Exam 1 Study Set
Farber discusses some of the social structural changes that provided the backdrop to the civil rights movement and made it easier for the movement to thrive. What were some of these changes?
1. Activists could not sustain a monolithic front beyond the mid-1960s. Blacks were not one monolithic group of the same class, age, religion, geography, etc. Blacks differed among themselves and so did the problems they faced. Southern Jim Crow differed from inner city racism. Older blacks were more moderate, while younger blacks were more impatient and open to radical ideologies. By the mid-1960s, these differences could no longer be covered up and the movement split. 2. The civil rights movement must be viewed in context of larger structural forces. A. Economic changes B. Federal government changes C. Attitudinal changes D. Judicial shift by the Supreme Court
Farber argues that there were four crucial steps that changed the nature of the civil rights movement as well as the nation itself in this era. One involved getting a political party to endorse their movement. Which party, and why?
1. Blacks organized and openly challenged the system. 2. They convinced the Democratic Party and the Federal Gov't to put racial equality on the front burner and to become institutional allies. 3. They convinced the Federal Gov't that structural rather than individual-based solutions were necessary. 4. By the late 60s, many blacks had come to reject the idea that a melting pot was possible - or desirable - and organized a black separatist program favoring black nationalism.
There were several aspects of JFK's foreign policy that were new and innovative when compared with Eisenhower. What were they?
1. Peace Corps (reflected his idealism and inspired youth toward self-sacrifice). 2. Green Berets (reflected a realistic grasp of the grass roots nature of insurgency, but read by some generals as an attack on the reigning conventional military model).
What were the five sources of discontent discussed in your lecture notes/texts?
1. The Existentialists 2. The Beats 3. Juvenile Delinquents 4. Rock n' Roll 5. Civil Rights Advocates
How did LBJ's signing the 1964 Civil Rights Act affect the southern Democrats known as the Dixiecrats?
11% of Southern Democrats supported the Act. Its passage would turn the Dixiecrats away from the Democratic Party.
What was the Truman doctrine?
1947. Economic and military aid for Greece and Turkey (in danger of going communist).
What was Lyndon Johnson's political ideology?
A classic campaign that pitted two ideological purists against each other: LBJ's emphasis on equality versus Goldwater's emphasis on individual liberty. Goldwater was more hawkish on foreign policy than LBJ and endorsed a "get tough" policy against reds. LBJ, like most Democrats, feared being labeled "soft" on communism so he too pushed an aggressive foreign policy aimed at containing communism.
How did the events of Freedom Summer in 1964 affect the civil rights movement?
After 2 years of trying, SNCC had only registered 4000 new voters in Mississippi. They sought new tactics by 1963. In the Fall of '63, 80,000 Mississippi blacks participated in a symbolic straw vote. The symbolic campaign's success led to the '64 Freedom Summer program to register voters and form a true Freedom Party. In the summer of 1964, SNCC brought 1000 Northern white students down to help register voters. It was a multiracial coalition aimed to register new voters. At the start, 3 workers (Cheney, Goodman, and Schwerner) were missing and later found murdered, attracting great media attention. This successful voter drive led to the formation of the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP), an integrated alternative to the racist (Dixiecrat) Democratic Party of Mississippi. The MFDP would present itself at the upcoming Democratic National Convention as the true representatives.
What was the domino theory?
Aim was to contain the domino effect of the growing influence and power of the Soviet Union over other non-communist country's' political system from moving towards communism within its existing limits.
Both Woodstock and Altamont pop festivals occurred at about the same time. What does each symbolize?
Altamont symbolized the dark extremes of life. Hell's angels harassing hippies. The Grateful Dead and the Airplane. Took acid. Bad energy. Freedom gone wrong. Woodstock nation - indulgent, but peaceful and loving hippies.
Chafe criticizes the containment policy - how?
Assumed the Soviets would not negotiate diplomatically. Assumed the Soviets were behind every insurrection. Pushed the Soviets into a corner, where a military response might be viewed as the only recourse.
What kind of change - social or personal - was the primary focus of the psychedelic movement?
At the core of the egalitarian philosophy was that true social change begins from the bottom - among the masses - and moves up to the elite. This view opposes the more elitist view that change must stem from elites and their institutions, and the masses will follow. The problem with the egalitarian approach was that by giving everyone access to acid, there would be many casualties. This debate relates to a deeper debate: The most important debate within the counterculture involved whether to place the emphasis upon Nirvana or Utopia as the primary goal of The Movement. Hippies emphasize personal change, with LSD as the tool for transformation, along with hedonism, with nirvana as the ultimate goal. Radical activists emphasize institutional change with disciplined social activism as the tool for change toward utopia.
The psychedelic movement raised certain concerns about modern life. What were they?
Beats like William Burroughs were concerned with shedding their social skin to explore their asocial self. They felt that the socially-constructed self of Western culture was a conformist straightjacket. It was trapped by repressive societal mores. They advocated shedding the repressed social self for something freer. LSD liberated people by de-constructing the socially constructed self. The argument is that the rapid shift toward modernity came at the expense of the environment and human spirituality - or humanity itself.
The election of 1960 pitted JFK against Nixon. How did they compare in their foreign policy views?
Both candidates were quite similar on foreign policy. Both were anti-communist Cold War politicians and saw communism as the key threat to national security. Both used strong rhetoric against communism. Both supported imperialist U.S. policies in the name of anti-communism. Both saw Castro's Cuba as a key issue. Both supported the nuclear arms race, at least in 1960. Both were trapped by their Cold War rhetoric into a militaristic rather than a diplomatic approach to problems.
How did JFK feel about the role of government legislation to achieve racial reforms?
But Kennedy's narrow election victory and small working margin in Congress left him cautious. He was reluctant to lose southern support for legislation on many fronts by pushing too hard on civil rights legislation.
Why did JFK's famous line "ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country" reverberate among Americans - especially youth - at that time?
By 1960, many Americans had begun to wonder if America had lost its way. They could see the contradictions. JFK promised a new purpose beyond the pursuit of self-pleasures. JFK inspired a new idealism, aimed at youth especially, that anything is possible.
How did the emergence of a national media and its coverage of events in the South affect American attitudes about race relations and race policy?
By the 1960s, a shared national culture was emerging that threatened traditional segregated lifestyles. Everyone across the country was watching the same mass mediated TV programming. Old, traditional barriers that divided North from South and rural from urban were breaking down. The power of local elites was being usurped by a nationally connected, expert-oriented national elite and the Federal government. A centralized mass society had emerged.
What features of the "organization man" did the Beats and existentialists find particularly troubling?
Conformity to bureaucratic rules would be rewarded by upward mobility within the system, but at the expense of individual autonomy. White collar workers began to outnumber blue collar workers A new managerial class was emerging: college trained workers for large corporations who were specialists. Large corporations promoted a new managerial personality that some called "the organization man." Conforms to corporate rules. Sociable and sharp. "The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit" - by Sloan Wilson, 1956. Rising dissention: the "organization man" was too "plastic" or conformist. Authenticity of self would be an important issue of the 1960s.
What were Civil Rights Advocate groups critical about?
Criticized the status quo and its injustices. Early emphasis on the need for racial equality. Advocated a distinct, constructive ideology that promoted humanism and social justice. Equality Freedom Well organized, strong leaders Supported by the black church and many white churches Together with the rise of youth culture, this is the most significant force of change to affect the 1960s. Rosa Parks, Martin Luther King, Jr.
How did the Cold War and the arms race affect Americans in the 1950s and 60s? Did it contribute to a sense of righteousness? Did it contribute to a prevailing fear culture? How did demagogues like Joseph McCarthy exploit the Cold War to achieve certain policy aims?
Cultural differences contributed to misunderstandings. American moralistic considerations versus Soviet pragmatism. The politics of anti-communism stifled progressive reform movements. Many conservatives labeled reformers interested in securing rights for women, blacks, students, or workers as "communist sympathizers." A "true American" was patriotic, machismo, believed in a Christian God, was opposed to social agitation, and hated communists. The Cold War was fed by a moralistic rhetoric - we were "free" and our enemies were tyrants (good versus evil). A fear culture prevailed and fear of domestic communism meant civil rights could be sacrificed. Joe McCarthy, the infamous red-baiter of the early 1950s, promoted fear from the inside - that there were communists in our own hallowed institutions who were undermining our way of life. McCarthy, a conservative Republican, also singled out homosexuals and other marginal groups as threats to our way of life.
What was the policy of containment?
Developed by George Kennan. Designed to prevent the Soviet Union from spreading Communism by providing either military support, economic and/or technical assistance to non-communist countries.
Who were the Dixiecrats and what was their view of proposed racial reforms?
Dixiecrats were Southern Democrats opposed to racial integration and other reforms. Both NC Senator Jesse Helms and SC Strom Thurmond changed over to the Republican party after the Democrats embraced a civil rights platform in the 1960s. Dixiecrats prevented JFK from embracing many policies that would bring significant domestic reforms.
What was the Cuban Missile Crisis all about and how did it get resolved? Why is it considered so significant?
Fidel Castro, coming to power and facing U.S. hostility, sought resources from the USSR. Cuban and Soviet tensions with the U.S. were high. In April, 1962, Castro agreed to allow Soviet nuclear missiles on Cuban soil. They arrived in September. The Soviets knew that the U.S. had already installed nuclear missiles in Turkey (in the Soviet sphere of influence). The Soviets publicly denied they were installing missiles in Cuba. In October, U.S. spy planes discovered the missiles in Cuba. JFK decides to confront the Soviets and Cubans. Three military response options were debated by the U.S. National Security Council: Air attack on the missile bases, Full military invasion of Cuba, Naval blockade of Cuba (quarantine). JFK opted for the naval blockade for the time being, but did not rule out the possibility of an invasion. On October 22, 1962, JFK announced the quarantine. Khrushchev claimed it was illegal and would cause a war. On October 24, about 19 Soviet ships were blocked as the U.S. and Soviets engaged in a furious standoff. The crisis deepened when neither side showed any signs they would back down. Castro was convinced a U.S. invasion was immanent and urged a hard line to Khrushchev. This was the closest the U.S. and USSR had ever come to nuclear war. Through difficult and awkward negotiations, the U.S. and Soviets worked out an arrangement. The Soviets would remove their missiles from Cuba and the U.S. would stop the quarantine and promise not to invade Cuba. The U.S. also privately agreed to remove their missiles from Turkey, pending NATO approval. Because it appeared in the public eye that Khrushchev had backed down, the outcome weakened Khrushchev and strengthened JFK. Khrushchev would remain in power only two more years. The Soviets resolved to escalate their nuclear weapons program. JFK's image as a powerful world leader would rise and JFK learned some dangerous lessons (1) a macho foreign policy works and (2) the CIA and other secret agencies are essential programs. The U.S. military increased its hubris (military solution in Vietnam). Castro's position in Cuba was strengthened. Both superpowers resolved to establish good communications with each other to avoid another similar confrontation. The U.S. and USSR created a direct-link "red telephone" system. Greater U.S. and Soviet diplomacy led to a SALT (Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty) agreement by 1963.
What was Allen Ginsberg's view of psychedelic drugs and who should be allowed to take them?
Ginsberg took acid and became an immediate advocate of LSD. He felt everyone should use it as a de-contamination tool.
What were Rock 'n' Roller groups critical about?
Helped galvanize youth culture into their own differentiated identity apart from adult authority. Rejection of old (parental norms and values). Fed the growing generation gap. Crossed the race barrier, bringing changes. Emphasis on physical sensation, pleasure, soul, expressive behavior (loosen up and be free). Little Richard, Chuck Berry, and ELVIS (the white version of black soul).
How did the rise of liberalism after World War II affect Western culture? What types of policies did these liberals advocate?
In 1946, Cyril Connally helped define the emerging liberal ideology in his "Ten Indicators of a Civilized Society." 1. Abolition of the death penalty 2. Penal reform aimed at rehabilitation 3. Slum clearance and "new towns" 4. Subsidized energy/heating 5. Free medicine, food, and clothes subsidies 6. Abolition of censorship, surveillance, and travel restrictions 7. Reform of laws against gays, abortion, divorce 8. Limitations on property ownership 9. Preservation of natural beauty, architecture, the arts 10. Laws against racial and religious discrimination Given the book burnings of the Hitler era, it became unpopular to advocate book burnings after WWII and there was a distinct increase in liberalism in Western cultures. However, there was less of an increase in liberalism in the American Deep South, where conservative religious groups occasionally burned books and rock music records during the 1950s, 60s, and later. Conservatives and many moderates were upset at the rise of the liberal welfare state, arguing that it cut into individual initiative and created a class of welfare dependents. This is a valid point, yet in virtually all other Western democracies, the welfare state was much more developed and did not seem to cut into productivity. The war on poverty, while costly, did indeed ultimately reduce overall poverty by more than 43%, but it did not eliminate ghettos.
What is the significance of Rosa Parks to the civil rights movement?
In 1955, a year after the Brown decision (and its lack of enforcement) Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on a bus to a white person - as demanded by the Jim Crow laws - and was arrested. Black citizens organized a protest, and thus started the Montgomery bus boycott. The NAACP and the black church were important resources. Rosa Parks sparked a new phase of the civil rights movement - the citizen activist phase in which ordinary people participate in public protests, organize, select leaders, mobilize resources, and work directly to change the system. Rosa used nonviolent civil disobedience to question the morality of Jim Crow laws.
In the Spring of 1963 MLK initiated Project C in Birmingham, Alabama. What was Project C and what is its significance to the civil rights movement?
In late 1962, the movement was stalled and King's leadership was weakening. King and the SCLC decided on Project C for the Spring of '63. (The "C" stands for confrontation). Goal: make Birmingham, Alabama, the "Gettysburg" of the civil rights movement by defying Bull Connor and the Jim Crow laws on a large scale. As most black adults were arrested and in jail, King decided to allow school kids to participate in the protests, which was a controversial decision. Bull Connor unleashed attack dogs and fire hoses on the school kids, exposing the brutality of racism to the world once again. The spectacle made world news and helped galvanize the movement toward its peak, the March on Washington. At the same time as Project C, Alabama Governor George Wallace refused to desegregate the Univ. of Alabama by defiantly standing on the school steps. In June, 1963 JFK finally declared himself: He would search for detente with the Soviets. He gave a powerful endorsement of the rights movement. JFK proposed a new Civil Rights Act which would outlaw discrimination in public facilities. Racism and poverty were becoming priority issues. Rights advocates organized a March on Washington in the summer of 1963 to show support for JFK's civil rights proposal. June, 1963 was when the Equal Pay Act was passed. Change was in the air.
What were Existentialists groups critical about?
Intellectuals, college campuses, very influential. Provided an ideological basis for criticism of Western culture. Emphasis: Freedom The now (live for today, seize the day) Viewing the system as the root problem Action, change oriented Albert Camus, John Paul Sartre.
The election of 1960 pitted JFK against Nixon. How did they compare in their domestic policy views?
JFK differed from Nixon somewhat on domestic policies. JFK was more liberal than Nixon. More sensitive to the needs of minority groups. More willing to use the Fed. Gov't as a resource to help the poor and other social marginals. However, the Dixiecrats prevented JFK from embracing many policies that would bring significant domestic reforms. JFK did not focus very much on domestic policies until late in 1962 - after the Cuban Missile Crisis.
What does JFK's authorization for the Bay of Pigs invasion say about his willingness to respect the sovereignty of other nations versus his desire for U.S. security?
JFK endorsed the basic CIA invasion plan involving about 1500 Cuban exiles armed and covertly trained by the CIA. The CIA erroneously assumed that Castro was unpopular and unprepared for such an attack. They assumed native Cubans would rise up and join the 1500 exiles to displace Castro. The attack (April 15-17, 1961) was a disaster, embarrassing JFK, who had been in office only about three months. CIA director Allen Dulles, one of the planners, was forced to resign. The attack strengthened regional guerilla movements that claimed that the U.S. was imperialistic. "Yankee go home!" JFK went on U.S. television to admit his role in the failed invasion. "Victory has a hundred fathers but defeat is an orphan." JFK continued covert operations against Castro, and the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis would be the next big confrontation. The willingness of the U.S. elite to invade Cuba (note the moralistic fear of communism) despite their professed support for the sovereignty of other nations revealed contradictions that would haunt the idealistic youth of the early 1960s. Note Attorney General RFK's defense of the legality of the Bay of Pigs and the new information about his role.
Which of our Presidents, from Truman to Kennedy, was a hawk on foreign policy? At what point did JFK begin to pursue a more diplomatic approach to the Soviets? Why?
JFK, like every president since Truman, prioritized foreign policy over domestic policy. JFK goal: expand the empire and protect against communism with a new and innovative dual approach: 1. Peace Corps (reflected his idealism and inspired youth toward self-sacrifice). 2. Green Berets (reflected a realistic grasp of the grass roots nature of insurgency, but read by some generals as an attack on the reigning conventional military model). JFK's foreign policy emphasized military containment of communism. He viewed Cuba as the key nearby Cold War battleground. Both superpowers resolved to establish good communications with each other to avoid another similar confrontation. The U.S. and USSR created a direct-link "red telephone" system. Greater U.S. and Soviet diplomacy led to a SALT (Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty) agreement by 1963.
What were the Freedom Rides all about?
James Farmer of Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) helped organize the first freedom rides. Basic idea: get a small multiracial group of activists to ride on public buses into the Deep South to test federal court orders which desegregated interstate bus terminals. They arranged a media bus to follow the integrated buses to film what happened as the buses entered Jim Crow territory. Strategy: expose the brutality of Southern racism to the mass media. Force JFK to be more aggressive against racism. Result: The riders were brutalized by angry white mobs, and it successfully increased world attention to the cause of American racism. JFK was forced to take a more visible position against racism, driving the federal gov't toward a more active role.
Who were Martin Luther King Jr's two key historical role models?
Jesus and Gandhi 1. He was a minister and adopted a liberal, idealistic interpretation of Christianity. Emphasis on Jesus as a role model: love and compassion for everyone. Turn the cheek forgiveness. Faith in redemption: anyone, even a racist, can see the light if they look for it (hence, his idealism). 2. He believed in nonviolent civil disobedience to Jim Crow laws as a tool for social change. Emphasis on Mohandas Gandhi as a role model: organized, nonviolent disobedience of an immoral law serves to challenge its legitimacy.
Why is the March on Washington also considered by some as the beginning of the split in the civil rights movement?
King waves to the crowd after delivering perhaps the best speech of that era. There was momentum for change after the March on Washington, and it added support for the Civil Rights Act proposed by Kennedy. However, there was tension backstage, and SNCC would begin to split away from King's model. The civil rights movement would split into two different camps by 1965: Liberal reformers (King and the SCLC) Change from within by reforming institutional policies to accommodate minority groups. Radicals Belief that real change could only be accomplished by revolution, by rebuilding whole institutions, or by severing relations with the white capitalist power structure and forging a new, separate, independent black national identity. After 1965, radicals would dominate the black debate. By 1966, the Black Panthers and the black consciousness movement were becoming powerful.
What were LBJ's priorities in 1964?
LBJ prioritized domestic policy initially (1964-65) 1. Civil rights (against racism) 2. War on poverty
What is the significance of the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin resolution?
LBJ used the Gulf of Tonkin incident (August, 1964) involving dubious reports that U.S. warships had been attacked to win a congressional resolution giving him a free hand in crafting policy in Vietnam. This resolution was passed after less than 9 hours of consideration by a Congress that did not seriously consider the consequences of giving the President so much war-making authority. The Congressional vote was unanimous. It passed by 416 to 0. The Senate vote was 82 to 2. At that time, Vietnam was not an area of national concern. After securing Congress's approval with this resolution, LBJ dramatically escalated U.S. involvement in Vietnam. Subsequent information suggests the entire incident did not occur and was manufactured by the Pentagon for the benefit of LBJ.
What became of the Mississippi Democratic Freedom Party?
LBJ wanted a conflict-free convention. The MFDP arrived, expecting to be seated as the true representatives of Mississippi, presenting a conflict with the Dixiecrats of Mississippi. LBJ, disturbed at the conflict during his forum, was reluctant to alienate the Dixiecrats. He offered the MFDP only 2 seats as a compromise, but the MFDP stormed out, feeling betrayed by the system. This incident contributed to the radicalization of the civil rights movement. It was perhaps the spiritual birth of the Black Power Movement. The MFDP felt insulted that they were not recognized by the Democrats sufficiently. This contributed to a general feeling in SNCC that neither political party would serve their cause.
What policies and programs (ie food stamps, college loans, Medicaid, etc) were utilized in LBJ's War on Poverty? How did this War affect poverty rates? ... the size of the welfare state? ...expectations among the poor that they would be helped for the better? ...the living conditions of the poor, students, racial minorities, senior citizens, Appalachian rural life...etc.
LBJ's War on Poverty emphasized new government resources Food stamps AFDC (Aid for Families with Dependent Children) Medicaid (medical care for the poor) Public housing Jobs programs School and child programs College loans The beneficiaries The poor Minority groups The aged In 1960, 40% of seniors were poor. By 1970, 25% were poor. By 1974, 16% were poor. Students Note the dramatic drop in poverty under the Johnson policies. The war on poverty included many programs, some of which - like food stamps and guaranteed college loans - remain popular today. This war targeted both rural and inner city poverty, and was perhaps more effective at fighting rural poverty. Inner city poverty is partly related to the failure of private capitalists to provided urban jobs, and there is an on-going ideological debate over whether and how government should help with jobs.
While LBJ was from Texas, was he very popular in the Deep South?
LBJ, a Southerner, took most of the North, East and West, but failed to take the Deep South.
For what purposes were psychedelic drugs intended?
LSD is the product of scientific research. In 1943 Albert Hofmann was searching for a new headache powder and revisited a drug he had synthesized in 1938 - LSD. This time he discovered (accidentally) that LSD was capable of producing fantastic hallucinations. However, it was unclear what it could be used for. Sandoz, the drug firm Hofmann worked for, then sent the LSD to psychiatrists seeking to get their feedback. Could LSD help patients release repressed material? The psychiatric testing of LSD had begun. It arrived in the U.S. in 1949.
What is the legacy of the psychedelic movement?
Largely underground again due to Prohibition. 2. Taking new forms in various New Age movements involving spiritualism. 3. The legacy of new music, art and dance forms that involve wildly expressive or trance like behaviors (raves, electronic trance music, avant garde art forms, etc). Click here for an interesting music-oriented site, for example. 4. Found in the subcultural legacy of the Dead, Phish, Radiohead, and other post-hippie segments of society.
Why was Timothy Leary interested in psychedelic drugs?
Leary was a product of the 1950s backlash movement called humanistic psychology. It was time to ask what made people healthy - not just what made them sick. Leary's humanism led him to have contempt for the Organization Man conformity of that era. When he discovered psychedelic drugs for himself in 1960 he felt that he had discovered a tool to unleash the intuitive mind and to experience profound transformations. And he couldn't wait to share his discovery.
What were The Beats groups critical about?
Mainstream America had lost its soul. Too bland, materialistic, conformist, hypocritical, racist, militant, corporate, bureaucratic The Beats (late 1940s to mid-1960s) rejected suburbia and prided themselves on non-conformity and living life to the fullest. Open to new experiences (sex, drugs, and be bop) They made their own rules (do your own thing) Bohemian existentialists Rejected the system but did not try to openly challenge it, preferring to live underground. Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, William Burroughs.
According to Farber, what was happening in the early 1960s that made it difficult for the small town-based Southern Jim Crow system to survive?
Most cotton pickers felt highly dependent upon white landowners. This system helped sustain Jim Crow.
What was Martin Luther King Jr's philosophy of protest?
Nonviolent protest, wedded to the moral virtues of equality and dignity, would convince white racists to change. This lesson would be used by many in the 1960s.
What is the significance of the 1960 Greensboro sit in?
On February 2, 1960, 4 students from NC A&T College sat at the Greensboro Woolworth lunch counter to eat, which was a violation of a Jim Crow rule that blacks could only get take-out food. The sit-ins inspired many, outraged others. Both Chafe and Farber flag the 1960 Greensboro sit-in as a powerful moment in the civil rights movement. It ignited hundreds of sit-ins at segregated stores throughout the South. Sit-ins were a direct and immediate way to fight racism. Sit-ins revealed to young blacks that they could act without waiting for permission from their elders. Sit-ins were controlled entirely by blacks. They were not dependent upon the government to take action. Started in Greensboro as 4 black students sat at the downtown Woolworths and politely refused to leave until they were fed. They were inspired by M. L. King. They ignited a wave of sit-ins across the South. Sit ins helped bring black youth and college students into the movement. The SCLC had a new brand of leaders, including Ella Baker, executive secretary, who believed in de-centralized leadership. Baker urged ordinary citizens - including youth - to become their own leaders and take direct nonviolent action on their own. Within months, students would form their own organization, called the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).
What did Daniel Bell mean by the "cultural contradictions of capitalism?"
Post-WWII U.S. culture was caught between two contradictory sets of capitalist values: 1. early industrial values of hard work, thrift, moderation, discipline, and delayed gratification. 2. post-industrial values, with an emerging emphasis on hedonism, self-expression, consumerism, materialism, and instant gratification. Earlier values of thrift, moderation, discipline, and delayed gratification were giving way to wasteful, credit-based consumerism and instant gratification.
What was the Marshall Plan?
Provide economic assistance for the redevelopment of Europe after WWII.
What contradictions were visible in American society in 1960 that made people a bit uncomfortable with the notion that America was the land of plenty?
Racism and sexism contradicted equality. Suburbs were booming, inner cities were decaying. The U.S. touted sovereignty and democracy yet supported right-wing dictatorships. U.S. corporations provided material abundance, but acquired Big Brother influence. Widespread poverty contradicted notions of affluence. American consumerism contradicted earlier values. Suburban conformity contradicted individualism.
The civil rights movement would ultimately split by the mid-1960s between the liberal reformers like MLK and the radicals like the Black Panthers. What did the emerging radicals believe that the liberal reformers didn't agree with?
Radicals like the Black Panthers and the black consciousness movement who rejected the system altogether. The split reflects growing realization by many blacks that "the establishment" was incapable of reforming itself quickly or sufficiently enough to accomplish "the Dream" that King referred to in his famous 1963 March on Washington speech.
What were Juvenile Delinquents groups critical about?
Rebels without a cause. Teens and young adults who felt alienated from their parents, the system, and mainstream adult authority. Rejected the system but offered no constructive alternatives other than living in the now and acting out. Hollywood's Rebel Without a cause (James Dean) and The Wild Ones (Marlon Brando) sensationalized the juvenile delinquent.
What is the significance of the 1963 March on Washington?
Rights advocates organized a March on Washington in the summer of 1963 to show support for JFK's civil rights proposal. 250,000 people gathered at the Lincoln Memorial to support JFK's civil rights legislation. The spiritual pinnacle of the movement, which is now beginning to enjoy widespread support. King gives his famous "I Have a Dream" speech. However, there were growing tensions within the movement. SNCC's John Lewis had prepared an angry speech denouncing JFK's delays. SNCC was beginning to see King as too cautious and the JFK administration as half-hearted. SNCC was forced to tone down the speech. SNCC members felt slighted. The movement was already starting to split.
How did SNCC differ from SCLC?
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). SNCC would become a leading voice of youth between 1960-1966 that would influence both black and white student protests. Students are easy to organize and make great protesters. Initially, SNCC students modeled themselves after their SCLC elders, complete with the same basic goals and tactics: to end Jim Crow and achieve integration by using organized nonviolent citizen protest. In 1960, SNCC was idealistic that the system was capable of reforming itself. Most members at that time were reform liberals. From 1960-66, SNCC became increasingly more radical. They realized how deeply entrenched Southern racism was. SNCC targeted the Deep South where racism was most volatile. They were younger, more impatient, more willing to take chances, and frustrated with the slow pace of change. There were relatively few federal or state reforms between 1960 and 1963, largely because of the Dixiecrats. They were frustrated with the Democratic Party's slow movement on the civil rights agenda. As students they were exposed to radical ideologies beyond King's Christian ideals. The ideas of Malcolm X, a radical, would increase in popularity. They used de-centralized, democratic leadership, allowing more variety and flexibility of action and ideas. In 1964, Malcolm X advocated the formation of a black nationalist organization. He rejected the assimilation model advocated by the SCLC. SNCC members were also considering black nationalism by this period.
What was the difference between and hippie and a political activist?
Student protestors, rebels. Trying to transform the american system. Jerry Ruben. Hippies were in a personal revolution of self-discovery which was rejected by institutions. Sought personal search for nirvana through LSD. Political activist sought to change an institution itself.
Why was the 1954 Brown v Board of Education Supreme Court decision a hollow victory for the cause of school integration? What did civil rights advocates get from this Decision?
The 1954 Brown decision against segregation in schools provided legal and moral support for the civil rights advocates and gave momentum for change. The Court agreed with the NAACP argument that separate schools were harmful to black children, who were denied an equal education. Because the decision was so ground-breaking, Chief Justice Warren sought a unanimous decision. But the justices were not all liberals. To get them all to approve the decision, it was agreed that no timetable would be imposed for school desegregation. While a unanimous Court ordered schools to desegregate (without imposing a timetable), President Eisenhower (a Republican) did not side with the Court's decision and remained conspicuously silent on what should be done to desegregate the schools. The Southern segregationists took heart from Ike's reaction and resolved to fight desegregation. They formed Citizens Councils and resurrected the symbolism of the Civil War and "states rights." By 1960, 99% of Southern blacks continued to go to segregated schools. The KKK enjoyed a resurgence after the Brown decision. Many angry Southerners organized to resist what they saw as federal intrusion into their local way of life. Many looked to the national leader, President Eisenhower, for guidance. However, Eisenhower was conspicuously silent about the Brown decision. Was this a failure of leadership at a crucial moment? The Brown decision gave blacks a great legal victory, but white resistance made it clear that real reform would require direct action on their part. Following the Brown decision, Little Rock adopted a plan for gradual integration, but white Citizens Councils opposed it, and Arkansas governor Orval Faubus threatened to use the state National Guard to prevent desegregation. In 1957, 9 black students attempted to enter an all-white high school but were turned down by the Arkansas National Guard. A threatening white crowd of 1000 gathered at the school forcing the 9 black youth to be evacuated. The town mayor sent President Eisenhower a telegram requesting Federal troops for protection. The President sent 1000 army troops and federalized the state National Guard. Under federal troop escort, the 9 children were allowed to enroll at the high School. The incident forced the federal government's hand, and Eisenhower finally (albeit reluctantly) had stood for federally enforced school desegregation.
Who was Phil Ochs and why were the folk singers of the 1950s and 60s particularly relevant to the emerging counterculture of that era?
The American Dream - about everyone becoming cogs and sheep. No individuality among youth. Men went to school for business and women strived to please the man and serve her husband. Reflected their personal concerns of the times. Sang about the war, family, school, country, and civil rights. They sang about ending segregation, black rights, and their activism.
What is the significance of the Montgomery bus boycott of 1955 to the civil rights movement?
The Brown decision gave blacks a great legal victory, but white resistance made it clear that real reform would require direct action on their part. In 1955, a year after the Brown decision (and its lack of enforcement) Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on a bus to a white person - as demanded by the Jim Crow laws - and was arrested. Black citizens organized a protest, and thus started the Montgomery bus boycott. The NAACP and the black church were important resources. The boycott lasted one year and was successful in several ways: 1. They won. Seating discrimination was ended in this city. 2. It demonstrated the power of a unified, organized black community and showed that a mass citizen movement could work. 3. It produced an articulate and persuasive leader, Martin Luther King, Jr., who was brought in from Atlanta at age 26 to lead the boycott. The success of the Montgomery bus boycott, and the elevation of King as the leader of the movement led to the formation by 1957 of the Southern Christian Leadership Council (SCLC), with King as its leader.
Why was the psychedelic movement persecuted by agents of the status quo?
The backlash against LSD was not simple politics. It wasn't until 1965 that concrete evidence of its danger first appeared. This evidence was legitimate and it suggested that people with unstable personalities were prone to disintegration when exposed to LSD in uncontrolled settings. They tended to "freak out" in an anxious or panicked state. A second problem with LSD was that some people claimed to have "flashbacks" months after tripping. The mainstream media immediately exploited these fears and began to portray LSD as a social danger. At the same time authorities released anti-LSD propaganda, much of which made false claims about LSD causing chromosomal damage or other permanent harmful chemical alterations. In March of 1966, Time Magazine declared that America was in the midst of an LSD "epidemic."
What events contributed to the emerging youth culture of the 1950s and 60s?
The generation gap widened dramatically and contributed to the generational conflicts of the 1960s.
What was the purpose of the Selma March in 1965?
The purpose of the march was to draw attention to the need for a federal voting rights act.
What were the characteristics of the emerging youth culture of the 1950s and 60s? How did youth differ from their parents?
The sheer number of teens gave them a sense of their own identity as teens. Rising affluence and consumerism. Teens began to get an allowance and became consumers, allowing them to forge their own consumer styles. Rise of suburbia. Suburbs allowed larger families centered around the children. Teens developed high expectations about life and pleasure. Teen Values. Teens forged their own subculture, complete with its own distinguishing values: hedonism, irreverence (to authority), freedom, rejection of rationality, passionate romanticism. Rock'n'roll emerged as the voice of teen culture. Hedonistic, sexualized, individualized, youth oriented. Irreverent. Rejection of old (parental norms and values). Fed the growing generation gap. Crossed the race barrier, bringing changes. Emphasis on physical sensation, pleasure, soul, expressive behavior (loosen up and be free). Little Richard, Chuck Berry, and ELVIS (the white version of black soul).
Why did college students challenge the system of in loco parentis? What is the significance of this challenge? What was the Free Speech movement and what were their issues?
The university acted in place of the parents and treated college students like children. College was essentially a continuation of high school and preparation for marriage. Formerly docile students defied the rules and regulations without fear of the consequences. It was the beginning of seeing that you could matter in concert with other people. They were willing to be arrested for defying the university. They were inspired by the words of JFK, Phil Ochs, and Bob Dylan, admired the blacks, and realized their feelings were connected to the way they lived their lives and some things were worth fighting for. They questioned everything. All institutions, authorities, and rules that prevented them from controlling their own lives. The white students returned from Freedom Summer to their original colleges that were still operating the same - in loco parentis - so they came back fired up. They pushed for free speech and more freedom as students. They questioned university policies.
Why were civil rights advocates frustrated with JFK in 1961 and 1962?
They were younger, more impatient, more willing to take chances, and frustrated with the slow pace of change. There were relatively few federal or state reforms between 1960 and 1963, largely because of the Dixiecrats. They were frustrated with the Democratic Party's slow movement on the civil rights agenda.
Why was the CIA also interested in psychedelic drugs? What did they learn about LSD?
While Al Hubbard was celebrating the mystical properties of psychedelic drugs like LSD, the CIA was looking for a drug they could use for mind control. The Cold War drove both the Americans and Soviets toward diabolical methods of warfare, including chemical and psychological warfare. The CIA needed a domestic supplier of LSD so they contracted with Sandoz for huge local supplies of the drug, which eventually contributed to LSD's cheap and ready availability in the U.S. (LSD was not illegal until 1966). The CIA experiments with LSD were so bizarre they seem like science fiction. Driving a car thru New York City and randomly dosing unsuspecting civilians. Dosing unsuspecting soldiers and, in one experiment, faking that their plane was about to crash to see how they reacted. These experiments on unsuspecting American citizens were not alarming to the U.S. Inspector General - after all, we were at war! The CIA experimentation with LSD on unsuspecting American civilians was under a program called MKULTRA, which was approved in 1953.
What is the significance of the Great Depression and WWII to the 1960s in terms of how it influenced the parent generation of the 1950s and 60s?
fertility surge coincided with rapid economic expansion affluence and consumerism suburbia: security, comfort, keeping up with the jones' child-centered nuclear family white collar workforce, bureaucracy, and "organization man" Conservative culture: conform and obey traditional values Liberalized immigration policies Those who did not fit into the ideal suburban, middle-class, married, white family structure faced stigmatization. Beginning of sexual revolution The male playboy: affluent and hedonistic -emerging
In what way was rock'n'roll an act of rebellion, even if most teens didn't quite see it as rebellion?
the music had only become controversial because "the [white] pop kids started buying the R&B disks and playing them at home" Rock n roll broke down traditional barriers Be authentic was the theme Taught youth culture to question authority
How did civil rights advocates differ from Beatniks in their approach to the social problems they saw?
they wanted experiences not careers. they were the precursor to hippies intellectual and artistic rejection of mainstream culture. unlike civil rights advocates, they did not engage the establishment, the left it behind.
