Exam 3 Study Guide

flooding

(or response prevention) is a behavior therapy in which a phobia is eliminated by forced exposure to the feared stimulus without an aversive consequence. -The human or animal is exposed to the conditioned fear stimulus without an aversive consequence. -Although flooding seems to be very effective, many people do not want to participate in flooding because the initial anxiety is so great.

Several factors play important roles in determining whether a person or animal learns to escape aversive events. There are also factors that determine the efficiency of the escape response. Some factors that impact how quickly an escape response is learned are:

1. The intensity of the aversive events -The greater the intensity of the aversive event, the more motivated the animal is to escape the situation -Increasing the severity of the aversive events produces higher levels of avoidance conditioning in simple tasks. 2. The absence of negative reinforcement -Negative reinforcement is the removal of an unpleasant event. -The longer negative reinforcement is delayed after an escape response the slower the escape behavior will be learned. 3. The impact of Delayed Reinforcement. -The greater the negative reinforcement, the higher the asymptotic level of escape performance.

Three phases of Contingency management

1. assessment: behavior problem is defined 2. Contingency contracting: what should be done to increase positive behavior or decrease negative behavior; the desired response is determined 3. Implementation: providing reinforcement contingent upon the appropriate response or absence of the inappropriate behavior Contingency management programs often employ token economies

variable-ratio schedule

A contingency in which an average number of behaviors produces reinforcement, but the actual number of responses required to produce reinforcement varies over the course of training reward after an average chosen instance of the target behavior nice job after random unit of work performed (have an average) hitting jack pot (number of times pull the lever) Average number of responses produce reinforcement number of responses needed to obtain reinforcement varies from one from one reinforcement to another

passive avoidance response

A contingency in which the absence of responding leads to the prevention of an aversive event. -Passive avoidance involves avoiding an aversive stimulus by not making a response.

variable-interval schedule

A contingency in which there is an average interval of time between available reinforcements, but the interval varies from one reinforcement to the next reinforcement becoming available reward after an average amount of time passes slot machines average time average interval between the available reinforcement and the exact interval differs reward after an average amount of time passes

active avoidance response

A response to a feared stimulus that prevents an aversive event

What does shifting the magnitude of reward do to the rate of responding?

A shift from large to small reward magnitude leads to a rapid decrease in responding, whereas a shift from small to large reward magnitude causes a significant increase in responding. For example, if a person receives $300 a week for working at their job, the person's behavior will decrease if they are suddenly paid only $100 a week to complete the same job.

avoidance response

An Avoidance response is a behavioral response that prevents an aversive event. There are two types of avoidance responses: Active and Passive avoidance.

escape response

An Escape response is a behavioral response to an aversive event that is reinforced by the termination of the aversive event. e.g. closing your eyes during a scary scene

How can an escape response be eliminated?

An escape response can be eliminated by no longer presenting the aversive event or no longer terminating the aversive event following the escape response (Aka the removal of negative reinforcement). -Providing an aversive consequence following the escape response is one way to stop a person or animal from engaging in an escape response.

An event is reinforcing if

An event is reinforcing if it increases the frequency of the behavior that occurs before it.

Based on his research, Skinner concluded

Based on his research, Skinner concluded that punishing a response temporarily decreases the frequency of a response Skinner also believed extinction should be used to permanently suppress a behavior instead of punishment.

delay-reduction theory

Delay-reduction theory proposes that while overall choices are based on the matching law, individual choices are determined by which choice produces the shortest delay in gaining the next reinforcer.

Process of Shaping

During shaping, a behavior with a higher baseline rate of response than the desired behavior is selected and reinforced. When this behavior increases in frequency, the contingency is then changed and a closer approximation to the desired final behavior is reinforced. The contingency is slowly changed until the only way that the animal can obtain reinforcement is by performing the appropriate behavior.

Mowrer's Two factor theory of punishment:

Fear is classically conditioned to the environmental events present during punishment in the first stage. Any behavior that terminates the feared stimulus will be acquired through instrumental conditioning in the second stage. The reinforcement of the escape response causes the animal or person to exhibit the escape response rather than the punished response in the punishment situation The avoidance behavior causes an animal or person not to exhibit the punished response, which is responsible for punishment's suppressive effect.

what is flooding?

Flooding differs from the typical extinction procedure because the fear stimulus cannot be escaped.

Greater acquisition training causes what?

Greater acquisition training causes slower extinction to the escape response. -In active avoidance training, the subject is trained to make a response in order to prevent the occurrence of an aversive event

Homme

Homme et al. (1963) encouraged desired behaviors in young kids because he believed that high probability behaviors such as running around the room could be used as reinforcers for low probability behaviors, such as sitting quietly. within a few days, children were quiet and attentive.

In the acquisition of an avoidance response, the longer the interval between trials,

In the acquisition of an avoidance response, the longer the interval between trials, the faster the learning of the avoidance response.

Two-factory theory of avoidance learning

In the two factor theory of avoidance learning, Mowrer views that: -in the first stage, fear is conditioned through the classical conditioning process. -in the second stage, an instrumental or operant response is acquired that terminates the feared stimulus

Instrumental conditioning occurs when?

Instrumental conditioning occurs when the environment constrains the opportunity for a reward

Mowrer's two-factor theory of punishment states what?

Mowrer's two-factor theory of punishment states that fear is elicited when the animal experiences environmental events preceding punishment. -It also states that negative reinforcement of the escape response causes the animal to exhibit escape response rather than the punished response. -Mower also believed that the suppressive influence of punishment occurs in two stages similar to is two factor theory of avoidance behavior

operant conditioning

Operant conditioning involves no constraints on the amount of reinforcement, and a person can freely respond to obtain reinforcement. The person controls the frequency of response, therefore determining the amount of reinforcement obtained.

negative consequences of punishment are

Pain-induced aggression is anger and aggressive behavior elicited by punishment -The aggressive reaction is not motivated by the expectation of avoiding punishment. -It reflects an impulsive act energized by the emotional arousal characteristic of anger, which is highly reinforcing. Generalization to appropriate behaviors -Punishment does not always elicit aggressive behavior; the likelihood of aggression diminishes if the individual has been punished for aggressive responding and/or reinforced for nonaggressive responding. Modeling of aggression is the acquisition of behavior as a result of observing the experiences of others. -We can learn to perform a particular behavior simply by watching others perform it. -For example, when children observe cartoons with aggression, they engage in more aggressive behavior themselves.

punishment

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement. Consequences make the target behavior less likely to occur in the future.

There are two categories of negative punishment

Response cost: an undesired response results in either the withdrawal of or failure to obtain reinforcement E.g. getting a speeding ticket Time out from reinforcement: a period of time during which reinforcement is unavailable E.g. School suspension

shaping

Skinner (1938) developed a procedure called shaping, also known as the successive approximation procedure, in order to increase the rate at which an operant behavior is learned.

Skinner beleived a reinforcer

Skinner believed a reinforcer is an event whose ocurrance increases the frequency of any behavior that produced it For example, if a person often go to McDonald's, according to Skinner, the food would be reinforcing if it increased the frequency of going to McDonald's

Escape vs. Avoidance

Some aversive events can be avoided - These are prevented before they occur. Others must be escaped - These are terminated after they occur.

spontaneous recovery

Spontaneous recovery is an increase in response shortly after extinction.

The behavioral allocation view

The behavioral allocation view assumes that an animal emits the number of contingent responses in order to come as close to blisspoint as possible. -When an individual acts to minimize cost and maximize gain, this is referred to as a blisspoint

matching law

The matching law states that when two or more operant responses can be used to obtain reinforcement, the rate of responding is in direct proportion to the level of reinforcement available through each response. -According to the matching law, in a two-choice experiment, the subject will allocate its responding in proportion to the level of reinforcement available on each of the two schedules -However, the level of response to each choice will be proportional to the delay of reinforcement.

maximizing law a

The maximizing law assumes that behavior is aimed toward obtaining as many reinforcers as possible.

Many variables determine if punishment will suppress a behavior.

The severity of the punishing stimulus -Mild punishment does little, if anything, to suppress behavior --Moreover, if suppression does occur, it will be short-lived -Severe punishment is more likely to suppress behavior than mild or moderate punishment --Severe punishment also produces longer lasting effects The consistency of the punishment -Punishment must be consistently delivered to suppress behavior -There appears to be a relationship between delinquency and consistency of parental punishment -Parents that punished inconsistently were more likely to have delinquent children The delay of punishment -The longer the delay between the inappropriate response and the punishment, the less effective the punishment will be in suppressing the punished behavior -If the delay is long, there may be no suppression of responding at all

contingency

The specified relationship between behavior and reinforcement is called a contingency.

Timberlake and Allison's Response Deprivation Theory

Timberlake and Allison's response deprivation hypothesis states that an activity will serve as a reinforcer when a response contingency limits access to that activity. -Such a contingency causes an increase in responding in order to restore access to the restricted activity to its baseline level. -Restricting access to an activity makes that activity a potential reinforcer. --So, the baseline occurrence of a certain activity allows an activity to become a reinforcer if allowed to engage in that activity.

What are schedules of reinforcement?

We must not only learn how to act to be reinforced but also how often and/ or when to act. Skinner called this aspect of the contingency the schedule of reinforcement, and the schedule specifies how often or when we must act to receive reinforcement. We may schedule reinforcements based on an interval of time that has gone by. We may plan for a certain ratio of rewards per number of instances of the desired behavior. They can be fixed or interval

differential reinforcement schedule

When a reinforcer depends on both time and responding, this is called a differential reinforcement schedule. -The response requirement is high with a differential reinforcement of high responding (DRH) schedule --One way to achieve high responding is to increase the reward magnitude. -The response requirement is low with a differential reinforcement of low responding (DHL)

What is a postreinforcement pause?

a cessation of behavior following reinforcement on a ratio schedule, which is followed by resumption of responding at the intensity characteristic of that ratio schedule --The pause after reinforcement --After the pause, responding resumes at the rate present before reinforcement --Therefore a person or an animal using fixed ratio schedule either responds at the intensity characteristic of the ratio or does not respond at all. So a postreinforcement pause is not observed with fixed ratio schedules. The higher the number of responses needed in order to obtain reinforcement, the more likely a pause will follow that reinforcement. --Also the length of the pause varies. The higher the ratio schedule, the longer the pauses will be. --The greater the effort to obtain reinforcement, the longer the pause after the reinforcement will be. --postreinforcement pause is distinctive to fixed ratio schedule

fixed-ratio schedule

a contingency in which a specific number of responses is needed to produce reinforcement reward every five targeted behaviors free tea after buying 10 teas rat gets reward after pressing bar 3 times payed for ten boxes moved Fixed number of responses are necessary to produce reinforcement the greater the ratio, the higher the rate of responding will be reward every five targeted behaviors

fixed-interval schedule

a contingency in which reinforcement is available only after a specified period of time and the first response emitted after the interval has elapsed is reinforced reward every hour payed every fridaygetting payed every week no matter how much work is done fixed time Reinforcement can be programmed on a fixed interval schedule in which the same interval always separates the reinforcements

token economy

a contingency management program where tokens are used as secondary reinforcement for appropriate behaviors Use tokens assecondary reinforcers

According to Skinner what determines contingencies?

according to Skinner the environment determines contingencies.

Cues associated with nonreward develop

aversive qualities

secondary reinforcer

develops the capacity to reinforce operant or instrumental behavior (e.g. money).

Premack's Probability Differential Theory

indicates that activities, such as watching television or going to a dance, can serve as reinforcers. -According to Premack, high probability activities reinforce lower probability activities. E.g. child coloring is high probability activity child doing math homework is low probability activity -Therefore, high-probability activities are more reinforcing than low-probability activities.

omission training

is a schedule of reinforcement in which the absence of response leads to reinforcement

negative punishment

is the loss or unavailability of reinforcement because of inappropriate behavior e.g. Taking away a favorite toy.

positive punishment

is the use of a physically or psychologically painful event as the punisher. E.g. Spanking or criticism

Skinner defined reinforcement merely by

its influence on future behavior

The partial reinforcement effect (PRE)

occurs when there is greater resistance to extinction that occurs with intermittent rather than continuous reinforcement

There are two types of reinforcers:

primary reinforcers and secondary reinforcers

A primary reinforcer

reinforcer has innate reinforcing properties E.g. any type of food or drink, shelter exc. The longer the delay between the response in a primary reinforcer, the weaker the conditioning will be.

What is a negative contrast effect?

the effect in which a shift from high to low reward magnitude produces a lower level of responding than if the reward magnitude produces a lower level of responding than if the reward magnitude had always been low The negative contrast effect (or depression effect) -A lower level of performance when the reward magnitude is shifted from high to low than when the reward magnitude always is low negative

What is a positive contrast effect?

the effect in which a shift from low to high reward magnitude produces a greater level of responding than if the reward magnitude had always been high The positive contrast effect ( or elation effect)-is a higher level of performance when the reward magnitude is shifted from low to high than when the reward magnitude always is high

What is extinction?

the elimination or suppression of a response caused by the discontinuation of reinforcement or the removal of the unconditioned stimulus

What is contingency management?

the use of contingent reinforcement and nonreinforcement to increase the frequency of appropriate behavior and eliminate inappropriate behaviors use token economy -The application of the operant conditioning process to alter human behavior -Used to increase the frequency of appropriate behaviors and to eliminate inappropriate ones used in behavior modification techniques stop smoking, self harm behavior