Exam 3 Microbiology Blueprint

Know the names of the two morphologies of microscopic fungi

yeast & hyphae (mold)

Know which parts only SOME viruses possess

envelope

What is the function of the spikes?

essential for attachment of the virus to the host cells exposed proteins on the outside of the envelope

Know the taxonomy of viruses

family names end in- viridae genus and species end in- virus subspecies- are designated by a number (ex: HIV-1 or HIV-2)

Know the names of the main groups of helminths/parasitic worms

flatworms & roundworms (nematodes)

Know the names of the four groups of Eukaryotic microbes

fungi, algae, protozoa, helminths

Microbiostatic/bacteriostatic/bacteriostasis

inhibiting, not killing, microbes

Bactericidal (biocide/germicide)

killing microbes

Sanitization

lowering microbial counts to safe levels

Know what an oncogenic virus is

mammalian viruses capable of initiating tumors their genetic material becomes integrated into the host cell's DNA and induce tumors

Know what normal (resident) flora is -- also known as microflora or normal microbiota

microbes always present in or on the body; they become well established; do not cause disease under normal conditions

What is transient flora?

microbes present for shorter periods of time; just passing through

Are animals and plants microbes?

no

subclinical

no noticeable signs and symptoms; these are the infections that go unnoticed so person doesn't seek medical attention

endogenous infection

occur when normal flora is introduced to a site that was previously sterile

secondary

occurs after host is weakened from primary infection

What is a persistent viral infection?

occurs gradually over a long period; can be fatal; viral infection is not cleared by the immune system ex: measles, epstein barr, HIV/AIDS

What is a prophage?

phage DNA incorporated in host DNA

Decontamination

physical, chemical, and mechanical methods to destroy or reduce undesirable microbes in a given area

What is the function of the capsid?

protein coat that protects the nucleic acid capsid made up of protein subunits called capsomeres

Degermation

reduces the number of microbes through mechanical means

What is a acute viral infection?

relatively short infection period ex: influenza, rhinovirus

What is a latent viral infection?

remains in asymptomatic host cell for long periods causing a latent infection ex: herpes, varicella zoster

Know what side effects are

unwanted reactions to a drug

What occurs during the lysogenic cycle?

viral DNA is passed to future host cell generations (binary fission) viruses can cycle out of the lysogenic cycle and into the lytic cycle

What determines which cells a virus can infect? (i.e. think about the receptors here)

virus coincidentally collides with a susceptible host cell and absorbs specifically to the receptor sites on the membrane

Know which parts ALL viruses possess

- nucleic acid - capsid - spikes ; either envelope spike or capsid spike

Know the steps of bacteriophage replication (i.e. lytic cycle). Be able to describe what is happening in each step.

1. Adsorption/ attachment: to cell surface receptors (change encounter- no active movement) 2. Penetration: delivery of nucleic acid (only a genome enters) 3. Biosynthesis: viral protein and nucleic acid synthesis 4. Maturation: the assembly of the virions 5. Release: viral protein of cell to release virions

Know the steps of animal virus replication. Be able to describe what is happening in each step

1. Adsorption/ attachment: viruses attach to proteins/ glycoproteins of the plasma membrane 2. Penetration/entry: entire animal virus penetrates host cell by endocytosis 3. Uncoating: once inside, the virus is uncoated to remove the envelope and capsid. 4. Biosynthesis: the viral genome, either DNA or RNA, is now free and biosynthesis proceeds 5. Maturation/ assembly: nucleic acid and capsid proteins spontaneously assemble 6. Release: the assembled viruses bud from the cell and acquire envelopes or exits through cell lysis -the envelope is partially derived from the host plasma membrane or nuclear membrane; does not necessarily kill the cell -non-enveloped viruses are released via the rupture of the host's plasma membrane; this kills the host

Be able to describe the actions of antimicrobial agents (alteration in membrane permeability, damage to nucleic acid and protein)

1. Alteration of membrane permeability -membrane damage causes leakage of cell contents -naturally interferes with cell growth 2. Damage to nucleic acids and proteins -prevention of replication, transcription, translation, peptide bond formation, protein synthesis -damage to DNA and RNA limits function and growth -heat and chemicals can denature proteins by breaking bonds

Know all the cytopathic effects viruses can have on host cells

1. Changes in size and shape 2. Cytoplasmic inclusion bodies 3. Cells fuse to form giant multi-nucleated cells (enlarged cells are called syncytia) 4. Cell lysis 5. Alta DNA (chromosomal changes in the host cell) 6. Transformation cells into cancerous cells damage to the host cell during virus invasion!!

Know how each works to suppress microbial growth (example #1: dry heat causes dehydration of microbes and alters protein structure; example #2: radiation damages DNA, etc.).

1. Heat -Moist heat: moist heat and high pressure denatures proteins -Pasteurization: not sterilization/ does not kill endospores -Dry Heat: causes dehydration and alters protein structure (denatures proteins) -Boiling water: denatures proteins 2. Low temperature- inhibits microbial growth 3. Desiccation- metabolic inhibition (prevents metabolism) 4. Radiation- damages DNA 1. Filtration -Hepa: removes microbes -Liquid membrane filtration: uses vacuum

Know which methods result in disinfection, sterilization or antisepsis. Also, don't forget that some of these methods have sub-types that fall in different categories. For example, radiation includes non-ionizing and ionizing radiation. Non-ionizing radiation results in disinfection, but ionizing radiation results in sterilization. Another example is moist heat: using an autoclave/steam results in sterilization, but boiling water and pasteurization only result in disinfection. USE THE FLOW CHART IN THE BEGINNING OF YOUR POWERPOINT.

1. Heat -Moist heat: steam under pressure- sterilization -Pasteurization: disinfectant -Dry Heat: (incineration/dry oven) sterilization -Boiling water: disinfectant 2. Low temperature- microbiostatic/ bacteriostatic 3. Desiccation- disinfectant? 4. Radiation -Ionizing: (xray, cathode, gamma) sterilization -Nonionizing: (UV) disinfection 1. Filtration -Hepa: (air) disinfectant -Liquid membrane filtration: (liquids) sterilization

Know factors that influence the effectiveness of treatment (# of microbes, environment, time of exposure, etc.). Be able to recognize or briefly describe these factors.

1. Number of microbes -large populations take longer to kill -small populations are killed more quickly -population is called "load" 2. Environment (organic matter, temperature, biofilms) -can inhibit treatment effectiveness by limiting exposure to the treatment -warm environments increase effectiveness -cool environments decrease effectiveness -fats and proteins create barriers 3. Time of exposure -extended exposure to treatments increase effectiveness 4. Microbial characteristics -endospores, capsules, acid-fast cell walls, gram state all influence the effectiveness of treatment

Know the descriptions of the following chemicals used for microbial control: Phenol, Halogens, Alcohols, Surfactants, Peroxogens, and Organic Acids

1. Phenol and Phenolic- disrupts cell walls and membranes and precipitates proteins -Bisphenols- disrupts plasma membrane synthesis in Staphylococcus and Streptoccus species 2. Halogens- impairs/alters protein synthesis by interfering with disulfide bonds of proteins; shuts down cellular enzyme systems 3. Alcohols- acts as surfactants dissolving membrane lipids, denature proteins, requires water (EXAM QUESTION- WHAT ALCOHOL IS LEAST EFFECTIVE- THE ANSWER IS 100% ALCOHOL because it needs water for it to be effective) 4. Surfactants- acts as surfactants that alter membrane permeability and denature proteins of some bacteria and fungi 5. Peroxogens- produce highly reactive hydroxyl-free radicals that damage protein and DNA while also decomposing to O2 gas toxic to anaerobes 6. Organic gases- inhibits metabolism; organic gases prevent spore germination and bacterial and fungal growth

Know the mode of action for each and general examples listed in the PowerPoint.

1. Phenol and Phenolic- found in antimicrobial/ antibacterial liquid soaps, lysol, triclosan(additive in the soaps) -Bisphenols- Hexachlorophene (used to treat skin infections) 2. Halogens- iodine, chlorine, milder medical and dental degerming agent; ointments disinfectants 3. Alcohols- ethanol, isopropanol 4. Surfactants- detergents and soaps, acid-anionic sanitizers 5. Peroxogens- antiseptic at low concentrations; strong solutions are sporicidal 6. Organic gases- acetic acid inhibits bacterial growth; propionic acid retards molds; lactic acid and sorbic acid inhibits yeast; used to control molds and bacteria in foods and cosmetics

Know the general properties of viruses

1. acellular, non-living agents that infect all life forms 2. obligate intracellular parasite- require living host cell to multiply 3. ultra-microscopic

Be able to describe the five mechanisms of drug resistance

1. drug inactivation 2. decrease permeability 3. activation of drug pumps 4. change in drug binding site 5. use of alternate metabolic pathway

Know the positive impacts of normal flora

1. exclude potential pathogens 2. provide some nutrition to the host (vitamins) 3. immune stimulation

This means I do not want you to just list the five mechanisms, you need to understand what actually happens for each mode. In other words, how does it carry out its function.For example, for antimicrobial drugs that affect the cell wall, you should know that these drugs act on the peptidoglycan in the cell wall and inhibit peptide bridges in growing cells; you should understand the consequences of this as it pertains to the survival of the target organism because you previously learned about the cell wall and its importance in unit #1; penicillins and cephalosporins are examples of drugs that function in this way.

1. inhibition of cell wall synthesis -Penicillins and Cephalosporins block the synthesis of peptidoglycan, causing the cell wall to lyse 2. injury to plasma/cell membrane -Polymixins interact with phospholipids and cause leakage, particularly in gram-negative bacteria -Amphotericin B and nystatin form complexes with sterols on fungal membranes which cause leakage 3. inhibition of nucleic acid replication and transcription -Chloroquine binds and cross-links the double helix; quinolones inhibit DNA helicases -some antiviral drugs are analogs and mimic the structure of nucleotides; the drug is inserted in the viral nucleic acid, preventing replication 4. inhibition of protein synthesis -70s ribosomes of eukaryotes differ in size and structure from prokaryotes; antimicrobics usually have a selective action against prokaryotes; can also damage the eukaryotic mitochondria 5. inhibition of essential metabolic synthesis -Sulfonamides (or sulfa drugs) and trimethoprim block enzymes required for tetrahydrofolate synthesis needed for DNA and RNA synthesis

Be able to describe the five actions of antimicrobial drugs.

1. inhibition of cell wall synthesis -peptidoglycan 2. injury to plasma/cell membrane -phospholipids / sterols 3. inhibition of nucleic acid replication and transcription -DNA/ RNA synthesis 4. inhibition of protein synthesis -targets the 70S ribosome, tRNA, peptide bond formation, etc. 5. inhibition of essential metabolic synthesis - enzymes

Drugs for treating HIV infections and AIDS: know why blocking reverse transcriptase is a useful treatment for HIV infections; know the mechanism of entry and fusion blockers, integrase inhibitors and protease inhibitors in the treatment of HIV (see info on slide #58; and diagrams on slides #59 and 60)

1. interference with viral DNA synthesis from viral RNA using reverse transcriptase (RT) inhibitors; stops the action of RT in HIV 2. integrase inhibitors- interacts with integrase prevents HIV DNA from being spliced into the host chromosome 3. Protease inhibitors- inserts onto HIV protease, which normally clips viral proteins into functional pieces; the defective virus is released and unable to infect other cells 4. entry or fusion blockers

Know the harmful effects of the absence of normal flora

1. opportunist infections 2. lack of "natural antibody" or natural immunity 3. poor immune system esp in digestion tract 4. vitamin deficiencies esp vitamin K & B12

Know the general descriptions (in the correct order) that describe the requirements for infection

1. portals of entry 2. establishment (attaching firmly) 3. avoiding, evading, or compromising host defenses (immune system) 4. damaging the host (disease) 5. exiting the host

Know the difference between signs and symptoms of disease (if you understand the difference between these two terms, you will be able to identify the examples of each).

A sign is objective (can be recognized by the doctor) ex- a rash A symptom is generally subjective (can only be detected/sensed by the patient) ex- a headache

Know when the human body is first colonized with normal flora and how newborns acquire normal flora

Acquire normal flora... Birth canal Breast milk Bottle feeding People Air Surfaces (The only time when humans are sterile is when they are in the womb)

Drugs for treating influenza: know the mechanisms for Amantadine, Rimantidine, Relenza (zanamivir) and Tamiflu (oseltamivir); use the diagram on this slide for a better understanding

Amantadine, Rimantidine- influenza A; block uncoating step of the replication cycle so RNA is not released; no viral synthesis Relenza (zanamivir) and Tamiflu (oseltamivir)- influenza A and B; blocks neuraminidase

Drugs that interfere with protein synthesis: know the mode of action of aminoglycosides; tetracyclines; oxazolidinones; chloramphenicol; erythromycin. Read the slide that highlights each of these drugs for a better understanding of the function, but I will use the functions listed on slides #25 and 44 (figure with ribosomes) as I write the exam.

Aminoglycosides: mRNA is misread, protein is incorrect; binds to the 30S ribosomal subunit and changes the shape Tetracyclines: interfere with the tRNA attachment to the ribosome; no protein is synthesized Oxazolidinones: prevents initiation and block ribosome assembly Chloramphenicol: blocks peptide bond formation and protein synthesis Erythromycin (macolides): ribosome is prevented from translocating; attaches to the ribosomal 50S subunit

Antiparasitic chemotherapeutic agents: know why side effects are usually seen when treating patients with these drugs

Both are eukaryotic organisms so their cells are similar to human cells

Know the following terms that describe antimicrobic drugs: broad/narrow spectrum; selective toxicity; antibiotics; prophylaxis

Broad-spectrum: the greatest range of activity - target cell components common to most pathogens Narrow spectrum: effective on a small range of microbes - target specific cell component that is found in only certain microbes Selective toxicity: drugs should kill or inhibit microbial cells without simultaneously damaging the host cell; as the characteristics of the infectious agent become more similar to the vertebrate host cell, complete selective toxicity becomes more difficult to achieve and more side effects are seen Antibiotics: are common metabolic products of aerobic bacteria and fungi Prophylaxis: use of a drug to prevent potential for infection of a person at risk

Know how competitive inhibition, synergism and antagonism work as it relates to antimicrobial drugs (slide# 28); know the example of a drug that acts as a competitive inhibitor (sulfa drugs-see diagram)

Competitive inhibitor- drug competes with normal substrate for enzymes active site (ex- sulfa drugs) Synergism (synergistic effect)- the effects of a combination of antibiotics are greater than the sum of the effects of the individual antibiotics (ex- combination of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMZ)) Antagonism- the effect of two drugs together is less than the effect of either alone

Know the difference between endotoxins and exotoxins (see slide #48, 52-53 and chart on slide #55)

Endotoxin: a toxin that is not secreted but is released after the cell is damaged -composed of lipopolysaccharide, part of the outer membrane of gram-negative cell walls Exotoxin: a toxin molecule secreted by a living bacterial cell into the infected tissue -proteins that target a specific cell type

Know what exoenzymes are and their effect on the host; be able to give an example of an exoenzyme and its specific effect on the host (it may be best to know one of the three listed in the notes)

Enzymes secreted by microbes that break down and inflict damage on tissues; often dissolve the host's defense barriers to promote the spread of disease to other tissues Ex: coagulase causes clotting of blood or plasma around the pathogen

Know the following definitions: epidemiology; epidemic; pandemic; endemic; sporadic MATCHING QUESTION

Epidemiology: the study of frequency and distribution of disease and health-related factors in human populations Epidemic: a disease acquired by many hosts in a short period of time; a disease that spreads rapidly Pandemic: epidemic across continents Endemic: a disease that has a steady frequency over a long period of time in a particular geographic locale; disease constantly present in a population Sporadic: when occasional cases are reported at irregular intervals; a disease that occurs only occasionally

Know the structures that are used by microbes in establishing an infection (see slide #40 entitled "attaching to the host"); be sure to also look at structures depicted in the diagrams on that slide (i.e. spikes, capsule, etc.)

Fimbrae Glycocalyx (capsule and slime layer) Flagella Cilia Barbs Suckers Hooks Spikes (viruses)

Agents to treat fungal infections: know that fungal cells are eukaryotic and a drug that is toxic to fungal cells is also toxic to human cells—Know WHY this is the case; know how amphotericin B and nystatin are used to treat fungal infections (what is their mode of action?)

Fungal cells are eukaryotic; a drug that is toxic to fungal cells is also toxic to human cells Amphotericin B- mimic lipids, most versatile and effective, topical treatment Nystatin- topical treatment

Know what is meant by host range and specificity as it pertains to viruses

Host range- is determined by specific host attachment sites and cellular factor; the spectrum of cells a virus can infect Tissue tropism: cell or tissues of a particular host that support the growth of a particular virus

Be able to describe/recognize the stages of an infectious disease (i.e. incubation period, prodromal period, etc.)

Incubation period: time interval between initial infection and the first appearance of signs and symptoms Prodromal period: short period characterized by the appearance of first mild signs and symptoms (nonspecific) Period of illness: all disease signs and symptoms apparent (specific) Period of decline: signs and symptoms being to decrease/subside Period of convalescence: body returns to the pre-diseased state, health is restored

Know the description of an infectious dose (ID); know that microbes with smaller IDs have greater virulence

Infectious dose (ID): minimum number of microbes required for infection to proceed Microbes with smaller IDs have greater virulence Lack of ID will not result in infection

Know the parts of the body that typically do not harbor resident flora (sterile sites of the body)

Internal tissues and organs (ex: heart, circulatory system, liver, brain, etc) Fluids within organ or tissue (ex: blood, urine in kidneys, semen, saliva)

Know the following terms regarding drug susceptibility testing: Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion test; dilution tests, E-test®; minimum inhibitory concentration; therapeutic index (effective dose vs. toxic dose)

Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion test- agar diffusion test (large clearing around the disk means that drug works best) Dilution tests- used to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) E-test- a quantitative method for determining drug effectiveness (also provides the MIC but more precise) Minimum inhibitory concentration- smallest concentration of drug that visibly inhibits the growth Therapeutic index- the ratio of the dose of the drug to its minimum effective dose; risk versus benefit

Antiherpes drugs: Know the general mode of action for antiherpes drugs (these drugs mimic structure of nucleotides and compete for sites on replicating DNA, so essentially they are analogs—what is the consequence of this? I said this in class a few times)

Mimic structure of nucleotides and compete for sites replicating DNA; analogs Consequence- can't make a copy when replication begins because polymerase doesn't recognize it

Know why moist heat is most commonly used as a sterilizing procedure (as opposed to dry heat)...think in terms of the time here.

Moist heat is much more faster as opposed to dry heat which takes longer and is normally used on things that cannot under go moist heat sterilization

Know which sites of the body typically harbor normal flora (i.e. skin; gastrointestinal tract, etc.)

Skin Upper respiratory tract (oral cavity, pharynx, nasal) Gastrointestinal tract (mouth, colon, rectum, anus Outer opening of urethra External genitalia Vagina External ear and canal External eye (lids, lash, follicles)

Antibacterial drugs that act on the cell wall: know the names of the two most prominent beta-lactam antibiotics; know the primary problems with the use of penicillins (i.e. allergies, etc.); know the descriptions of the three non-beta-lactam cell wall inhibitors (vancomycin, bacitracin, etc.)

Most prominent beta-lactams- Penicillins and cephalosporins Primary problems- allergies and resistant strains of bacteria Three non-beta-lactam cell wall inhibitors -Vancomycin: narrow-spectrum, most effective in the treatment of Staphylococcal infections in cases of penicillin and methicillin-resistant or if the patient is allergic to penicillin; toxic and hard to administer; restricted use -Bacitrach- narrow: spectrum produced by a strain of Bacillus subtilis; used topically in ointment -Isoniazid (INH): works by interfering with mycolic acid synthesis; used to treat infections with Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Know the relative resistance of microbes. For example, know that bacterial endospores and prions are highly resistant to deactivation; know what microbes are the least resistant, etc. There is a PowerPoint slide at the beginning of your notes that categorizes them.

Most resistant- prions then endospores of bacteria Least resistant- viruses with lipid membranes then gram positive bacteria Most to Least resistant in order Prions Endospores of bacteria Viruses with lipid membranes Gram positive bacteria

Drugs that block metabolic pathways: know what sulfonamides (sulfa drugs) and trimethoprim are; know what they block the production of and the consequence of this blockage in bacteria. (see slides 26, 28, and 50 for more detail; there are helpful diagrams on slides #26 and 27—use the one that works best for you in terms of understanding). You DO NOT need to know the specific conditions that sulfa drugs and trimethoprim are used to treat.

Narrow-spectrum; block the synthesis of folic acid by bacteria Sulfa drugs (sulfonamides)- kill bacteria and fungi Trimethoprim- antibiotics and folate synthesis inhibitor

Know examples of exotoxins and their effects (it may be best to know the exotoxins listed in the notes; see slides #49 and 54)

Neurotoxins act on nervous system Enterotoxins act on intestines Hemotoxins lyse red blood cells Nephrotoxins damage kidneys

Know what normal flora are and how they relate to a superinfection (slide# 72)

Normal flora inhibit the growth of pathogens in your body this relates to superinfections because if you take an antibiotic for an area and a side effect results in it destroying normal flora somewhere else in your body, then it causes a different infection than what you were treating in the first place

Know what a nosocomial infection is (slide #80) and the most common type of nosocomial infection (you can find this info in the pie chart on slide #81)

Nosocomial infection: acquired as a result of a hospital stay Most common- UTI urinary tract infection

Know the difference between opportunistic pathogens and strict pathogens

Opportunistic pathogens: are typically members of normal flora and cause disease when they are introduced into unprotected sites (weak immune system) Strict pathogens: are more virulent and can cause disease in a normal person

Be able compare and contrast the modes of replication of animal viruses vs. bacteriophages

Penetration in bacteriophages: delivery of nucleic acid (ONLY a genome enters) Penetration in animal viruses: ENTIRE animal virus penetrates host cell by endocytosis Uncoating in animal viruses none in bacteriophages Release in bacteriophages: viral protein of cell to release virions Release in animal viruses: the assembled viruses bud from the cell and acquire envelopes or exits through cell lysis

Know the descriptions of the following physical agents (and mechanical method) of microbial control: Heat (moist, dry, etc.), Low temps, Desiccation, Radiation, Filtration (this is the mechanical method; HEPA and Liquid Membrane Filtration).

Physical Agents are 1. Heat -moist heat, pasteurization, dry heat, boiling water 2. Low temperature (cold) 3. Desiccation -lyophilization 4. Radiation -microwaves, ionizing, and non-ionizing Mechanical Method is 1. Filtration -hepa (high efficiency particle air filters) -liquid membrane filtration

Antibiotics that damage cell membranes: know what polymixins are, their mode of action, and what types of infections they are used to treat; (some of this is a repeat from an earlier bullet point)

Polymixins: narrow-spectrum peptide antibiotic with a unique fatty acid component -effective against gram-negatives -interact with phospholipids and cause leakage -treat drug resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa and severe UTI

Know the portals of entry and exit; know how a pathogen might gain entry into a host using the portals of entry and how a pathogen can potentially exit the body (i.e. microbes can be released from the respiratory tract by coughing or sneezing)

Portals of Entry. . . -Skin: nicks, abrasions, punctures, incisions -Gastrointestinal tract: food, drink -Respiratory tract: oral and nasal cavities (most common portal of entry because we always breathe) -Urogenital tract: sexual contact, displaced organism (poop accidentally touching your pp) -transplacental Portals of Exits. . . -Respiratory tract: coughing and sneezing -Gastrointestinal tract: feces and saliva -Genitourinary tract: urine, vaginal secretions, semen] -Skin: open lesions, sweats -Blood: biting arthropods, needles or syringes

Know what prions are and the general type of disease they can cause?

Prions are a protein that causes infections (small proteinaceous infectious particles); misfolded proteins, contain no nucleic acid Causes spongiform encephalopathies- cavity producing proteins in the brain that damage neural tissue; 100% fatal

Antiviral chemotherapeutic agents: Know WHY it is difficult to achieve complete selective toxicity when treating viral infections; Know the three mechanisms by which different antiviral agents work (i.e. some block penetration into the host cell, some prevent maturation of viral particles etc.)

Selective toxicity is almost impossible due to obligate intracellular parasitic nature of viruses 1. Block penetration into host cell (entry fusion inhibitors) 2.Block uncoating, genome integration, and nucleic acid synthesis 3. Prevent maturation of viral particles (capsids, spikes, etc.)

SHORT ANSWER QUESTION: why is it difficult to achieve complete selective toxicity when treating infections invading (she will either say eukaryotic microorganisms or name one like fungi)

Since we are both Eukaryotic, our cells have more similarities than differences. If she asks about viruses instead of a eukaryotic microorganism then the answer is- they are obligate intracellular parasites meaning they have to enter our cells to work so the drug would have to go inside you cell to stop its replication resulting in your cells dying

Know why a high therapeutic index is desirable for antimicrobic drugs

So you have wiggle room before dose is toxic

Know the four Genera that produce most antibiotics.

Streptomyces and Bacillus (bacteria genera) Penicillium and Cephalosporium (mold genera)

Know the main purpose of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) THIS IS A SHORT ANSWER QUESTION

The CDC is a principal government agency that is responsible for keeping track of infectious disease nationwide

What is the function of the envelope?

acquired when the virus leaves the host cell. if viruses do not have an envelope it will have capsid spikes and/or glycoproteins envelope made up of lipids, proteins, carbohydrates

toxemia

toxins in the blood

primary

acute infection causing initial illness

endogenous agents

agents that already exist on or in the body (normal flora)

exogenous agents

agents that originate from source outside the body

Know the names of the two major groups of protists

algae & protozoa

What is resident flora?

always present in or on the body

Know the difference between a vector (biological and mechanical), carrier, reservoir, zoonotic, and a fomite when discussing disease transmission.

Vector: a live animal (other than human) that transmits an infectious agent from one host to another Biological vector: actively participate in a pathogen's life cycle; they are infected Mechanical vector: not necessary to the life cycle of an infectious agent and merely transports it without being infected; they are not infected Carrier: may have inapparent (subclinical) infections or latent diseases Reservoir: the natural host or habitat (living or nonliving) of a pathogen Zoonotic: an infection indigenous to animals, but naturally transmissible to humans Fomite: objects or materials likely to carry infection

Sterilization

a process that destroys all viable microbes, including viruses and endospores

Disinfection

a process to destroy vegetative pathogens, not endospores; usually only used on inanimate objects

local

an infection that is limited to a small area of the body (pimple)

focal

an infection that is spread from local infection to specific areas (ex. infection that was originally in tooth spreads to throat)

systemic

an infection that is spread throughout the body via blood

opportunistic infection

are infections that occur more frequently and are more severe in people with weakened immune systems

Know the names of the two major groups of Prokaryotes

bacteria & archaea

What is the function of nucleic acid?

carries genes necessary to invade host cells and redirect cell's activity to make new viruses carries DNA or RNA but never both

Know the difference between communicable and non-communicable diseases

communicable diseases: a disease that is spread from one host to another non-communicable diseases: infectious disease is not spread from one host to another

viremia

small number of viruses present not necessarily multiplying

bacteremia

small numbers of bacteria present in blood not necessarily multiplying in large numbers

virulence

the degree of pathogenicity or a measure of disease severity

infection

the growth and multiplication of a microbe in or on the body and that is with or without the production of disease