. 1014 - 1015

May Events

20TH CENTURY 5/10/1968-1968 was filled with worldwide student protest. In France, a massive student protest occurred simultaneously with a general strike, so the French economy stopped. The students were unhappy with the conservative university policy, the Vietnam War, and the abuses of capitalism, so they occupied buildings in the University of Paris (inspired by the New Left). The police tried to clear the area, and a violent fight followed. Hundreds were arrested and injured. This protest triggered a nationwide strike, and it seemed like the Fifth Republic was crumbling. However, the stickers were much less radical than the students and they went back to work after the government promised higher wages and better work conditions. McKay 11th p. 980 - 981

Assassination of Giacomo Matteotti

20TH CENTURY 6/10/1924 With Mussolini in power, he was able to fool the parliament into thinking that he was a political moderate. Therefor, they passed a new electoral law that gave 2/3 of the representatives in parliament to the party with the most votes. Emboldened by this (misguided) action, fascist kidnapped and killed the head socialist politician, Matteotti which resulted in a political crisis. This was good for Mussolini, who took advantage of the chaos and passed oppressive restriction on the people. The government was ruled by decree, elections were fixed, political adversaries to Mussolini were silenced, labor unions were forced to disband, and fascists took control of the public education system. McKay 11th p. 909

Korean War

20TH CENTURY 6/25/1950 - 7/27/1953 At the WWII conferences, it was established that the Korean peninsula would be divided into 2 spheres of influence at the 38th parallel. Russia had influence over the North. Therefore, in 1950, when North Korea invaded the South, America saw it as Soviet aggression as the two nations were in the midst of the Cold War. Truman wanted to retaliate, so he went to the UN security council for military assistance. Since Russia was boycotting the UN over the US not acknowledging the Chinese government under Mao, the UN was able to get a unanimous vote. Troops were sent into North Korea to aid the South Koreans. American General MacArthur wanted to use nuclear weapons, but Turman insisted on limited war which was the sole use of conventional weapons. The war ended in a stalemate and no peace treaty was drafted or signed. The war was a direct result of Cold War tensions. Cold War Lecture Notes

Hitler's SS Guards

20TH CENTURY 6/30/1934 The Nazi party has stormtrooper guards called the SA. Even before the Nazis took power, the SA was harassing Jews and fought Communists. When the Nazi party came to power, the SA were expecting high positions but HItler did not want to give up power. Therefor, he had his elite personal guard, the SS, assassinate 100 SA leaders and their allies. From that point on, the SS grew and became the police force in the concentration camps, led by Himmler. McKay 11th p. 913

Spanish Civil War

20TH CENTURY 7/17/1936 -4/1/1939 Spain was not immune to the impacts of the Great Depression. The democratically elected government could not deal with the economic ruin, and the Spanish people just wanted answers. A group of nationalists revolted and supported Francisco Franco to be the new leader of Spain. Franco was a hyper nationalist fascists who was supported by Hitler and Mussolini. Stalin supported those loyal to the democracy. Franco won, and led Spain as a fascist dictator until 1975. Picasso's painting, "Guernica," is a social commentary on his opposition to Franco and the German bombing of Spanish towns. McKay 11th p. 918 & Search for Peace and Stability Notes

The Berlin Wall

20TH CENTURY 8/13/1961 -11/09/1989 Khrushchev ordered that the Allies leave their portion of Berlin (the Western part), by the Allies only firmly established their occupation of the city. Khrushchev backed down, but when East Germany went to build a wall in 1961, Khrushchev was ready to give his full support. The Wall was trying to stop the massive migration from East to West Berlin. The building of this wall violated agreements between the Allies and the USSR that gave the Allies access to East Germany. President Kennedy publicly announced that he would never leave Berlin, but he didn't so much to stop its construction because he was hoping this physical barrier would ease Cold War tensions. This backfired however, and actually emboldened Khrushchev to place missiles in Cuba. McKay 11th p. 955 - 956

World War Two

20TH CENTURY 9/1/1939- 9/2/1945 Spurred by Nazi beliefs on race and space, Hitler had his armies invade across Europe and he got control of most of continental Europe. Hitler had endless ambition and a desire to create this master race, and that fed his drive for more land. The Axis powers in WWII were Germany, Italy, and Japan. The Allied States were America, Britain, and the Soviet Union. The Allies were determined to stop the spread of fascism, and they were ultimately successful. The war originally began when Hitler invaded Poland, and ended with the atomic bombs dropping on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. WWII claimed the lives of 50 MILLION soldiers and civilians. McKay 11th p. 920 & 931

Nikita Khrushchev

20TH CENTURY 9/14/1953 - 10/14/1964 After joining the party as a coal miner and rising through the ranks, he became premier in 1955. Khrushchev was a reformer, and in his "secret speech" he admitted to the mistakes or Stalin and spoke negatively of his cult of personality. Khrushchev took the USSR in the direction of liberalization, known as destalinization in the West. Khrushchev called for "peaceful coexistence" with the west, relaxed the workplace controls imposed by Stalin, and began to focus on light industry. His efforts of destalinization did create a small consumer revolution, and the people got access to things like cars and televisions. Finally, Khrushchev was very proud of Soviet achievements, and liked to claim that the East Bloc had a standard of living and consumer goods industry that would soon be greater than the West. McKay 11th p. 950 - 953

German-Russian Non-Aggression Pact

20TH CENTURY August 1939 Hitler and Stalin signed this non-aggression pact that promised that they would remain neutral if the other nation became involved in hostilities. A secret addition to the pact divided up Poland, Finland, Romania, and the Baltic region amongst the two of them. Stalin only agreed to this pact because he did not trust the Western nations and liked Hitler's offer of instant territory. This pact paved the way to war and Hitler so no major power close by opposing his expansion. However, by June 1941, Hitler broke the pact and invaded Russia. By october Ukraine and Leningrad were surrounded and Moscow was under siege. The only reason that Hitler had to retreat from Russia was due to the cold winter and the unpreparedness of his soldiers for it. McKay 11th p. 919 & 921

Solidarity

20TH CENTURY August 1980 Strikes broke out across Poland, starting at the shipyards in Gdansk. Other workers joined their strike in SOLIDARITY, and the strikers got the Communist government to accept their demands for economic reform, freedom for political prisoners, and freedom of speech. Lech Walesa was a leader from the shipyard and he organized a democratic trade union called Solidarity. Supported by the Catholic Church and intellectuals, Solidarity grew into a massive national union. Solidarity was careful though, and only defended what they got in the Gdansk Agreement and didn't push the communists any further. A general outlawed Solidarity and arrested its leaders and caused it to go underground, but it didn;t extinguish the ideologies. Solidarity would lead Poland as it broke away from the failing Soviet Union. McKay 11th p. 994 - 996

Joseph Stalin

20TH CENTURY December 1927-1953 Lenin died and had not named a successor for himself in Russia. It came down to Stalin, a high party official, and Trotsky, the leader of the Red Army. Ultimately, Stalin gained power and exiled Trotsky. Not only was Stalin more popular and was therefore able to get support from more of the party, but people don't like Trotsky's insistence on bringing the revolution to the entire world so they supported Stalin who was just focused on Russia. As the leader of Russia, Stalin created an intense cult of personality and used lots of propaganda to convince the people that he was the best ruler for them. Despite appearances, Stalin's rule was dreadful for the people. He killed 20 million of his own people through purges and targeted attacks on "enemies," starvation, and more. Life under Stalin was awful and terrifying because at any minute you could be killed. McKay 11th p. 900 - 903

Prague Spring

20TH CENTURY January 1968 - 8/5/1968 Czechoslovakia was another country that experienced revolt in 1968. In the elections, the Stalinist leader was voted out in favor of Dubcek, a reform Communist who brought immediate change as he believed that he could reconcile true socialism with personal freedoms. Dubcek's government was hoping to achieve "socialism with a human face." To start, Dubcek decreased central planning and let local decisions be made by trade unions and workers' unions, as well as relaxing censorship. Dubcek was afraid that Czechoslovakia would just be a repeat of HUngary, so he made sure to constantly declare his allegiance to the USSR and the Warsaw Pact. However, the party powers were afraid that a more liberal nation would be absorbed by NATO, so they sent in the military to intimidate the Czechoslovakian leaders. The Czechoslovak leaders did not even try to fight back, and accepted the occupation. All reform was reversed and all Soviet demands were met. McKay 11th p. 983

Economic Shock Therapy in Russia

20TH CENTURY January 1992 Yeltsin, the new president of Russia after the fall of communism, wanted to grow the economy so he turned to liberalization. Price controls were abolished on all goods except for public transportation, bread, vodka, and oil. Industries and companies were aolos privatized, and each citizen received about $22 USD to buy stock in these new private companies. However, business ownership tended to remain with the old bosses of COmmunism, so the goal of worker ownership of industry was not achieved. This shock therapy was intended to bring prosperity to the people, but instead prices rose, production rates fell, and inflation skyrocketed. One main reason for the economic instability was the issue of privatization. Under Communist control, there were one or two factories that produced a good. When the industry was privatized, it went from a state monopoly to a private one. SInce it was privately owned, there was now the incentive of profits so factories owners cut production and raised prices. McKay 11th p. 1008

The Berlin Crisis

20TH CENTURY June 1948 The Allies replaced the currency of Western Germany and Berlin, which violated the peace settlement and made Stalin nervous that American presence was growing too much in Europe. Additionally, Britain was getting closer to France, the Netherlands, and Belgium, worrying Stalin that a strong Eastern Bloc was forming against him. Stalin wanted something that would give him a bargaining tool against the West, and decided to use his access to Berlin. Stalin blocked all traffic to Berlin, hoping that this would make the West conceded. Instead, the Allies responded with constant flights that brought in supplies to West Berlin, nullifying Stalin's attempted blockade. McKay 11th p. 942

New Economic Policy

20TH CENTURY March 1921 The NEP was created under Lenin to replace War Communism. This policy have limited economic freedom to try and review agriculture and industry after a famine that resulted in the breakdown of industry. Peasant farmers could sell their surpluses in free markets and private traders were allowed to work again. While light industry gained freedom, heavy industry (railroads, banks) were still nationalized. The NEP was great for the Soviet Union because it appease the masses of peasants and prevented them from revolting by guaranteeing their right to private property. Young communists hated the NEP because they saw its cpitalitic qualities, and Stalin was more than happy to get rid of it. McKay 11th p. 900 - 902

Brezhnev Doctrine

20TH CENTURY November 1968 Brezhnev was dedicated to maintaining communism and the Soviet Union, so he created the Brezhnev Doctrine. This Doctrine stated that he would intervene militarily in any East Bloc nation to preserve Communism. This Doctrine was also announced following the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia. This determination to keep communism was also seen when Soviet leaders tried to get dissidents to change their goal from reforming society to building a society that has individual freedom. McKay 11th p. 983

Paris Accord

20TH CENTURY November 1990 After Germany was united, peace agreements to end the Cold War became possible. Delegates from the US, USSR, and 22 other European nations met in Paris and agreed to decrease their military size. At this conference, the borders of Germany and the Baltic states were all recognized, legalized, and bound. This Paris Accord serves as the treaty for both the Cold War and WWII. The resulting peace from this agreement, allowed the US and USSR to continue down a path to peace. Both nations got rid of many nuclear weapons, and in 1991 President George H. W. Bush and Premier Gorbachev cancelled the constant alert status of plans armed with nuclear bombs. McKay 11th p. 1002

1945

20TH CENTURY October 1922 After WWI, Mussolini organized bitter WWI veterans, like himself, into a fascist group. In Italian, fascist means "a union of forces," and the word did not yet have its modern connotation. Mussolini was the first to use it that way later on. Mussolini had a private militia called the Black Shirts, and he used them to get rid of the Italian socialists. Mussolini had the Black Shirts create more violence, and then he stepped forward as a possible candidate to end the violence. Of course, he had incited the violence on purpose so that he could call off his private militia and then pretend like he solved everything. Then, an armed fascist group went to Victor Emmanuel III and forced him to allow Mussolini to rule Italy. Through a new government, Mussolini took power in Italy LEGALLY as it was given to him by the king. McKay 11th p. 909

Non-Jewish Victims of the Holocaust

20TH CENTURY September 1939-1945 While Jews accounted for 6 million of the 11 million people killed by the Nazis based on race, religion, and ability, there were 5 million people killed from other groups that Hitler condemned. People with different mental and physical disabilities were forced into hospitals, and many were killed as HItler did not want them to have any children. Another group that was killed were the gypsies. Gypsies were sent to death camps, and of all the groups that he targeted, they were the closest to extermination. Poles, Russians, and Communists were all seen as threats. Many were forced into labor camps, but many died as well. Additionally, HItler persecuted Jehovah's Witnesses. All of these executions were carried out in the hope to create Hitler's idea of the perfect Aryan race. McKay 11th p. 924 & Holocaust Packet

OPEC

20TH CENTURY September 1960 The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries is an Arab led organization of oil exporters. During the 60's, they saw the price of crude oil decrease while Western consumer goods kept increasing in price. OPEC hoped to reverse this by acting as a united front against Western oil companies. After America came to the help of its ally Israel in the Yom Kippur War (1973), OPEC placed an embargo on oil shipments to the US. Crude oil prices nearly quadrupled, and the Western nations did nothing even though they knew such a rapid price increase was dangerous. This embargo and the price increase on oil sent the economy into distress, as unemployment rose, inflation rapidly increased, and standards of living dropped. The economy had entered stagflation, and didn't begin to recover until the 80's. McKay 11th p. 983 - 984

Muslim Brotherhood

20TH CENTURY ` 1928 Many radical political Islamic groups emerged as a reaction to the secularization and foreign control via the mandate system post WWI. The Muslim Brotherhood was one such group created in Egypt. The BRotherhood called for freedom from European control and the return to sharia law in Egypt, as well as social welfare programs, economic independence, and land reform. These ideas appealed to many classes and nationalities, and within 40 years the Brotherhood had chapters across North Africa and the Middle East. Other Islamic groups advocating for autonomy also appeared, and there was a wide range of ideas. Overall, the people in these groups were either moderate centrists who wanted reform within existing institutions, or they were more radical and willing to use violence. McKay 11th p. 1033

Treaty of Lisbon

21ST CENTURY 12/1/2009 The EU expanded membership, and they realized that their governing structure need to be reworked. In June 2004, they wrote a new constitution for the EU that created a president, foreign minister, and proportional voting. While the nations retained veto power, this constitution would centralize the system much more than before, and for that reason it could not received unanimous support. The nations wanted to preserve their sovereignty and customs, and were not willing to give them up in favor of a more unified EU. Instead, it was replaced by the Treaty of Lisbon in 2007. Lisbon kept many sections of the old constitution, but reformed the EU political structure and streamline the bureaucracy. It was ratified by all EU nations -- Hungary was first and Italy last -- and successfully united a once war-torn and divided continent. McKay 11th p. 1019

Arab Spring

21ST CENTURY 12/17/2010 In TUnisia, a fruit vendor set himself on fire to protest official harassment. This resulted in protest spreading across Tunisia that ended up with the authoritarian president fleeing the country. Social media was imperative in the Arab Spring, because it caused the ideals of the protest to spread. Protest made its way to Egypt where the people forced the president to resign and replaced with a US friendly leader. NATO supported Libyans who brought down the dictator who ruled the country. FInally, the Arab Spring spread to Syria where a civil war broke out that is still being fought today. McKay 11th p. 1034 - 1035

Multiculturalism

21ST CENTURY 2010 By 2010, the ethnic makeup of Europe had changed due to immigration. Throughout Europe there were diasporas, or permanently displaced ethnic groups, that brought diversity and new traditions and culture to the nations they lived in. As a result of diversity, multiculturalism emerged throughout Europe. Multiculturalism is the oxygen of ethnic style in all aspects of life like food, clothing, literature, and more. For example, Germany's most popular fast food became a Turkish sandwich and some British People were unhappy when the Foreign MInister tried to make a multicultural-Indian dish, chicken tikka masala, the national dish of GB. Multiculturalism extended into music. Rai originated in Bedouin culture (N. Africa) and Algerians brought it to France. Today, rai is a mix of Spanish and French pop, US rap, and Arab and North Africa folk music. McKay 11th p. 1025

Environmental Degradation

21ST CENTURY 2010 Many environmental problems are negatively affecting the planet, and one of them is environmental degradation. Lakes and oceans used to be considered never ending sources for food and water, but overfishing and the disposal of toxic waste are destroying the bodies of water. In 2010, an oil rig in the Gulf o Mexico exploded and caused major pollution to the Gulf. Other examples are deforestation, soil erosion, and over fertilization. Additionally, toxins are entering the air, land, and water, and entire species are going extinct or ARE extinct due to the destruction of their habitats. While governments and NGOs have tried to stop the destruction of the planet, it is very hard as it requires the cooperation of many governments and groups. McKay 11th p. 1037

2008 Recession

21ST CENTURY October 2008 The US entered a recession caused by bank failures, the burst of the housing market, and an unstable financial securities market. The US government poured billions into the economy to try and revitalize it, and while the American economy was slowly improving by 2013, the recession had already affected the world. ICeland was one of the first European nations hit with the recession. The recession was particularly bad in Europe due to high deficits, a housing bubble, and a weak bond market. the Icelandic banking system and currency just collapsed when the recession hit. Ireland and Latvia had to seriously cut their government spending to balance the budget. Spain, Greece, nad Portugal were all close to bankruptcy. Great Britain was also deeply affected. This crisi made some nations begin to question the EU, as nations like France and Germany had to bail out weaker and les fiscally-cautious nations like Greece. McKay 11th p. 1035

Illegal Immigration

21TH CENTURY 2000 Many immigrants applied for asylum or as refugees in order to move to safer and more prosperous nations. However, many people were rejected and labeled "illegal." This did not discourage people from trying to still enter these countries though, as economic possibility was usually better in places other than home. Eastern Europeans moved West, while some North Africans went to Eastern Europe because the economy there far surpassed theirs. This illegal immigration was also increased by criminal gangs. The ganges would smuggle people into new countries for profit. Gangs smuggled mostly young, sigle, eastern European women from countries like Russia and the Ukraine. Sometimes the women were kidnapped, and other times they were attracted to the gangs from promises of a job as a waitress or some other low-level innocent job. Instead, these women were usually forced into prostitution. McKay 11th p. 1025

Vladimir Putin

21TH CENTURY 2000 Putin was elected president in 2000 after Yeltsin, and was elected in 2004. As an ex-KGB agent, Putin is brutal and runs the country through "limited democracy." This was a mixture of economic reform -- nationalized key industries, lowered business taxes -- and semi-authoritarian policies like the strengthening of the secret police. Putin also aggressively censors the press and media, and gets rid of any opponents to him. Term limits made Putin step down in 2008 and he selected his successor to be Dmitry Medvedev. When Medvedev was elected president, Putin was named prime minister which maed many believe that Putin was the one running the country. Here, some more of limited democracy is shown. While there were election, Putin worked around them and still managed to get himself into the dominant position, even though medvedev was still technically president. Putin then won the presidency in 2012, and many protested his inauguration. McKay 11th p. 1009 - 1010

US - European Strains

21TH CENTURY 2000 While Europe and the US continues to maintain diplomatic relations, strains have grown in the relationship. One reason is that the EU is now the largest trading block in the world, so now Europe invests in the US which is reverse of the previous trend. Additionally, the US has begun to think selfishly again, and refused to sign documents like the Kyoto Protocol despite international support. Another reason is that America still has relaxed gun laws and still uses the death penalty, both of which won't be found in Europe. Europe also does not like american leadership in NATO anymore, as many nations are now capable of handling that responsibility. Finally, the American war on terror has caused many European nations to doubt America and its policies. McKay 11th p. 1031 - 1032

Human Rights

21TH CENTURY 2001 By this point, Europeans had some of the world's highest living standards and had witnessed barbaric actions during the Holocaust and the ethnic cleansing in the former Yugoslavia. These factors made Europeans realize that they should help others plagued by violence and oppression in and out of Europe. An EU official said that the EU has the responsibility to uphold human rights, and that helping others should be the basis of their policy, getting priority over states' rights. Some ways that the EU help u this promise was by sending peacekeepers to the former Yugoslavia, outlawing landmines, and creating an international war criminal court. Europeans at home also began granting more rights. In 2001, the Dutch legalized same-sex marriage. By 2013, France had also legalized it; 12 other countries legalized same sex marriage or recognized other forms of civil unions. The Social Democrats in Europe worked to get AIDS medication cheaper to help combat the crisis in some African countries. Finally, the EU had abolished the death penalty, and condemned its continued use in other countries, including the US. McKay 11th p. 1037 - 1039

Resource Wars

21TH CENTURY 2005 The world's natural resources are shrinking, as energy consumption increases. Fossil fuels that run the planet -- coal, natural gas, oil -- will eventually run out. Therefore, many nations feel the need to control what's left of the fossil fuels, which has caused tense international relations. In the Cold War Era, military buildup took place along the iron curtain, but now it is in oil-rich areas like the Middle East. There have been many conflicts in the Middle East and Central Asia, and many have been called resource wars as they are fought to preserve the West's access to fossil fuels abroad. McKay 11th p. 1036

War on Terror

21TH CENTURY September 2001 On September 11, 2001, members of al-Qaeda hijacked planes and targeted important American buildings. As a result of the attack, the World Trade Centers were completely destroyed and thousands of people were killed. In response to the attacks, president Bush declared an international war on terror. He was determined to stop terrorist activity, and two "battles" of this greater war were the American invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan. While dictatorship were toppled in both countries, American involvement created a strong anti-Western feeling among the people and did not stop domestic violence in those countries. The War on Terror was a point of tension between the US and other European nations. Germany and France felt that a war on terrorism was impossible, adn favored police and intelligence action rather than military invasions. Additionally, Americans used harsh interrogation tactics that made European nations concerned for the rights of the suspects. McKay 11th p. 1032

4) French/International Phase, 1635-1648. The French were supporting the Protestants -- even though France is catholic -- because a weaker HRE was good for them. This was a politique move. They continued to find mercenaries and and German princes against the HRE officially declared war on Spain in 1635. Due to their funds, French, Dutch, German, Swedish, Finnish, and Scottish mercenaries destroyed German agriculture and commerce."

McKay 7th p. 501

Parliament and Charles II had an agreement that Charles would call frequent Parliament sessions and that parliament would grant him sufficient revenue. However, Charles was not getting enough money, so he turned to Louis XIV of France. Louis agreed to help if Charles began to bring England back to Catholicism and convert himself. When all of this became public, the people became very worried about the future of their nation. "

McKay 7th p. 553

John Kay was responsible for the invention of the flying shuttle. This allowed the weaver to use the shuttle single handedly and improved efficiency."

McKay 7th p. 642-643

Japan also modernized politically, bringing in more aspects of liberalism. A navy was created, with a three year service mandate for all men. Intellectually, leaders encourage Japanese students to study abroad in order to infuse modern Western thought into Japanese society."

McKay 7th p. 880