Exam 1 - PSYC 365

Which of the following statements most accurately describes a neuron's threshold of excitation?

A neuron fires only when its electrical charge reaches a particular level.

Mandy has learned that whenever her father comes home drunk, he is likely to yell at her, so she usually goes to her friend's house before he has the chance. In this situation, the father's coming home drunk is:

A pre-aversive stimulus

Which of the following would be an example of a qualitative research study of learning?

A researcher interviews 25 students about their experiences learning science.

Which one of the following best illustrates cognitive modeling?

A science teacher thinks aloud, "How can I determine what makes this pendulum swing fast or slowly? Hmm, I'll change the amount of weight on the bottom. But I need to make sure to keep the length the same as before so that I know that any change in speed isn't due to length."

A principle of learning can best be characterized as:

A statement that describes how a particular factor affects learning

Which one of the following common sayings best reflects the basic premise underlying social learning theory? A. "Monkey see, monkey do." B. "Spare the rod and spoil the child." C. "A friend in need is a friend indeed." D. "A rolling stone gathers no moss."

A. "Monkey see, monkey do."

Which one of the following is a primary reinforcer? A. A cookie B. A good grade C. A thousand dollars D. A feeling of pride about a job well done

A. A cookie

Which one of the following is an example of vicarious reinforcement? A. Alice notices that her friend Ellen gets extra attention from the teacher when she acts helpless. Alice begins to act helpless as well. B. Bill knows that he will get a higher grade if he turns in a research paper that is typed rather than handwritten, but he turns in a handwritten paper anyway. C. Connie sees her friend Maria scolded for chewing gum in class. She quickly takes her own gum out of her mouth. D. David sees how Justin gets good grades when he works hard on his mathematics homework, but David doesn't want to work that hard.

A. Alice notices that her friend Ellen gets extra attention from the teacher when she acts helpless. Alice begins to act helpless as well.

Three of the following are almost always found in applied behavior analysis (ABA). Which one is not necessarily characteristic of ABA? A. Altering the consequences of behavior B. Measuring behavior before treatment begins C. Exploring underlying causes of behavior D. Measuring behavior during treatment

A. Altering the consequences of behavior

Only one of the following definitely illustrates high self-efficacy. Which one? A. Amy knows she is a good singer. B. Berta swims the fastest butterfly stroke on the swim team. C. Carmen enjoys being with her friends. D. Darlene recently got a score of 120 on an intelligence test.

A. Amy knows she is a good singer.

Social cognitive theorists have studied the role of modeling on aggressive behavior. Which one of the following conclusions cannot be drawn from their research? A. Children model aggression only when the model is the same sex as themselves. B. Children can learn aggressive behavior by watching adult models as well as children. C. Children who observe aggression in films and video games are more likely to be aggressive. D. Children are less aggressive when they observe a nonaggressive model than when they observe no model at all.

A. Children model aggression only when the model is the same sex as themselves.

Human beings undoubtedly learn more during the course of a lifetime than any other species on earth. The major result of this capacity to learn is that: A. Humans can benefit from their experiences. B. New instincts begin to emerge. C. Humans are the only species whose behavior cannot be analyzed in terms of stimuli and responses. D. Human thought becomes less logical with each generation.

A. Humans can benefit from their experiences.

Which one of the following best describes psychologists' current beliefs about the brain and learning? A. Learning involves changes in synapses and possibly also involves the growth of new neurons and astrocytes. B. Large doses of certain vitamins promote brain growth and lead to more rapid learning. C. Left-hemisphere-dominant individuals are, on average, more effective learners than right-hemisphere-dominant individuals. D. The brains of rapid learners are about 20% larger than the brains of slower learners.

A. Learning involves changes in synapses and possibly also involves the growth of new neurons and astrocytes.

Which one of the following is the best example of the central nervous system (rather than the peripheral nervous system) at work? A. Parts of the hindbrain are involved in regulating heart rate. B. Cells in the retina at the back of the eye transmit information about light. C. Some cells in the nose respond to certain kinds of chemicals. D. Some cells in the skin are sensitive to heat or cold.

A. Parts of the hindbrain are involved in regulating heart rate.

Martin went to two or three school dances but felt uncomfortable and self-conscious at them. Martin no longer goes to school dances. His lack of attendance is an example of: A. Passive avoidance learning B. Active avoidance learning C. Punishment I D. Punishment II

A. Passive avoidance learning

Teachers and other practitioners must be very careful in their use of punishment as a means of changing behavior. Three of the following are potential disadvantages in using punishment. Which statement about punishment is false? A. Punished behaviors typically decrease slowly, if at all. B. Punishment can in some instances lead to increased aggression. C. Harsh psychological punishment can adversely affect emotional well-being. D. Punishment in the classroom can make students fearful of school and/or their teacher.

A. Punished behaviors typically decrease slowly, if at all.

Ms. Delahanty has several students who are chronic misbehavers. She meets individually with each student, and together the teacher and student agree to a plan for improving the student's behavior and a suitable reinforcement for appropriate behavior change. Ms. Delahanty is using: A. a contingency contract B. Keller's personalized system of instruction C. a token economy D. a group contingency

A. a contingency contract

After a severe head injury, Mary has experienced difficulty setting goals and in other ways planning her actions. Without knowing anything else about Mary's injury, you might reasonably conclude that it affected her: A. forebrain. B. midbrain. C. hindbrain. D. reticular formation

A. forebrain

Three of the following are examples of learning. Which one is not?

Abigail cries when she steps on a sharp pebble.

Three of the following illustrate various ways that learning might be reflected in a person's behavior. Which one of the following changes does not necessarily reflect learning?

Although it's a school night, Dean plays video games until well past his usual bedtime. As he becomes more tired, he finds it increasingly difficult to concentrate on what he's doing.

Which one of the following statements best characterizes how reinforcement of incompatible behavior can help reduce people's inappropriate behaviors?

An undesirable behavior will decrease when a person is reinforced for behaving in an opposite manner.

In the human brain, a great deal of synaptic pruning occurs in early childhood. This pruning appears to be: A. The unfortunate result of insufficiently stimulating home environments. B. An adaptive process that allows children to deal more efficiently with their environment. C. Due to an imbalance of important nutrients, and especially to low levels of the B vitamins in many children's diets. D. Reflective of the fact that the forebrain is slowly taking over responsibility for functions that have previously been regulated by the hindbrain and midbrain.

B. An adaptive process that allows children to deal more efficiently with their environment

Which one of the following best describes the growth of neurons during the prenatal period? A. Neurons begin to develop in the fifth month of pregnancy, and they proliferate rapidly during the third trimester. B. An overabundance of neurons emerges early in prenatal development, but about half of the neurons die before birth. C. Neurons continue to be generated at a rapid rate throughout the last six months of the prenatal period. D. Neurons that will support basic physiological functioning appear in the first two months after conception; those that will be responsible for higher-level thinking processes don't appear until two or three months before birth.

B. An overabundance of neurons emerges early in prenatal development, but about half of the neurons die before birth.

Given what psychologists believe to be true about how information is typically stored in the brain, how is the concept DOG probably represented in your brain? A. As a single neuron located in the prefrontal cortex. B. As a network of neurons spread across multiple brain regions. C. As a cluster of interconnected neurons located in the left parietal lobe. D. As a cluster of interconnected neurons located in one of the occipital lobes.

B. As a network of neurons spread across multiple brain regions.

___________ research examines learning in tightly controlled settings and ____________ research examines learning in real-world settings. A. Basic; Qualitative B. Basic; Applied C. Applied; Basic D. Qualitative; Applied

B. Basic; Applied

Behaviorists and cognitivists tend to focus on different aspects of learning. Which one of the following statements best describes this difference? A. Behaviorism focuses on relatively permanent changes; cognitivism focuses on temporary changes. B. Behaviorism focuses on external behavioral changes; cognitivism focuses on internal mental changes. C. Behaviorism focuses on internal mental changes; cognitivism focuses on external behavioral changes D. Behaviorism focuses on temporary changes; cognitivism focuses on relatively permanent changes

B. Behaviorism focuses on external behavioral changes; cognitivism focuses on internal mental changes.

Which one of the following statements provides the most credible explanation for the fact that human beings seem to surpass all other animal species in their thinking and learning capacities? A. Human brains are smaller than those of other intelligent species (e.g., elephants, dolphins) and therefore can transmit messages more quickly and efficiently. B. Humans communicate regularly with one another and, in doing so, pass along what they've learned to future generations. C. Only human beings have the capability to make tools. D. Human beings have a huge repertoire of instinctual behaviors form which they can draw when they encounter new experiences

B. Humans communicate regularly with one another and, in doing so, pass along what they've learned to future generations.

Contemporary cognitive theory asserts that humans are actively involved in their own learning. This assertion is most closely aligned to which theory? A. Cognitive developmental B. Social cognitive C. Cognitive behavioral D. Cognitive neuroscience

B. Social cognitive

The textbooks's perspective regarding various theories of learning is that: A. Cognitivist theories are probably more accurate. B. There is currently no "right" theory, but one will eventually be developed. C. Behaviorist theories are probably more accurate. D. Different theories may be applicable in different situations.

B. There is currently no "right" theory, but one will eventually be developed.

The use of instructional objectives in instruction has several advantages. Which of the following is not a benefit that objectives provide? A. They help a teacher choose appropriate instructional methods and homework assignments. B. They facilitate student achievement even in areas not covered by the objectives. C. They aid teachers in effectively communicate and coordinating what they are aiming to accomplish. D. They facilitate the evaluation of student achievement.

B. They facilitate student achievement even in areas not covered by the objectives.

Should students ever be allowed to fail at classroom tasks? According to social cognitive theorists, the answer is: A. Yes. Self-efficacy is highest when students fail at a task several times in a row before accomplishing it successfully. B. Yes. Occasional failures interspersed among frequent successes teach students that perseverance pays off. C. No. Failure gives students the message that school is not an enjoyable place to be. D. No. Even a single failure can significantly deflate students' self-efficacy.

B. Yes. Occasional failures interspersed among frequent successes teach students that perseverance pays off.

An instructional objective that requires students to recite a definition exactly as it has been presented is at the ________ level in Bloom's taxonomy. A. synthesis B. knowledge C. comprehension D. analysis

B. knowledge

Mr. and Mrs. Mercado don't allow their daughter Maggie to chew gum at home and have punished her severely on the few occasions they have found her with gum in her mouth. Now Maggie rarely chews gum at home but chews it almost constantly at school, where she is not punished for doing so. Maggie's different behaviors at home and at school illustrate an effect of punishment known as:

Behavioral contrast

An essential element of a contingency contract in the classroom is that:

Both teacher and student agree upon the desired behavior and its consequence

Bandura proposes that three of the following conditions are necessary for modeling to occur. Which one is not necessary? A. Motivation to perform the behavior B. Memory of the observed behavior C. A relatively stress-free environment D. Attention to the model

C. A relatively stress-free environment

Three of the following are examples of self-regulation as social cognitive theorists describe it. Which one is not a good example of self-regulation? A. A student reminds herself in a whisper that she should raise her hand before speaking in class. B. A student thinks, "I paid better attention in class today. I'm going to reward myself by watching television when I get home from school." C. A student keeps track of the number of times he's gone to the pencil sharpener in a single day. D. A student tries hard to earn the reinforcer his teacher has told him he will get for good behavior.

C. A student keeps track of the number of times he's gone to the pencil sharpener in a single day.

John is an adolescent who makes impulsive decisions (e.g. ditching school) and engages in risky behavior (e.g. driving well over the speed limit). His behavior can be explained by which of the following? A. Adolescents have limited concepts of consequences and punishment. B. Adolescents' brain stems are still not fully developed, and will not be until middle adulthood. C. Adolescents' pre-frontal cortices are still not fully developed and will not be until their late teens and early twenties. D. During adolescence, synaptic pruning has stopped.

C. Adolescents' pre-frontal cortices are still not fully developed and will not be until their late teens and early twenties.

A theory of learning can best be characterized as: A. A description of the results of a particular research study. B. A statement that describes how a particular factor affects learning. C. An explanation of the underlying processes through which learning occurs D. The measurement of how much learning has occurred in a particular situation.

C. An explanation of the underlying processes through which learning occurs

Which one of the following is the best example of a social reinforcer? A. Getting a new outfit you think is "cool" B. Being allowed to play basketball at a friend's house after you finish your homework C. Being told that you did a good job. D. Feeling good about your own generosity toward a less fortunate classmate

C. Being told that you did a good job.

Which one of the following is the best illustration of synthesis within Bloom's taxonomy? A. Angela discovers fallacies in her teacher's argument regarding the value of an agricultural economy in Africa. B. Connie dissects an earthworm in order to examine its digestive system. C. Edgar uses a principle that he learned in physics to develop a new tool to lift a heavy object. D. Georgette writes a justification for corporal punishment using information from her sociology and psychology classes.

C. Edgar uses a principle that he learned in physics to develop a new tool to lift a heavy object.

Which one of the following is an example of vicarious punishment? A. Johnny's teacher smiles at him when he turns in his homework on time. He now always turns his homework in one time. B. Betty notices that her sister gets to watch TV after she finished her chores. Betty begins to finish her chores as well. C. Jane sees her friend Olivia scolded by the teacher for talking out of turn in class. Jane stops talking out of turn in class. D. Lauren notices Emily get in trouble by the teacher for not cleaning her desk, but Lauren doesn't want to clean out her desk.

C. Jane sees her friend Olivia scolded by the teacher for talking out of turn in class. Jane stops talking out of turn in class.

Tracy enjoys reading mystery novels and reads at least two a week. Her mother wants to encourage Tracy's reading and so begins to pay her daughter one dollar for each completed mystery novel. Considering research the extrinsic reinforcement of intrinsically reinforcing activities, we would expect Tracy eventually to: A. Double her rate of reading mystery novels B. Triple her rate of reading mystery novels C. Lower her rate of reading mystery novels D. Stop reading mystery novels altogether

C. Lower her rate of reading mystery novels

Three of the following describe methods that researchers commonly use to determine how the human brain probably functions. Which one is NOT a commonly used method to study the brain? A. Documenting the behaviors of people with various kinds of brain injuries. B. Recording brain activity through PET scans, CAT scans, and similar technologies. C. Measuring the levels of various hormones and other substances in the blood. D. Removing a certain part of an animal's brain and observing the animal's subsequent behaviors.

C. Measuring the levels of various hormones and other substances in the blood.

Three of the following are principles of learning. Which one is a theory of learning rather than a principle? A. A behavior that is followed by punishment decreases in frequency. B. Students tend to remember more of a lecture if they take notes on the lecture's content. C. People learn by making mental associations between new information and their existing knowledge. D. A response that is rewarded every time it occurs increases more rapidly than a response that is only occasionally rewarded.

C. People learn by making mental associations between new information and their existing knowledge.

Which one of the following is the best example of a reflex as psychologists define the term? A. Going to sleep when you are tired. B. Feeling sad when a close relative dies. C. Pulling your foot away from a painful object. D. Jumping up and down for joy when you get a good grade.

C. Pulling your foot away from a painful object.

In what way does the concept self-efficacy differ from such terms as self-concept and self-esteem? A. Self-efficacy refers only to those behaviors we learn through modeling. B. Self-efficacy results primarily from vicarious reinforcement and punishment. C. Self-efficacy varies depending on the specific task to be performed. D. Self-efficacy appears only after we begin to regulate our own behavior.

C. Self-efficacy varies depending on the specific task to be performed.

Three of the following represent why it is important for teachers to understand theories and principles related to learning. Which one is not? A. Teachers can help students avoid common pitfalls to learning. B. Teachers can maximize student learning when they understand what factors and processes influence how students learn. C. Teachers can help prove learning theories and principles, leading to new laws in the field of Psychology. D. Teachers can draw on research findings to determine the effectiveness of instructional methods and strategies.

C. Teachers can help prove learning theories and principles, leading to new laws in the field of Psychology.

According to the textbook, which one of the following conclusions is most true regarding factors that influence brain development? A. Genetic factors have the strongest influence on brain development, particularly later in life. B. Environmental factors and people's experiences have the strongest influence on brain development in middle childhood. C. Together, brain development is shaped by genetic and environmental factors throughout the life span. D. Environmental factors are particularly influential in abnormal brain development.

C. Together, brain development is shaped by genetic and environmental factors throughout the life span.

Which one of the following research findings is most consistent with the concept of core knowledge as described in the textbook? A. Some linguistic knowledge is prerequisite to other knowledge; for example, children must know how to read before they can learn how to write. B. Some motor skills are prerequisites for others; for example, children must learn how to walk before they can learn how to run or skip. C. Very young infants appear to have more knowledge of the physical world than they could have acquired from their own, limited experiences with objects. D. Children must have basic knowledge of numbers and counting before they can master arithmetic operations such as addition and multiplication.

C. Very young infants appear to have more knowledge of the physical world than they could have acquired from their own, limited experiences with objects.

Research indicates that when appropriate precautions are taken, the most effective method of reducing inappropriate behavior typically is: A. extinction B. punishment C. reinforcement of incompatible behaviors D. an intermittent schedule of reinforcement

C. reinforcement of incompatible behaviors

Social cognitive theory can best be characterized as being concerned with learning A. communication skills B. socially appropriate behaviors C. through observations of others D. subject matter in the social sciences (e.g., geography, psychology)

C. through observations of others

Listed below are four reasons why students might not want to take their schoolwork seriously or to try very hard to succeed at classroom tasks. Which one of these reasons is most clearly consistent with the concept of self-efficacy?

Carol doesn't believe she has the ability to do the work successfully.

According to the textbook, which one of the following conclusions is most warranted from research on brain development?

Classroom experiences can significantly enhance people's cognitive development throughout the elementary, secondary, and post-secondary school years.

Which one of the following best describes how neurons transmit messages to one another? A. By stimulating the growth of surrounding glial cells. B. By attaching themselves to the same terminal buttons. C. By fusing the axon of one with a dendrite of the other. D. By sending chemical substances across a tiny gap between them.

D. By sending chemical substances across a tiny gap between them

Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two learning paradigms within the behaviorist tradition. A major difference between these two paradigms is that: A. Classical conditioning deals almost exclusively with stimuli, whereas operant conditioning deals almost exclusively with responses. B. Classical conditioning deals almost exclusively with responses, whereas operant conditioning deals almost exclusively with stimuli. C. Classically conditioned responses are voluntary, whereas responses learned through operant conditioning are elicited by specific stimuli. D. Classically conditioned responses are elicited by specific stimuli, whereas responses learned through operant conditioning are voluntary.

D. Classically conditioned responses are elicited by specific stimuli, whereas responses learned through operant conditioning are voluntary.

Which one of the following is the best example of intrinsic reinforcement? A. Getting a new outfit you think is "cool" B. Being allowed to play basketball at a friend's house after you finish your homework C. Being told that you did a good job D. Feeling good about your own generosity toward a less fortunate classmate

D. Feeling good about your own generosity toward a less fortunate classmate

Three of the following statements are consistent with research finding about factors that influence brain development. Which statement has not been supported by research? A. High levels of alcohol consumption during pregnancy can lead to mental retardation. B. Opportunities to learn certain skills may lead to detectable differences in brain structures or patters of brain activation. C. Genetic factors predispose some people to learning difficulties or mental illness. D. High levels of toxic substances (e.g., lead, pesticides) have their greatest negative impact after puberty.

D. High levels of toxic substances (e.g., lead, pesticides) have their greatest negative impact after puberty.

Which of the following teachers most clearly illustrates teacher self efficacy? A. Mr. Johnson loves to teach and wakes up every day hoping that the children will learn from his lessons. B. Mrs. Thomson became a teacher so she could help disadvantaged students. C. Mr. Baker thinks that every one can be a good teacher with the proper training. D. Mrs. Sand is a confident teacher who believes that she can teach students.

D. Mrs. Sand is a confident teacher who believes that she can teach students.

If you wanted to encourage kindergartners to delay gratification, research indicates that an effective strategy would be to: A. Tell them that how well they behave at the end of the day is really what counts B. Ask them to focus on how good it feels to do something nice for a classmate C. Talk about how their learning efforts today will pay off in the years to come D. Occasionally remind them that they will get a bigger reward if they wait for an hour or two

D. Occasionally remind them that they will get a bigger reward if they wait for an hour or two

Three of the following are recommended practices when using punishment to reduce an inappropriate behavior. Which one is not recommended? A. Punish the behavior each time it occurs. B. Describe the inappropriate behavior to the would-be offender in concrete terms. C. Change the environment to lessen the chances that the misbehavior will occur. D. Punish frequently to get the point across.

D. Punish frequently to get the point across.

Ivan Pavlov conducted a series of studies that led him to propose his theory of classical conditioning. In these studies, Pavlov observed how a dog learned to: A. Bark when meat was presented B. Bark when meat was taken away C. Wake up when an auditory stimulus (e.g., a bell) was presented D. Salivate to a simple stimulus such as a light or bell

D. Salivate to a simple stimulus such as a light or bell

Which one of the following statements best describes the view of early behaviorists about how learning can best be studied? A. Psychologists can determine how learning occurs only if they can identify its physiological basis. B. Introspection—reporting what and how one is thinking—is likely to yield the most accurate results. C. To study learning scientifically, researchers must confine their investigations to animal research in a laboratory setting. D. The study of learning will be more objective and scientific if only observable events are considered.

D. The study of learning will be more objective and scientific if only observable events are considered.

Thorndike's original law of effect described the ways in which the learning of a response: A. has an effect on other organisms B. has an effect on stimuli in the environment C. has an effect on other responses D. is affected by the consequences of that response

D. is affected by the consequences of that response

Modeling is often facilitated by memory codes. Three of the following are examples of such codes. Which one does not specifically illustrate a memory code?

David wears the same style of clothing his friends wear, even though he's never been reinforced for doing so.

Vanessa frequently complains of getting terrible headaches and so ends up at the nurse's office several times a week. Yet two different physicians have been unable to find a cause for Vanessa's headaches, and Vanessa's parents report that their daughter rarely has headaches at home. Vanessa is falling further and further behind in her schoolwork, so Vanessa's teacher and parent meet with the nurse and school psychologist to brainstorm possible solutions to Vanessa's problem. The school psychologist suggests that the teacher keep track of the occasions when Vanessa complains about a headache. Two weeks later, the teacher reports that all of Vanessa's complains occur just before a test or difficult assignment. Suddenly the teacher and parents begin to suspect that perhaps Vanessa complains of headaches as a way of getting out of having to do difficult assignments. Here we see the initial steps in a process

Functional analysis

Research indicates that mastery learning approaches are superior to traditional instruction in several ways. Which one of the following conclusions should not be drawn on the basis of research on mastery learning?

High-ability students are the primary beneficiaries of mastery learning approaches.

Which one of the following examples best illustrates social cognitive theorists' concept of personal agency in learning and behavior?

In order to enhance his roller skating skills, Marvin enrolls in a roller skating class

John and Bill have both learned that when they whine and complain, their teacher will hurry over to see what's wrong. John's teacher gives him attention every time he complains. However, Bill's teacher gives him attention only on some of the occasions he complains. Both teachers eventually realize that they are reinforcing the boys for inappropriate behavior and so both stop attending to the boys when they whine and complain. From a behaviorist perspective, we can predict that:

John's complaining will decrease more rapidly than Bill's.

Which one of the following best exemplifies experience-dependent plasticity?

Learning how to read

Reynelda has trouble tracing a complex shape with a pencil when she is in kindergarten, but she can do it quite well by the time she is in second grade. Is this an instance of learning?

Maybe, although the change may simply be due to physiological maturation.

These four teachers claim to be practicing principals from social cognitive theory. Based on the following information, which one is not?

Mr. Carlson tells his class that he wishes he had never started smoking cigarettes

Bill's behaviors in Ms. Kennedy's class are really distracting to other students. For example, he whispers to the boy beside him when Ms. Kennedy is giving directions on how to do any assignment. He flings paper clips at a girl across the room. He makes strange grunting noises that a few classmates find amusing. Ms. Kennedy glares at him or admonishes him whenever he behaves in a distracting way, yet his inappropriate behaviors are increasing rather than decreasing. Which one of the following interpretations of this situation best explains why Bill's behaviors are increasing?

Mr. Kennedy is positively reinforcing him for the distracting behaviors.

Three of the following educators are using an accurate understanding of the brain and its development to guide their teaching. Which one is not?

Mr. Ornstein divides his class into two groups --- left-brain thinkers and right-brain thinkers --- and gives each group different activities, tailored to the strengths of their dominant hemisphere.

David's mother insists that he vacuum the living room carpet. But when she sees how haphazardly he vacuums (he misses two-thirds of the carpet), she tells him, "Never mind, I'll do it!" David's escape of household chores: A. positively reinforced B. negatively reinforced C. punished D. an example of passive avoidance learning

Negatively reinforced

Three of the following ideas are integral parts of social cognitive theory. Which one is not?

People's behaviors are always the direct results of the environments in which they live.

Which one of the following instances of learning can be explained more easily by social cognitive theory than by behaviorist views of learning?

Playing the role of a German soldier in the school play, Andy says his lines using a German accent similar to one he's heard in the movies a few times.

At the beginning of the school year, Mr. Webber is concerned that Frances rarely does her independent seatwork. He begins praising Fransces for each seatwork assignment she completes, and by January she is completing her assignments regularly. To make sure that the behavior continues in the years to come, what would behaviorists tell Mr. Webber to do now?

Praise her for only some of her completed assignments

Jimmy misbehaved in class and his teacher punished him by forcing him to skip recess. Withholding recess is generally an ineffective form of punishment because:

Recess provides a break from academic activities, which improves children's concentration

Matthew knows that his teacher will give him credit for each assignment he completes on time, without regard for the accuracy of what he does. As a result, Matthew often completes his work quickly, sloppily, and sometimes incorrectly. This situation illustrates which one of the following concerns regarding the use of behaviorist techniques in the classroom?

Reinforcement of some behaviors may impede optimal learning

Julie gets very upset when her mother will not let her help her bake cookies. Julie yells at her mother and throws flour all over the kitchen. Julie's mother makes Julie clean up all of the flour and do all of the dishes Julie's mother created from baking the cookies. Her mother's punishment was a form of:

Restitutional overcorrection

Several students in Mr. Samber's class have trouble keeping themselves on task during independent seatwork assignments. Mr. Samber gives each of these students a piece of paper on which they are to make a check mark every time they find themselves doing something other than their assignment during seatwork time. Mr. Samber is using which one of the following techniques for changing behavior?

Self-monitoring

Ms. Smythe keeps Eric after school whenever he swears in class. Even though Eric has been kept after school each day for the past three weeks, his swearing has increased rather than decreased. Given what we know about the effects of punishment on behavior, Ms. Smythe should probably conclude that:

Staying after school is not a punishment for Eric

Mr. Smart tells his students that they can do whatever they want for the first ten minutes of class but must then turn their attention to the day's assignment. The students are delighted with their ten minutes of free time but they don't attend to the assignment when it's time to do so. From an operant conditioning perspective, what mistake has Mr. Smart made?

The "reinforcer" is presented before the response.

Which one of the following statements best illustrates the concept of reciprocal causation?

The environment alters behavior, but behavior alters the environment as well.

Loretta has been painting graffiti on the school walls after school hours. The school principal and the school counselor discuss the problem. The counselor thinks they should try to eliminate the graffiti-painting by asking her to chair a clean-up-the-school committee, then giving her school-wide recognition for her efforts. The counselor is suggesting:

The reinforcement of an incompatible behavior

Which one of the following best illustrates collective self-efficacy in teachers?

The teachers at West Middle School confer weekly about students who they believe are at risk for academic failure, and they are confident that, by working together, they can help these student be successful at school

Which one of the following best describes mirror neurons?

They fire when a person either makes a particular response or observes someone else make that response.

Trudy makes an obscene gesture in class, and the teacher punishes her severely. Other students in class observe both the gesture and the punishment. Based on social cognitive theory, what can we guess about what those students have learned and how they are likely to behave in the future?

They know how to make the gesture, but they are unlikely to make it in class.

When Lily is presented with money after many different behaviors (e.g., cleaning her room, getting a good grade or eating her vegetables) she is more likely to perform each of those behaviors. The fact that this single reinforcer (i.e., money) can increase many of Lily's behaviors is explained by:

Transituational generality

George has learned that if he pesters his father about the family Cadillac enough times, his father will eventually break down and give George the keys to the Cadillac. George's "pestering" behavior is apparently being reinforced on a _______ schedule.

Variable ratio

Which one of the following is an example of negative reinforcement?

When Lucas complains about a classmate who is picking on him, his teacher allows him to come in from recess on bitterly cold days.

In Mr. Medeiros's classroom, students are given play money each time they turn in an assignment; they receive additional amounts of money if the assignment is turned in on time and if it is done correctly. At the end of each week, students can use their "money" to purchase special privileges (free time, field trips, etc.). Mr. Medeiros' approach to teaching can best be characterized as:

a token economy

A physics teacher wants her students to work on several difficult physics problems that involve calculating velocity, acceleration, or time using the formula v=a x t. The teacher first has her students work on a few easy problems involving the formula. She then presents the more difficult problems; when she does so, she finds that her students are reasonably persistent in working at the problems, and most of them eventually solve the problems correctly. By using the easy problems to promote persistence in her students during the more difficult ones, the teacher is, in behaviorist terminology, using the concept of:

behavioral momentum

Naomi wakes up several hours after a severe blow to her head has rendered her unconscious. She can remember nothing about events leading up to the incident, reflecting the importance of ________ in learning and memory.

consolidation

Mr. McDonald wants his favorite students to ask him for help on their geometry problems only after they have tried to solve the problems independently for at lease five minutes. Mr. McDonald should reinforce students' help-seeking behavior on a _________ schedule.

differential rate of low responding

After repeatedly being hugged by her father when he comes through the door, Julie begins to smile when she hears a key turning to open the door by any person. Julie's behavior can be explained by:

higher-order conditioning