Exam 3

What is a causation explanation?

A causation explanation has causal reasons for things happening. However, not all explanations are causal...others are descriptive. The word 'because' can be used.

What is a commissure?

A commissure is a connection.

What is a hypnogram?

A hypnogram shows the cyclic oscillations of the sleep cycle. Hypnograms have shown that non-REM period are longest early in the nights, while REM sleep periods are the shortest. Later in the night, or early in the morning, REM periods are at their longest. The first half of the nigh is non-REM sleep, and the second half is REM sleep. This translates to dreams too: simple dreams are early in the night and complex later int the night.

Why is there a gap between determinism and materialism?

A materialist cannot be a determinist because then they would have to believe in chance related phenomenon.

What are the details of the delayed non-match to sample experiment / delayed response task?

A monkey moves the sample object to obtain food from the well beneath it. A screen is lowered in front of the monkey during the delay period. The monkey is confronted with he sample object and an unfamiliar object. The monkey must remember the sample object and then select the unfamiliar object to obtain the food beneath it. The monkey was able to do this task correctly. However, HM performed poorly with screen delays due to his intact short term memory.

What is a placental mammal (Eutheria)?

A placental mammal is a member of the mammalian group characterized by the presence of a placenta, which facilitates exchanges of nutrients and wastes between the blood of the mother and that of the fetus. The placentals include all living mammals except marsupials and monotremes. The corpus callosum evolved for the first time in placental mammals.

What is a quadro probe?

A quadro probe measure olfactory signals using insect parts. It is treated with insect pheromones.

What is an afferent neuron?

Afferent neurons receive information from our sensory organs and transmits this input to the central nervous system.

Damage to the lower spinal cord would cause what?

Damage to the lower spinal cord would cause an individual to be unable to walk, and no bladder control.

What is declarative memory?

Declarative memory is the conscious memory for facts and events. It is sometimes called explicit memory.

What is determinism?

Determinism is the theory that the laws of nature plus the initial state of the world will determine what the future and the rest of the world will be like: every fact is "determined" by some antecedent fact and the laws of nature. It is bad, because it is unclear.

What are the details about the ecology of sleep?

Different animals sleep different amounts. Predators like lion can afford to sleep a lot. Prey like animals sleep little. Ecological constraints define how much animals sleep.

What occurs with sleep paralysis?

During sleep paralysis, there is a persistent inhibition of the motor system during sleep, but there may be some inhibition in waking moments; thus, causing feelings of paralysis. Certain aspects of the dream state also persist into wakefulness, and people see hallucinations.

What is an efferent neuron?

Efferent neurons send impulses from the central nervous system to your limbs and organs.

How does engineering and design come together?

Engineering and design come together to form an iterative process. First a design is made, and the constraints are set.

What does estrogen do?

Estrogen enhances cerebral blood flow, and it is conducive to maintaining memory performance. Estrogen also influences neurotransmitters and is an antioxidant. Estrogen also changes the structure of hippocampus. Estrogen promotes cholinergic transmission. For example: Estrogen boosts both serotonin (receptor 5HT-2A) and acetylcholine levels (both key to memory).

Where does estrogen work in the brain?

Estrogen works in the amygdala and prefrontal cortex.

What is the link between retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia?

Everything that promotes anterograde amnesia also produces a little of retrograde amnesia.

What is a good way to maintain mental ability?

Exercise is a good way of maintaining mental ability. Exercise boosts brain growth factor.

What are the differences between homosexual and heterosexual results on tests?

Homosexual men perform like heterosexual females on male favoring and female favoring tests. Homosexual women performed like heterosexual men only in male favoring tasks, but did not lose performance like females do in spatial tasks.

How can we get back the ability to regenerate our central nervous system?

If a cut is made in the central nervous system while the peripheral nervous system part is regenerating (about a week difference), it will heal. This is called the Conditioning Lesion effect. This happens because the molecules released by the peripheral nervous system to heal itself will reach the central nervous system and signal for hearing before it is inhibited.

What is REM sleep behavior disorder?

In REM sleep behavior disorder, a person will engage in behaviors in REM sleep. People with this will very likely go on to develop serious neurological disorders. Example: Flailing arms Though the example given is simple, individuals may do something more drastic when acting out their dreams. This happens because something goes wrong with the behavior inhibitory mechanism, which allows the muscle system to get active enough for them to do dramatic movements. Proof has been shown by lesioning the brain stem.

Do women have a higher probability of being diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease in comparison to men?

In comparison to men, women do have a higher probability of being diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease. However, meta analysis studies have showed that women on hormone therapy have a decreased risk of getting Alzheimer's disease. However, with this study, there was a healthy user bias.

What happens in conditioning lesions?

In conditioning lesions, cyclic AMP promotes central nervous system regeneration. However, as it decreases, the ability to regenerate also decreases. A single injection of CAMP into the dorsal root ganglia in vivo can replicate healing support. The injection allows no injury to the peripheral system. CAMP both promotes transcription for healing and can negate inhibitors of regeneration.

What are the details of the Gollin Incomplete Picture Task?

In the Gollin Incomplete Picture Task, researchers assessed patients' implicit and explicit memory. Patients were shown pictures at different levels of incompletion. Amnesiacs improve with practice but don't remember ever doing the test.

What are the details of the Martinho and Kacelnik (2016) experiment?

In the Martinho and Kacelnik (2016) experiment, also known as the rubber duck experiment, baby ducks had an eye covered and were presented with rubbed duck moms to learn imprinting. The experiment found that cutting one eye of the baby ducks makes only one hemisphere learn imprinting, because baby ducks do not have corpus callosums.

What are the details of the Rechtschaffen experiment?

In the Rechtschaffen experiment, if the rat falls asleep it get dumped into water. The procedure was formed this way to sleep deprive rats. The study found that sleep deprived rats died and concluded that sleep is essential for life.

Describe the Rotation Adaptation Task.

In the Rotation Adaptation Task, people move the cursor on task, which was later made harder by making the cursor curve on the surface. When people do this task the hard way and learn to adapt, the right hemisphere is activated. People's brains were scanned. It was found that more delta power existed after during a hard task (areas 4 and 7 light up in the brain).

What are the details of the Word Stem Completion task experiment?

In the Word Stem Completion task experiment, researchers asked amnesic participants to read a list of words three times and then tested them on recall and recognition. Then they were asked to complete fragmented words. They found the amnesic participants to be worse than controls on recall and recognition, but performed equally to control participants on task.

What are the details of the passive avoidance task experiment?

In the passive avoidance task experiment, the mouse was shocked when it went into a dark environment, which is the natural tendency of a mouse. The results from this experiment supported the idea presented by the active avoidance task that electroconvulsive therapy creates amnesia before the shock.

What are the details of the pursuit motor task?

In the pursuit motor task, patients hovered a mouse over a dot that was going around a circle. This was a procedural memory task.

Where does information go first?

Information first enters the reverberating circuit. Then, some goes to the long term memory for safe storage. The transfer between short term memory and long term memory is called consolidation (takes about 1 minute). If something happens, like a shock, consolidation does not happen. Amnestic treatment given right (1 minute) after learning is strong, but if delayed long enough there is no amnesia.

How are intrinsic properties preserved?

Intrinsic properties are preserved by duplication.

What is long-term memory?

Long-term memory is often divided into two further main types: explicit memory, also known as declarative memory, and implicit memory, also known as procedural memory. It is not affected by damage to the hippocampus.

What is a monotreme?

Monotremes are primitive mammals that lay large yolky eggs. They also have a common opening for the urogenital and digestive systems. Example: Spiny anteater

Who is PZ?

PZ is a famous scientist who drank too much and had severe Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome symptoms. The memory loss was kept track by comparing his memory status with his biography that he wrote before he began developing the disease. He forgot his identity.

How can Rasmussen's syndrome be treated?

Rasmussen's syndrome can be treated by removing the entire affected hemisphere. When the left hemisphere is removed in a 2-3 year old, language develops normally, because the information goes to the right side. However, the right side of the brain is still paralyzed and spatial abilities are still affected.

What is Rasmussen's syndrome?

Rasmussen's syndrome occurs when seizures on one side of the brain leads to atrophy in that one hemisphere.

What does reduced mobility of the body lead to?

Reduced mobility of the body leads to pneumonia and septicemia because of the accumulation of fluids.

What is retrograde amnesia?

Retrograde amnesia is a loss of memory-access events that occurred, or information that was learned, before an injury or the onset of a disease (duration can differ). Amnesia following a blow is usually only a few minutes, and it is longer (1 + hours) in rarer situations. Memory gradually returns following an injury. Usually an individual never loses memory of personal identity.

What is Ribot's Law of Reminiscence?

Ribot's Law of Reminiscence states that old memories tend to be more intact, but recent memories (1 - 2 years back) can be severely disrupted. The law does not apply to all patients.

How do the visual fields and motor control cross over?

Right Visual Field = Left Hemisphere = Right Hand Left Visual Field = Right Hemisphere = Left Hand

What is the difference between short term memory and long term memory?

Short term memory is stored in the reverberating circuit, which is a loop circuit of memory (A excited B, which excites C, which makes A fire again). Long term memory is a more stable form of memory storage.

Describe the measures of sleep need.

Sleep latency decreases with lack of sleep. Sleep duration increases with lack of sleep. Sleep intensity also builds as sleep amount is decreased.

Describe Delta Power and slow wave Delta waves.

Slow wave delta waves are big and slow. They show intensity of sleep. People deprived of sleep will have much stronger delta power when they do sleep. Delta power is strongest early in the night when need for sleep is the greatest.

What is spatial navigation?

Spatial navigation is the ability to navigate between focusable elements. This is a spatial ability that allows the capacity to understand and remember spatial relations among objects.

What is the function of the fornix?

The fornix is a C-shaped bundle of nerve fibers in the brain that acts as the major output tract of the hippocampus. The fornix also carries some afferent fibers to the hippocampus from structures in the diencephalon and basal forebrain. It is part of the limbic system.

What is the function of the frontal lobes?

The frontal lobes are involved in motor function, problem solving, memory, language, social and sexual behavior.

What is the glial scar?

The glial scar is rich with inhibitory molecules that prevent central nervous system healing. Example: chondrotin sulfate proteoglycan

What is the function of the hippocampus?

The hippocampus is located within the brain's medial temporal lobe and forms an important part of the limbic system. The hippocampus is associated mainly with memory, in particular long-term memory. The organ also plays an important role in spatial navigation.

What is the function of the hypothalamus?

The hypothalamus is below the thalamus. It coordinates the autonomic nervous system and links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.

Explain the idea of neural correlates of consciousness.

The idea of neural correlates of consciousness states that we can look at the brain and learn about consciousness from neural activity (access not phenomenal).

What are the inhibitors found in myelin?

The inhibitors found in myelin are MAG, Nogo-A, and Omgp. All of these bind to receptor complexes and activate RhoA enzyme, which stops the neurons from growing out after injury.

What does the inverted spectrum explain?

The inverted spectrum explains how access awareness can be the same for two people (same brain activity), but their phenomenal awareness can differ (one person sees red while the other sees green).

What does the left hemisphere specialize in?

The left hemisphere specializes in language and speech production.

What is the function of the limbic system?

The limbic system is the area in the brain that is associated with memory, emotions, and motivation. The limbic system is located just above the brain stem and below the cortex.

What is the longitudinal fissure?

The longitudinal fissure is the deep groove that separates the two hemispheres of the vertebrate brain.

What is the function of the medial temporal lobe?

The medial temporal lobe includes a system of anatomically related structures that are essential for declarative memory.

What is the definition of the mind?

The mind is that thing which contains beliefs, desires, and purposes.

What is the function of the occipital lobe?

The occipital lobe is one of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex in the brain of mammals. The occipital lobe is the visual processing center of the mammalian brain containing most of the anatomical region of the visual cortex. The primary visual cortex is Brodmann area 17, commonly called V1.

What is the function of the parietal lobe?

The parietal lobes can be divided into two functional regions. One involves sensation and perception (integrating sensory information to form a single perception, which is cognition) and the other is concerned with integrating sensory input, primarily with the visual system.

What are the differences between the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system?

The peripheral nervous system can clean up debris and axon fragments quickly. There are also no astrocytes here to form a glial scar. It is myelinated by Schwann cells. The central nervous system cleans up very slow. It is myelinated by oligodendrocytes. Myelin debris stays around for years. Injury here lead to the formation of a glial scar, which is formed by reactive astrocytes. The scar is formed when the astrocytes go into a hyperactive state and multiply aggressively. Neurons cannot cross this glial scar even with CAMP.

What is the function of the pineal gland?

The pineal gland produces melatonin, which helps maintain circadian rhythm and regulate reproductive hormones.

What is the function of the pituitary gland?

The pituitary gland is located just below the hypothalamus. It is part of the endocrine system and produces critical hormones, which are chemical substances that control various bodily functions.

What is the function of the primary auditory cortex?

The primary auditory cortex receives sensory information from the ears and secondary areas process the information into meaningful units such as speech and words.

What is the problem of consciousness?

The problem of consciousness is that we do not know how to explain consciousness, because we do not have the available tools to understand it.

What does the right hemisphere specialize in?

The right hemisphere specializes in motor and spatial activity. Though the right hemisphere is able to understand language, it cannot produce speech.

What is the function of the striatum?

The striatum is one of the principal components of the basal ganglia. It is best known for their role in facilitating voluntary movement.

What is the function of the temporal lobes?

The temporal love is involved in primary auditory perception, such as hearing, and holds the primary auditory cortex.

What is the function of the basal ganglia?

The term "basal ganglia" refers to a group of subcortical nuclei responsible primarily for motor control, as well as other roles such as motor learning, executive functions and behaviors, and emotions. Disruption of the basal ganglia network forms the basis for several movement disorders.

What is the function of the thalamus?

The thalamus is the large mass of gray matter in the dorsal part of the diencephalon of the brain with several functions such as relaying of sensory signals, including motor signals, to the cerebral cortex, and the regulation of consciousness, sleep, and alertness.

What is the toxin removal theory of sleep?

The theory states that during the awake time, toxic chemicals accumulate in the brain (adenosine). During sleep, the toxins are removed. Therefore, we need sleep to avoid the build up of toxins.

What are the two types of estrogen receptors?

The two types of estrogen receptors are ER-alpha and ER-beta.

What therapies exist for spinal cord damage?

Therapies for spinal cord damage include: stabilization of the spine, drugs for inflammation, physical therapy, and stem cell transplant.

What are the details of the Two Process Model of Sleep?

There are two determinants of sleep: Process C and Process S. Process C: Clock Individuals have a circadian rhythm that determines how alert one is at different times of the day (awake and sleep). The suprachiasmatic nuclei, which is located above the optic chiasm, is the main circadian clock of the body (24 hour internal metabolic activity cycle). This structure can be cut from the body and maintained alive in a dish culture and still keep its clock. When the suprachiasmatic nuclei is lesioned and the animal is placed in constant light, the cycle is destroyed, but the animal would still get total sleep needed through little naps. Process S: Sleep need (homeostatic deprivation driven sleep) The longer you are awake, the more sleep is needed. Even waking generates a need for sleep, because a certain amount of sleep is needed for normal function, because sleep removes adenosine. Today, it is thought that both processes work together to impact how much a person needs sleep.

Describe the two types of consciousness.

There are two types of consciousness: (1) Access: Some states and their content are accessible to other states; therefore the word 'access'. We can remember some experiences; however, others are inaccessible and we cannot remember them. (2) Phenomenal: For some states there is something it is like to be in that state; therefore the word 'phenomenon'. Example: seeing red Note that we can have access consciousness without phenomenal consciousness, because perceptual information can guide behavior without phenomenal awareness.

Describe the experiment with the frigate bird with the eye patch.

This experiment was done to study uni-hemispheric sleep. It was found that birds with a patched eye had drastically different delta activity. The study showed that the intensity of sleep can be altered by exposing the brain to certain stimuli during wake cycles.

How and why do we model clear lens on a rat eye?

This is done for the purpose of neural engineering, to monitor the retina and then model the electrodes after it. The recording lens is on top of the eye. The lens is also tilted a bit. There are asymmetric potentials in the cornea.

How will we solve the problems of phenomenal consciousness?

To solve the problem of phenomenal consciousness, we have to connect it to things that we can explain and measure. By introducing it into our theories and give it an explanatory role, we can connect all our other theories.

What can be done to treat epilepsy involving the corpus callosum?

To treat epilepsy, the corpus callosum can be severed to circumvent the spread of a seizure. However, it is not severed entirely, only parts of it, because different parts of the corpus callosum innervate different parts of the cerebral cortex. The corpus callosum is severed via callosotomy.

What is transient global amnesia?

Transient global amnesia is when a person cannot form new memories. They cannot remember anything that has passed beyond a few minutes. They only have memory of the past few minutes or less.

What is the hardest problem?

Understanding access consciousness is easy, because we can easily explain how we perform a task. Understanding phenomenal consciousness is hard, because it is primitive. Nothing in this experience can be connected to anything else. Phenomenal stuff is not directly testable by behavioral data. If phenomenal stuff does have an impact on behavior, is is by affecting cognitive function, though it does not produce anything. This does not mean it is not real. Example: Gravity

What is uni-hemispheric sleep?

Uni-hemispheric sleep is when half the brain is asleep at a time (one eye is closed at time). When one side is done sleeping, the brain sides will switch with who is awake and who is asleep. Examples: Dolphins, Sea otters, frigate birds

What are the details of the different stages of sleep?

Wake EEG = desynchronized life Stage 1 = EEG is slower than wake cycle. Individuals enter this stage of sleep upon falling asleep. Stage 2 = EEG is slower and bigger than in Stage 1. This stage of sleep also has K complexes. Stage 3 = This stage of sleep have very big and very slow waves, which are delta waves (synchronized). Stage 4 = This stage of sleep has very low voltage activity, which is synchronized activity of many cells at once. REM sleep = REM sleep happen occasionally during sleep and goes from big, slow waves to low voltage, fast activity. It resembles the waves of the awake self.

How does aging affect sleep?

When individuals are about 75 years old they sleep less REM sleep. In comparison, babies sleep more REM sleep. Therefore, the slow wave sleep is maximal in early childhood and dissipates in older age.

What is a constitutive explanation?

With a constitutive explanation, the smallest physical stuff can explain everything. Materialism requires constitutive explanations. The word 'because' can be used.

What is anomia?

With anomia, an individual can use something, but not name it when they see it.

What happens to an individuals memory with electroconvulsive therapy?

With electroconvulsive therapy, an individual does not remember what happens before the shock. However, this is not a large amount of information. Electroconvulsive therapy has a very short gradient of amnesia.

What is left visual anomia?

With left visual anomia, an individual can use something, but not name it when they see it with their left visual field.

What is pure visual anomia?

With pure visual anomia, an individual's both visual cortices are disconnected from the naming area; however, the individual is not blind.

What is visual anomia?

With visual anomia, an individual has blindness in the right visual field and anomia in the left visual field.

What are women known to be better than men, and what are men known to be better than women?

Women are better at verbal memory, and men are better at visual-spatial skills. Ironically, the female advantage in verbal memory may put women at a disadvantage because a diagnosis of aMCI is made at a later disease stage and, thus, treatment starts later. To explain further the spatial navigation, women use landmarks, and men use spatial cues and cardinal directions.

Research on estrogen states...

Women had double the risk of Alzheimer's disease and dementia when given hormone therapy that blocks estrogen in the brain. Other research states that estrogen hormone therapy prevents death of Alzheimer's disease.

Does estrogen increase dendritic spine density?

Yes, estrogen does increase dendritic spine density. An experiment was done on rats, where rat ovaries were taken out. Rats with oil instead of estradiol had fewer dendritic spines than the estradiol. Estradiol treatment enhances frontal function.

In general, do marsupials lack a corpus callosum?

Yes, marsupials lack a corpus callosum. It is theorized that marsupials lost its corpus callosum in evolutionary processes before splitting in the evolutionary tree with Monotremata.

Can the corpus callosum make seizures worse?

Yes, the corpus callosum can make seizures worse. The corpus callosum does by spreading the seizure by carrying the high brain activity of the seizure from one hemisphere to another hemisphere.

Do women have a higher level of estrogen and estradiol?

Yes, women do have higher levels of estrogen and estradiol.

Is myelin inhibitory to regeneration?

Yes. There are protein in myelin debris that prevents healing in the central nervous system regeneration that is present for weeks after injury. Treatments can be designed that clear these out since they stay for too long.

What are differences between non-REM and REM sleep?

non-REM sleep is slow and synchronized, has low postural muscles tone, slow drifting eye movements, no erections in males, and infrequent "thought-like" dreams. REM sleep is fast and desynchronized, has very low postural muscle tone, rapid eye movements, erections in males, and usually complex dreams.

Describe the two senses of awareness.

(1) Access (2) Phenomenal Some states are states of awareness in that there is something it is like to be them. They have some qualitative or phenomenal character.

What happens to women's estrogen levels after menopause and what occurs with menopause?

After menopause, women's estrogen levels crash to the point that even men pass them in estrogen levels (around age 55). However, testosterone in men does not drop dramatically. Nonetheless, it does gradually decrease with age and varies between individuals. During the menopausal transition, women's hippocampal function declines, when it was ahead of men early in life. However, women on therapy showed better memory and hippocampal blood flow. Women also face cognitive behavioral changes. Memory also declines immediately post menopause. Actually, as soon as the menstrual cycles become erratic, there is a decrease in the memory ability. However, it returns to normal.

How is Alzheimer's disease treated?

Alzheimer's disease is treated with cholinesterase inhibitors.

What does the opossum brain have instead of a corpus callosum?

An opossum brain has a large anterior commissure.

Example of an animal that does not have a corpus callosum?

An opossum's brain does not have a corpus callosum.

What is anisomyocin?

Anisomyocin prevents protein creation and causes amnesia. However, depending on the time of administration, amnesia may vary. Anisomyocin has a longer gradient of amnesia than electroconvulsive therapy. These is still a substantial deficit after the anisomyocin injection. Unlike electroconvulsive therapy, anisomyocin can be administered a few hours after the learning event, and it can still affect memory.

What is anterograde amnesia?

Anterograde amnesia is a loss of the ability to create new memories after the event that caused the amnesia, leading to a partial or complete inability to recall the recent past, while long-term memories from before the event remain intact.

What were the details of the Poffenberger Experiment (1912)?

BACKGROUND/HYPOTHESES: If the light was flashed in the left visual field of the participant and asked to use the right hand, it is theorized that no 'crossing' for information is needed. If the light was flashed in the left visual field of the participant and asked to use the left hand, it is theorized that information will need to 'cross over', because opposite motor cortices are used for movement. METHODS: During the experiment, the participant sat and had a light flashed in either their left or right eye, and had to hit a button with either their left or right hand when instructed. PURPOSE: The purpose of the experiment was to understand how information passes from one side of the brain to the other side of the brain by variating eye that was flashed with light (understand 'crossover'). CONCLUSION: The experiment showed that speed to act is increased if light is flashed in visual field that is opposite of hand instructed to use, because there is no 'cross over'. When 'crossover' is necessary there are time delays in sending information from hemisphere to hemisphere.

What would cervical damage cause?

Cervical damage would cause a loss of arm movement and breathing issues.

What is Commissure and Laterality Theory 1?

Commissure and Laterality Theory 1 is when the commissural interconnections inhibit lateralization by coordinating activity between hemispheres.

What is Commissure and Laterality Theory 2?

Commissure and Laterality Theory 2 is when the commissural interconnections allow for lateralization by permitting inter-hemispheric transfer of specialized information.

Describe the details of the flower pot technique for REM deprivation.

For the flower pot technique for REM deprivation, rats are put in pots on water. If that rat falls into REM sleep it would fall into the water. The rat will get non-REM sleep, but no REM sleep with this technique.

What are grid cells?

Grid cells are a type of neuron in the brain that allows us to understand our position in space.

Who is HM?

HM is an epileptic patient who had a surgery where both sides of the medial temporal lobes were removed. The hippocampus on both sides were also removed. HM survived the operation and the seizures stopped. His old memories were left intact, but was unable to form new memories. HM could do typical procedural tasks well until he got distracted. He had to be reinstructed on what to do. HM showed improvement after the third day on the mirror tracing task, which tested procedural memory. However, a seizure can happen years after an injury.

What are hippocampal place cells?

Hippocampal place cells fire when the individual is in a certain place due to place fields.

What are the details of the Judge and Quartermaine (1982) experiment?

METHODS: Animals were trained. Three days later, the animals were put back in their cages for reactivation treatment. The environment will cause the animals to reactivate the memory to not drink from their water supply. The Judge and Quartermaine (1982) experiment used anisomyocin injections after placing the animals back in the cage. PURPOSE: Because of the length of time taken for the amnestic treatment administration, and prior knowledge, it was assumed that all learning information would have been consolidated. This experiment wanted to understand consolidation further and experiment with protein inhibitor drugs. RESULTS: The anisomyocin did block memory even days after the learning occurred. It did not follow the idea that amnestic treatment needed to be administered right after learning to have an amnestic effect. CONCLUSION: If you think about something you have not in a while, that thought is moved into a state where it can be forgotten with amnestic treatments. Every time the memory is reopened it is unstable and open to being altered in some way. This can lead to an effective treatment for PTSD. Things that happened years ago can potentially be affected by amnestic agents. A TV study done with electroconvulsive therapy also proved this point.

What are the details of the Gazzaniga (1967) experiment?

METHODS: In the Gazzaniga (1967) experiment, participants who had a split brain, were flashed words to certain visual fields, and then asked to feel for the item, or name the item. Example: (1) Flash word to left visual field, (2) find item with right hand, or (3) name the item. RESULTS: Part 1 (Naming Item): When the left visual field was flashed words, the participant would not be able name the item, because according to them... "they did not see anything". When the right visual field was flashed words, the participant could name the item. Part 2 (Find Item): When the left visual field was flashed words and the right hand was to be used, the participant could not pick up the item. When the left visual field was flashed words and the left hand was to be used, the participant could pick up the item, but would deny that they saw anything. When the right visual field was flashed words and the right hand was to be used, the participant could pick up the item.

What are the details of the Myers (1962) experiment?

METHODS: In the Myers (1962) experiment, cats were used. Cats had their optic chiasm split, but left in tact the corpus callosum (split chiasm). There was also an experimental group of cats that had their optic chiasm, corpus callosum, and anterior commissure clipped (split brain). The cats wore eye patches during the experiment. RESULTS / CONCLUSION: In the split chiasm group, it was recorded that inter-hemispheric communication still occurred despite the split chiasm. In the split chiasm group, the right hemisphere still recognizes and reacts to information presented to the left visual field, despite the right eye being covered by the patch. In the split brain group, cats perform poorly and inter-hemispheric communication does not occur. The brain only knows what to do when the 'correct' side sees it.

What are the details of the mouse one-way active avoidance box experiment?

METHODS: In the mouse one-way active avoidance box experiment, a mouse was kept in a two compartment box with a door between compartments. One box was the shock box, and one box was the safe box. The mouse was shocked and it ran to the safe box. The mouse learned the active avoidance task, which means to actively avoid the shock. RESULTS: The study showed that the mouse did not remember the light signaling the shock. A normal mouse can learn light is a danger. Adding a shock prevents the mouse from remembering like a normal mouse. However, the mouse experiences a gradient of amnesia, which means that there is a severe shortage of memory before the shock event; however, there is recovery after the event gradually. CONCLUSION: When the mouse gets shocked, the information that would teach the mouse avoidance would be held in the reverberating circuit.

What is a marsupial?

Marsupials are mammals of an order whose members are born incompletely developed and are typically carried and suckled in a pouch on the mother's belly. Example: Kangaroo

What is materialism?

Materialism, also known as physicalism, is the theory that states that physical facts determine all the mental facts.

Why does postural anotonia (muscle tone) occur in REM sleep?

Postural anotonia (muscle tone) occurs in REM sleep. In actuality, the dorsal pons is responsible for REM sleep. Postural anotonia occurs to prevent animals from acting out their dream.

What is progesterone needed for?

Progesterone is needed to prevent cancer.

What is psychogenic amnesia?

Psychogenic amnesia, also known as, dissociative amnesia, is a memory disorder characterized by sudden retrograde episodic memory loss, said to occur for a period of time ranging from hours to years. The person is unable to remember any personal information about themselves. It is an inorganic amnesia, because there is no structural tissue damage to the brain that can be causally linked to the severe loss of memory.

TRUE OR FALSE: Girls with gender dysphoria did have a masculinization of the brain.

TRUE.

TRUE OR FALSE: Men that grow older and have more testosterone have decreased chances for Alzheimer's disease.

TRUE. However, too much supplemental testosterone is associated with decreased hippocampal function and decreased verbal memory. This is similar to the estrogen story.

TRUE OR FALSE: Selectively exercising a region of a brain during the day shows extra activity during sleep exactly in correlation.

TRUE. Neural activation generates need for delta wave sleep.

TRUE OR FALSE: Women who had their ovaries removed before onset of menopause had higher risk of Alzheimer's disease.

TRUE. Removal of ovaries before age 48 increases risk of Alzheimer's disease by 70%. This fact reveals that the removal of ovaries is the issue for women. But if this occurs, she needs estrogen therapy until post menopause for health benefits.

TRUE OR FALSE: Surgical menopause causes declines in verbal memory.

TRUE. Therapy protects against verbal memory declines, while estrogen suppression causes declines.

Is talking and sleep walking non-REM or REM sleep?

Talking and sleep walking is non-REM sleep.

What does testosterone do?

Testosterone is good for spatial abilities and verbal memory in men. Men given testosterone alone had both boost in spatial and verbal abilities. Verbal goes up because the testosterone is turned into estrogen, which is good for verbal memory. Men given testosterone and an inhibitor that prevented it from becoming estrogen, only improved in spatial skills.

Why is the Hebb (1949) experiment important?

The Hebb (1949) experiment is important, because Hebb proposed that memory has a two process model; therefore, there are two types of memory (short term memory and long term memory). However, after discovering the affect of protein inhibitor drugs, researchers proposed to alter this model to add a third arm focused on the different effects of different amnestic treatments.

What are the details of the Morris water maze task experiment?

The Morris water maze task experiment is a behavior procedure done with rats to study spatial learning and memory. In the experiment, rats used things outside the pool to track where the dry platform was and to get out of the pool. Rats without their hippocampus could not form a spatial map like the normal rats and swam randomly. With a lesion to the caudate, the rat would be unable to complete the task and hippocampal lesions do not allow improvement of task.

Explain regeneration.

The Peripheral Nervous System can be regenerated at the dorsal root ganglion, but the Central Nervous System cannot be especially if damage happens near spinal cord or has to do with it. The lack of central nervous regeneration is a new evolutionary change.

What is the Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome?

The Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome is found in alcoholics, not because of the alcohol, but because of the low Vitamin B levels (thiamine deficiency). Patients also have retrograde and anterograde amnesia caused by hippocampal (full of holes) and frontal cortex damage (mammillary body damage). Procedural memory, and priming are unaffected by hippocampal damage, but it does lead to loss of specific memories. This causes individuals to lie on accident, because they confuse their memory without wanting to, in truth they do not remember (confabulation). They remember old times better than recent times. Though, because most patients are alcoholics, maybe the never learned the new information to begin with.

What conclusion did the study of the eyes come to?

The eye study found that surface molecules around neurons in the central nervous system inhibited regeneration.

What is the agenesis of the corpus callosum?

The agenesis of the corpus callosum, also known as callosal agenesis, is a rare birth defect in which there is a complete or partial absence of the corpus callosum. It is prone to occurring, because the corpus callosum is one of the last things to develop in the mammalian brain. People with this disorder have higher latencies for inter-hemispheric communication. Though the corpus callosum is not intact with those who suffer from this disorder, information can cross in the brain by taking convoluted routes like the anterior commissure.

What is the alien hand syndrome?

The alien hand syndrome is when an individual is unable to control their left hand. The hand basically has a mind of its own.

What is the function of the anterior commissure?

The anterior commissure is a white matter tract, a bundle of axons, connecting the two temporal lobes of the cerebral hemispheres across the midline, and placed in front of the columns of the fornix. It works with the posterior commissure for memory, emotion, speech, and hearing information.

What is the function of the autonomic nervous system?

The autonomic nervous system is the part of the nervous system responsible for control of the bodily functions not consciously directed, such as breathing, the heartbeat, and digestive processes.

What is the function of the basal forebrain?

The basal forebrain is an important area for acetylcholine production. "Basal forebrain" is a term for a group of structures that lie near the front of and below the striatum.

What is the function of the cerebral cortex?

The cerebral cortex, also known as the cerebrum, is the largest part of the human brain. It is associated with higher brain function such as thought and action. It is divided into four lobes: the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe, and the temporal lobe.

What is the function of the corpus callosum?

The corpus callosum is a wide commissure that spans part of the longitudinal fissure. It is a flat bundle of commissural fibers, about 10 cm long, that lies beneath the cerebral cortex in the brains of placental mammals. It is the largest fiber bundle in the brain. The corpus callosum is the part of the mind that allows communication between the two hemispheres of the brain. It is responsible for transmitting neural message between both the right and left hemispheres. Think of it as the "bridge". It first developed in placental animals. Corpus callosums vary in size (larger animals have smaller corpus callosums).

Why is the corpus callosum one of the last things to developing the mammalian brain?

The corpus callosum is one of the last things to develop in the mammalian brain, because it evolved late.

What happens if the optic chiasm is clipped?

The decussation of the optic nerve helps with depth perception. When the optic chiasm is clipped, then each eye is only connected to its correlated side of the brain (left to left and right to right), and there is no 'crossing'.

What is the function of the diencephalon?

The diencephalon is the region of the embryonic vertebrate neural tube. It is made up of four main components: (1) the thalamus, (2) the hypothalamus, (3) the pituitary gland, (4) and the pineal gland.

What did the estrogen plus progesterone rate error study show?

The estrogen plus progesterone rate error study revealed that replacement of hormones treatment is better when taken early on in life. It increases blood flow in the hippocampus; therefore, better memory. In naturally menopausal women, findings suggest that therapy within five years after the final menstrual cycle is neutral.