exam 2
casual relationship
This is the "relationship" that a speaker wishes to have with the audience. One where the audience is comfortable and accepting to the knowledge that he or she is about to give out.
oversimplification
This is where something is simplified to the point where it is either confusing or uneducational
clincher
a powerful, memorable closing; ties back to the attention getter used in the introduction.
false dichotomy
a reasoning based on an either/or statement when the two alternatives are not really mutually exclusive or when other alternatives exist.
etymological definition
a words meaning drawn form a root word in an older culture
connective words
and so but; serves as bridges between points; improve message clarity;
competence
apart of aristotle's list fo how an audience will most likely believe the speaker
concern
apart of aristotle's list fo how an audience will most likely believe the speaker
dynamism
apart of aristotle's list fo how an audience will most likely believe the speaker
trustworthy
apart of aristotle's list fo how an audience will most likely believe the speaker
activity
appropriate movement of the speaker and a lively treament of the content that creates a feeling of something happening
circular reasoning
assumes as one of its premises the very conclusion it sets out to establish; often circular reasoning results from granting absolute authority to some source, and thus being blinded to the fact that others might not attibute similar authority to it.
storytelling techniques
avoid common attention pitfalls avoid questionable attention "grabbers"; don't let a stroy or joke take over your speech; don't tell jokes unless you can tell them well
false starts
avoid false starts and apologetic or tentative phrases: "is the mike on?" or "I'm sorry, but before i begin..."
definition by negation
best way to clarify a term is to explain what it is not
personification
bringing objects or ideas to life by giving them human qualitites.
opposition
but, though, however; on the other hand; conversely, on the contrary; yet; in spite of; nonetheless, nevertheless;
definition by example
common and effective way to explain someting by pointing at it, verbally or literally
internal preview
connective that provides a link by forecasting the points that are yet to be developed
setting up a straw figure
creating a flimsy argument, attributing it to the opposing side, and then proceeding to demolish it.
logical definition
dictionary definition, it has two steps: first, places concepts to be difined into a category then it explains that distinguishing concept from all other members of the category
conclusion pitfalls
don't end wtih an apology; don't trail off; don't introduce a whole new point in your conclusion; don't read your conlusion; don't make the conlusion disproportionately long; don't end in a stly or mood that i at odds with the rest of the speech; don't use the phrases "in conclusion" or "in summary" in any part of the speech other than the conclusion
hasty generalization
entails making a premature inductive "leap".
psychological orientaion
establish a good relationship with your listeners and motivate them to think about your topic. To establishing a good relationship use introduction to create a personal relationship with your listeners, to motivate your audience is the pivotal step that gets over looked the most.
written style
exists like a time machine; it allows a reader to return to a place where the eye had been a few seconds or many years before, or to jump tahead at will.
chronological
first, second, third; next, then; after; following
survival (physiological) needs
food, water, air, reproduction
belongingness needs
friendship, love, acceptance
faulty reversal of an if-then situation
known as affirming the consequent or denying the antecedent, occurs when a speaker assumes that, beacuse Y necessarily follows X, the reverse is also true: that E necessarily follows Y. example: if i hear the voices through the wall, then there is someone in the next room. I hear voices through the wall. Therefore, there is someone in the next room. probably arises by lazy thinking.
deductive reasoning
maintaning verbal statements, or premises, according to formal rules; instead of bringing new data into play you just rearrange what you already know.
extending an arguement to the absurd
makes a potentially sound argument appear groundless by extending it to a point at which it can be ridiculed.
parts-to-whole
one such; another; the first (second, third) of these; for instance, for example; illustrative of this; a case in point; let me give you an example;
attacking the person rather than the argument
or the ad hominem fallacy, substitues character assassinations for solid refutation or persuasion;
warrent
part of an argument that creates the connection
self-actualization needs
personal fuillment, knowledge, creativity
humor
playful remarks, silly or exaggerated images, amusing plays on words, ironic twists of fate, entertaining stories, and the like
conflict
pros and cons, opposing viewponts, competing schools of thought
"the vital"
references to things that are important to listeners, ranging from matters of survial to anything that saves them time, earns them money, or makes their lives more pleasant
proximity
refreences to what is colse at hand: people in the room, current events, local landmarks, ans so on
reality
refrences to actual people, events, and places, being specific and concrete rather than abstract
psychological closer
remind the audience how the topic affects their lives and make an appeal to them
security needs
safety, shelter, protection
alliteration
saying the same sound in a sustained sequence. ex: sorry about that silly sentence. whether it is with consonants or vowels.
esteem needs
self-image, approval, recognition
equality
similarly, additionally; another; of equal importance; also, moreover;
simile and metaphor
simile makes a comparison between two things ordinarily dissimlar: when she came in from shoveling off the walk, her hands where like ice. a metaphor creates a figurative equation that implies two unlike things are the same: her hands were ice cubes or we stand in horror as our money disappears down the gluttonous maw of the federal government.
cause-effect
so, since, thus; therefore, hence; consequently, as a result; due to ; becuase;
suspense
stimulation of the curiousity about what will happen next through puzzles or provocative questions
logical closure
summarize the main idesa and reestablish your topic's connection to a larger context
oral style
talk to an audeince rather than delivering a 10 page monologue. it uses fore repetition, signposting, internal summaries, and internal previews to ensure comprehension and make the organization clear.
definition by authority
the arbiter of meaning becomes the person with the most credibility or the most power
causal reasoning
the backbone of all speeches that deal with policy and problem solving
maslow's hierachy of needs
the best known way of classifying human needs; the lower-level needs have to be met or satisfied before an individual can become concered with the needs on the next higher lover.
credibility
the combination of perceived qualities that makes listeners predisposed to believe you.
familiarity
the ise of recognized examples, well-known phrases, and commonplcae situations
novelty
the opposite of the familiar: startling facts, odd turns of phrase, surprising images, and unusual combinations
inductive reasoning
the simplist and most common kind of reasoning; collecting enough instances to establish a pattern; the greatest problem in this kind of reasoning is determining how many cases to consider before drawing a conclusion; the conclusions drawn from induction are alwaus probable rather than absloute.
preview
the speaker gives his or her listeners a reassuring road map to carry through the speech
logical orientaion
to show your listeners how you will approach and develop your topic
operational definition
to tell how the object or concept referred to workd or operates
audience participation techniques
use the peoples names in the audience; refer to the person who introduced you and to other speakers on the program; refer to details in the immediatie setting or from common experiences; actively involve your audience.
accuracy of statistical evidence
use the test of who, when, how, and why before using a statistic, who collected the date, why were the data collected, when were the data collected, and how were the data collected
statistical evidence
when examples are systematically collected and classified they are reported at statistics;
testimony
when we call on statements from other people to get our point across. they can be viewed as an outward extension of the speaker's own fact finding.
reasoning by analogy
when we reason by analogy, we compare tow things that can be placed in the same category; evidence is linked to reasoning, and reasoning is linked to a claim. its like we assume that A and B have a number of characteristics in common, we can conclude that those things we do not know about B are highly likely to resemble their counterparts that we do know about in A.
hyperbole
when you deliberately overstate a point in a way that is clearly fanciful and not be ment to be taken literally to emphasize a point. ex: this paperwork will be the death of me.
repetition
when you repeat keywords or phrases, you make your listeners feel that your points are snowballing to a certain conclusion. Use parallel struture to emphasize relationships
confusing sequence with cause
"after the event, therefore because of the event" like when you think the effect happened because of the cause like Chanticleer the rooster, who firmly believed that it was his presawn crowing that caused the sun to rise each day or like the "kind tut curse" when everyone thinks the guy died cause he found the tomb but really he died from complications with an insect bit.
introduction pitfalls
"before i start, i'd like to say..." don't begin with an apology; don't read your introduction and if you have memorized it, don't sound mechanical; don't be dramatic, just be yourself; don't use attention getter that has no real link to your topic; don't make intro seem too long; don't use stock phrases like " unaccustomed as i am to public speaking"; don't name drop to build your credibility; don't startle your audience by bursting out; don't start with a long quotation that leaves your audience wondering where the quote ends and your words begin.
credibility of authorities
People whom have titles are respected because society gives them the standing that they know more because they have earned the title. Ex. Doctors are credited to give a conference on diabetes, or a reverend is allowed to perform marriage
audience, listeners values
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explicit preview
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quantification
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transition phrase
A phrase that moves a speech from one point to another. Ex. First, let me begin, next, finally, ect.