Exam 1 physiology

Visceral Nervous system (autonomic nervous system)

-involuntary -Automatically controls smooth and cardiac muscles and glands -Further divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

steps of action potential generation

1. depolarization- Na+ rushes in and voltage becomes positive 2. repolarization- K+ ions leave cell. voltage becomes less positive 3. hyperpolarization- inside membrane becomes more negative as a rebound effect of extra K+ leaving. Sodium activation gate closes and inactivation gate opens 4. Na/K ATPase pump activated and pumps K back in, Na out to get back to resting *Note: step 1 occurs when threshold potential is reached

How does vitamin D become active?

1. hydroxylation in liver to 25-OH 2. second hydroxylation in kidney to 1,25-OH *1,25-OH is active form. increases GI calcium absorption

muscle contraction steps

1. nerve impulse at symaptic jxn 2. ACh release 3. ACh binds to muscle receptors and Na+ floods in 4. action potential in sarcolemma 5. a.p. travels down t. tubules 6. SR releases Calcium 7. Calcium binds troponin and reveals active site 8. myosin binds active site and power stroke occurs 9. myosin releases ADP and Pi 10. ATP attaches to myosin head and it releases from site 11. ATP cleaved and head recocks

steps of synaptic transmission

1. transmitter synthesis 2. transmitter storage 3. transmitter release from end terminal 4. receptor binding 5. termination of transmission *autoreceptor binding inhibits additional release into synaptic cleft

Net reaction of urea cycle. What is the main waste product in urine?

2NH3+CO2= urea+ H20. nitrogen is converted into urea for disposal in urine

The results of Meiosis are

4 unique haploid daughter cells

Percentages of fluids in body (body comp)

5% plasma 15% interstitial fluid 40% intracellular fluid

What is a motor unit?

A motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates

Serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. only in CNS

Gliosis

CNS scar formation

diseases caused by destruction of myelin

CNS- Multiple sclerosis PNS- Guillain Barre

Periosteum

Covers outside surface of bone. inner layer is osteogenic because it has many osteoprogenitor cells

Oligodendrocytes

Form myelin sheath in CNS. can myelinate multiple axons

steps of somatic cell division

G0- normal state G1- cell growht, protein and lipid production S- DNA synthesis G2- continued growth M- cell division into 2 identical diploid cells

amino acid neurotransmitters

GABA

what type of bonds hold the two opposite strands of DNA together?

Hydrogen bonds

what are the main anions and cations of ECF? ICF?

ICF- potassium and phosphate ECF- sodium and chloride

Dopamine

In CNS. Reward behaviors

LDOPA can be changed into what other neurotransmitters?

LDOPA > dopamine > norepi > epi

Calcitonin

Lowers blood calcium levels. secreted by C cells of thyroid. inhibits ca absorption from GI, inhibits osteoclasts, inhibits kidney reabsorption

cholinergic receptors

Muscarinic- stimulated by muscarine. blocked by atropine Nictonic- stim by nicotine

appocrine glands

Open into hair follicles. respond to stress signals. secrete fatty acids. abundant in axillae and groin

sarcoplasmic reticulum

Organelle of the muscle fiber that stores and releases calcium.

Acetylcholine

PNS- motor neurotransmitter. inhibitory in cardiac tissue CNS- activates cholinergic system (sleep and memory)

Functions of the skin

Protection, absorption, sensation, temp, excretion

Bone marrow types and locations

Red marrow-produces red blood cells, in adults located in: ribs, vertebrae, pelvis, humurus, and femur Yellow marrow- adipose tissue (fat)- located in medullary cavity in adults

parasympathetic nervous system

Rest and digest. Storage of energy. Lowers HR, increases GI fxn, constricts pupils and bronchioles. Doesn't regulate sweating or arteriole tone

What is primary muscular fuel during rest? During strenuous activity?

Rest- fatty acids activity- glucose

What organelle is responsible for secreted protein synthesis?

Rough Endoplasmic reticulum

1 Motor neuron innervates many myocytes

That's it

Microglia

Type of phagocyte. Clean up after tissue injury. Derived from bone marrow.

Sarcomere Elements

Z disks M line thin and thick filaments

monoamine neurotransmitters

acetylcholine, serotonin, histamine

afferent vs efferent signals

afferent- towards CNS efferent- away from CNS

Epinephrine

aka adrenaline. fight or flight response

Catacholamine Receptors

alpha- vasoconstriction beta- bronchiolar dilation and increased heart rate

Hair growth cycle

anagen, catagen, telogen

Macroglia types (3)

astrocytes, ependymal, oligodendrocytes

What is axonal conduction affected by?

axon diameter and myelination

troponin equivalent in smooth muscle is?

calmodulin

creatine phosphate (CP)

can replenish muscular ATP for short periods. Donates Pi to ADP via creatine kinase. This is done during high intensity aerobic activity.

2 methods of synaptic transmission

chemical (most common) electrical

Astrocytes

connecting capillaries and neurons. transport nutrients and remove toxins contral uptake of water soluble molecules through BBB repair and scar formation in CNS

Slow fibers (red fibers)

contain lots of mitochondria and myoglobin. Oxidative and prefer fat as energy source.

tetanic contraction

continuous, forceful muscular contraction without relaxation

5 layers of epidermis

corneum, lucidum, granulosum, spinosum, basale (germitivum)

Where does glycolysis occur?

cytoplasm

Nocireceptors

detect pain. terminate in papillary dermis and around hair follicles. signals can be enhanced by prostaglandins, kinin, and substance P

Catecholamines

dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine

Roles of merkel cells

establish synaptic contacts with afferent sensory neurons receptors for light touch in sensitive areas of skin

sympathetic nervous system

fight or flight. increases HR, BP, and blood glucose. diverts blood flow from GI to brain. Dilates pupils and bronchioles.

small ratio of myocytes to neurons

fine motor control, low strength

Cartilage tissue. 3 types

firm, flexible connective tissue. avascular. formed by chondrocytes 1. elastic 2. hyaline 3. fibrous

smooth muscle

fusiform cells. 1 nucleus/cell. involuntary. line hollow organs. slow wavelike contractions

primary fuel of nervous tissue

glucose. Ketones can be used after metabolic adaption

roles of langerhan cells (dendritic cells)

help immune system recognize antigens contact hypersensitivity rxns wound healing, blood clots, inflammation

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal. in both PNS and CNS

large ratio of myocytes to neurons

high strength, low control

hypothalamus function

homeostasis (thermoregulation, thirst, hunger, etc)

effects of hypertonic or hypotonic solutions on RBCs?

hypertonic- shrunken hypotonic- swollen

Causes of nail clubbing

hypoxia

parathyroid hormone

increases blood calcium levels. increases osteoclast activity, enhances calcium reabsorption and vitamin D activation in kidneys

Factors affecting bone growth

injury to epiphyseal plate, mechanical stress, nutritional status, hormones

Where does oxidative phosphorylation occur?

inner mitochondrial membrane

what charges does a resting cell have intracellulary and extracellularly?

intra- negative extra- positive

Fasiculations

involuntary twitching of muscle fibers

Cori Cycle

lactate > pyruvate > glucose

lamellar vs woven bone

lamellar- mature bone that is layered woven- immature bone that has random matrix structure

3 types of hair

lanugo, vellus, terminal

Meissner's corpuscles

light touch/pressure. located in papillary dermis

Osteocytes

located in lacunae. Sense bone stress strain. coordinate blasts and clasts

Endosteum

membranous lining of the hollow cavity of the bone

Where does the Krebs cycle occur?

mitochondrial matrix

isotonic contraction

muscles contract and shorten (movement)

isometric contraction

no shortening; muscle tension increases but does not work (no movement)

sebacious glands

oil glands. Cover entire skin surface except palms and soles of feet

Histamine as a Neurotransmitter

only in CNS. responsible for arousal, thirst, BP.

What does the Golgi body do?

packaging and transport of proteins, glycosylation

colicky pain

pain caused by spasm of the smooth muscle; occurs when a muscular wall of a hollow tube attempts to force certain contents of the tube out of it

Transverse tubules (T-tubules)

path for action potential from motor neuron synapse to sarcolemma then to Sarcoplasmic reticulum

Sarcolemma

plasma membrane of a muscle fiber

Which structures are responsible for life support reflexes?

pons and medulla

ependymal cells

produce cerebrospinal fluid

eccrine glands

produce sweat. originate in dermis. abundant on palms, soles of feet, forehead, and axilla. Open directly onto skin surface

Functions of the skeletal system

protection, positioning, framework, stability, shape, storage of calcium and phosphate, hematopoietic

fast muscle fibers (white muscle, type 2B)

quick, strong contraction. Anaerobic respiration, glycolysis, high glycogen fine, rapid, precise movement sprints quick fatigue, produce lactate

mast cells

release histamine

Pacinian corpuscles

respond to deep pressure and vibration. located in reticular dermis

which layer of the dermis is responsible for langers lines

reticular dermis

rufinis corpuscle

sense distortion or stretching. located in reticular dermis

what factors contribute to osmolarity calculation?

sodium, glucose, BUN

Types of bone tissue

spongy- have red marrow. lattice like pattern formed of trabeculae. compact- rigid, laminar, densely packed calcium matrix

rigor mortis

stiffness in body post mortum caused because no more ATP production. Cross bridges become locked in place

which epidermal layer goes through mitosis?

stratum basale

Which epidermal layer is only found in thick skin?

stratum lucidum

cardiac muscle

striated, branched, intercolated discs. involuntary. prefer fat for energy

Blood vessels in dermis

subpapillary- jxn of papillary and reticular dermis. perfuses the dermal papillae cutaneous- dermal, subcutaneous interface. larger blood vessels lymphatic- helps w immune defense

2 parts of autonomic nervous system

sympathetic and parasympathetic

tendons and ligaments

tendons (muscle to bone) and ligaments (bone to bone)

saltatory conduction

the jumping of action potentials from node to node

What is beta oxidation and where does it occur?

the process of converting fatty acids into acetyl-coA for transport into mitochondria. Fatty acids carried by fatty acyl carnitine

thin filaments vs thick filaments

thin- actin, tropomyosin, troponin thick- myosin

types of intercellular junctions (4)

tight, desmosomes, gap, hemidesmisomes

2 types of slow muscle fibers

type 1- slow oxidative- postural muscles. very fatigue resistant, efficient contraction type 2- fast oxidative- action muscles. moderately fast contraction and fatigue resistance

What causes gout?

uric acid- a waste product of nucleotide degradation

types of ion channels

voltage gated, ligand gated, passive, mechanical/light gated

Under what conditions does ketogenesis occur?

when fat is being metabolized too quickly. In fasting conditions

What organelle is responsible for steroid synthesis?

Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum

In which epidermal layer does keratin production start?

Spinosum

In which epidermal layer are melanocytes found?

basale

Where are blisters formed?

basement membrane

Osteoblasts

bone forming cells. secrete alkaline phosphatase= calcification.

osteoclasts

bone removing cells. Release H+ which dissolves calcium hydroxyapatite Release hydrolytic enzymes and proteases

osteoprogenitor cells

bone stem cells. located in periosteum, endosteum, epiphyseal plate. Become osteoblasts