final chem
Thomas Graham 1846
(T1/M2/T2M1)^1/2 at constant temp. r1/r2=(M2/M1)^1/2 discovered the effusion rate of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molar mass
HF
**weak acid, be careful, hydrofluoric acid
HCl intermolecular forces
- Chemical bond forms btwn H-Cl, ex. of intermolecular force; bond NRG= 200-1100 kJ/mol (much larger than focres)
solution
A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
electrolyte
A solute that produces ions in solution; an electrolytic solution conducts an electric current. (NaCL)
Ca2+
Calcium Ion
C4+
Carbon Ion
CO3 2-
Carbonate Ion
H2CO3
Carbonic Acid
Cation v Anion
Cation; smaller than the atoms from which they are derived
Ionic Radii Smaller
Cations are smaller than the atoms from which they are formed; lose an electron, proton remain in nucleus pulls stronger
ClO3-
Chloeate Ion
Cl-
Chloride Ion
CrO4 2-
Chromate Ion
Cu2+
Copper (II)/ Cupric Ion
CN-
Cyanide Ion
Reverse Reaction
Delta H becomes negative
Cr2O7 2-
Dichromate Ion
Layer 1
Each sphere is surronded by 6 others
Ionization Energy (remove)
Energy required to move the most loosely held electron from an atom in the gaseous state
F-
Fluoride Ion
Pressure
Gas particles exert pressure by colliding w/ the walls of their container P=Force/Area unit: n/m^2 (Pa)
Condensation
Gas to liquid
Deposition
Gas to solid
diprotic acids
H₂SO₄; the ionization of these occurs in two steps
Molecular Solids
IMF are weak; soft, low melting point, non-conductive, typiclly l or g at room temp ex. He gas, H2O l, CO2 g
Heating Curve for H2O
Ice, liquid, water vapor
Vapor Pressure
In a liquid, the IMF btwn molecules enable it to remain in the liquid phase. If a certain KE barrier is reached, there will be enough NRG to convert the l->g; increase temp, increase KE; more molecules can escape to g phase and increase IMF, decrease vapor pressure and increase temp, increase VP
I-
Iodide Ion
Ionic and Molecular Bonds
Ionic; ionic bonds hold atoms together
Metal/Nonmetal Characteriszed by.
Ionization energy
Fe2+
Iron (II)/ Ferrous Ion
Fe3+
Iron (III)/ Ferric Ion
BORN-HABER CYCLE APPLIES HESS LAW TO CALCULATE
LATTICE NRG
Primitive Cubic Structure
Lattice points only on corners; each corner is shared by 8 different cells ex. 8 atomsx1/8 atom (corner)= 1 atom
Body Center Cubic Structure
Lattice pts on 8 corner+ center ex. 8 atomsx1/8 atom(corners)= 1 atom 1atomx1atom = 2 in total
Face-Center Cubic Structure
Lattice pts on faces +corners 8 atomsx1/8 atom=1 6 atomsx1/2 atom=4 in total
Pb2+
Lead (II)/ Plumbous Ion
Freezing
Liquid to solid
Molarity Eq
M=moles/volume
Mg2+
Magnesium Ion
Hg2+
Mercury (II)/ Mercuric Ion
Poor Accruacy
Miscalibrated
Mole Fraction
N1/NT = P1/PT OR X=P1/PT
most common bases
NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2; along with NH3 even though it does not have OH-
NO3-
Nitrate Ion
HNO3
Nitric Acid
N3-
Nitride Ion
Noble Gas Bonds
Noble gas; very stable, do not form compounds bc have unique electron configuration ns2np6; very stable, He: 2s2 very stable
Alcohols
OH group found on the molecule; ex. 2-propanol states OH is on 2nd Carbon atom
O2-
Oxide Ion
Boyles Law 1600
P1V1=P2V2 Volume v. Pressure, shown in graph and manipulated to be linear PV= Constant
neutralization reaction
acid and base react in equivalent amounts; reaction between an acid and metal hydroxide produces water and salt
gas formation
acid+salt(CO32-, SO32-,S2-), salt will seperate from H2O in product and be gaseous component, bubbling in soltuion will confirm decomposition
a few molecular substances that do have aqueous solutions that contain ions
acids
all ionic compounds of the _______________________ and of the __________________ are soluble in water
alkali metal ions; ammonium ions NH₄⁺
Diamagnetism
all electrons paired; no net spin/spins cancel
solubility
amount of substance that dissolves in a given quantity of solvent at a given temperature to form a saturated solution,
complete ionic equation
an equation that shows dissolved ionic compounds as dissociated free ions; all soluble strong electrolytes shown as ions
net ionic equation
an ionic equation that includes only the particles that participate in the reaction; do not include the spectator ions that were cancelled out
liquids in solution
are not broken down; similar to precipitate
Metallic Solids
array of metal cations held together by mobile e-, wide range of hardness +melting pt, excellent conductors, malleable and ductile
molecular equation
no ions shown; doesn't show what kind of electrolyte it is
Amorphous Solids
no long-range order, do not melt at specific temperature ex. glass, plastic
Covalent Bonding
nonmetal+nonmetal
Molecular Compound
nonmetal+nonmetal
#######Millikan
oil drop experiment, charge of electron
weak acids
partially dissociate in water
Crystalline Solids
particles ordered in well-defined repeating patterns, highly ordered, properties are the same throughout ex. quarts, diamonds
Dipole Moment
polar covalent bonds; nm+nm
Pure water is a ________ conductor of electricity
poor
Cation and Anion
positive charge; loses electrons
bases
produce hydroxide ions when they dissolve in water; proton accepter, fully dissolve in solution
precipitation reaction
reaction that occurs between substances in solution in which one of the products is insoluble,
Viscosity
resistance of liquid to flow; large IMF= increase viscosity and increase temperature=decrease viscosity
Distributions of Molecular Speed
u= (3RT/M)^1/2 Molecules at any instant have a wide range of speeds **Larger the molecule is, slower it moves
therefore, sugar molecules in solution are ____________ and salt molecules in solution are ___________
uncharged; charged
Polar Covalent Bond
unequal sharing of electron pair, partial negative charge on electronegative atom
Combustion Reaction
v+O2->
frequency equation, hz
v=c(3.00x10^8)/λ
London Dispersion Forces 4
very weak interaction formed by the uneven e- cloud in a molecule; increase polarizability (e- cloud distorted), increase size/molecular weight
HC2H3O2
weak acid, acetic acid
weak electrolytes (partly ionized)
weak acids and weak bases
NH3
weak base, ammonia
Hees's Law
when a system undergoes a change from state 1 to state 2, delta H depends only on the nature of states 1 AND 2 and not on any details of the path.
solubility does not equal
whether an electrolyte is strong or weak
HI
Strong Acid, hydroiodic acid
SO4 2-
Sulfate Ion
S2-
Sulfide Ion
H2SO4
Sulfuric Acid
Standard Temperature and Pressure STP
T=0 c or 273.15 K, P= 1 atm, Vol gas at STP= 22.4 L/mol PV= nRT-> PV/T= nR P1V1/T1=P2V2/T2
Electronegativity
The ability of a given atom in a molecule to attract electrons to itself,
Electron Affinity (gain)
The amount of energy associated with the gain of an electron by a gaseous atom
#####Thomson's Model
The atom is made up of negative particles equally mixed in a sphere of positive materials.
Effusion
The escape of tiny gas molecules through a tiny hole into an evacuated space ex. He molecules in ballon, gas molecules go through tiny holes and deflate
Constructive Interference
The interference that occurs when two waves combine to make a wave with a larger amplitude
equivalence point of a titration
The point at which the unknown solution has exactly reacted with the known solution. Neither is in excess.
solvation
The process of surrounding solute particles with solvent particles; helps stabilize the ions in solution and prevents cations and anions from recombining
Diffusion
The spread of one substance through a space occupied by one or more other substances ex. perfume dissuing from one side of a room to another
Avogadro's Law 1800
V1/N1=V2/N2 Equal volumes of gases, at the same Temp and Pressure contain equal #of particles; volume of gas=# moles of gas vol= constant x n (moles)
Charles Law 1700
V1/T1=V2/T2 Volume v. Temperature, linear relationship V= Constant x T V/T= Constant
Zn2+
Zinc Ion
Heterogenous/ Inhomogeneous Mixture
a mixture in which the composition is not uniform throughout
Homogenous Mixture
a mixture in which the composition is uniform throughout
exchange/methathesis reactions
a reaction between compounds that when written as a molecular equation appears to involve the exchange of ions between the two reactants
strong electrolyte
a solution in which all or almost all of the solute exists as ions; strong acids, strong bases, most salts; essentially all water-soluble ionic compounds and a few molecular compounds
weak electrolyte
a solution in which solutes exist in mostly the form of neutral molecules with only a small fraction being in the form of ions, weak acid/base
nonelectrolyte
a substances that does not ionize in water and therefore results in a nonconducting solution (sugar), will not see electricity
NRG and Frequency
go Together, the wavelength is independent
what do h20 molecules do when an ionic compound is dissolved in it?
h20 separates, surrounds, and uniformly disperse the ions into the liquid
Delta +H
heat absorbed, endothermic
Delta -H
heat released, exothermic
ER Spectrum
high to low NRG,
EL Trigonal Pyramid, 3 pairs
hybridization; sp2
EL Tetrahedron, 4 pairs
hybridization; sp3
EL Trigonal Bipyramid, 5 pairs
hybridization; sp3d
EL Octahedral, 6 pairs
hybridization; sp3d2
Mendeleev/ Meyer Periodic Law (1869)
if the elements are listed in order of increasing atomic weight, a certain number of properties repeat periodically
Atomic Radii Trend
increases down a group; orbital numbers, decreases across a period; bc adding a proton to the nucleus but core electrons remain the same, these core electrons are pulled more tightly and become closer to nucleus (effective nuclear charge increases)
Ionic Solids
ionic bond btwn cation-anion, bond strength/ lattice NRG is proportional to Q+Q-/d; hard and brittle, non conducting solids, conducting liquids,
salt
ionic compound formed from cation from base and anion from acid
acids
ionize in aq solutions to form hydrogen ion H+; proton donors, strong acids will fully dissociate in water
spectator ions
ions that do not participate in a reaction; they appear on both sides of the complete ionic equation
molecular substance; is it an acid or base?
it is an acid if it either has H first in the chemical formula or contains a COOH group
vaporization (evaporation)
liquid to gas (endothermic)
The Clausius- Clapeyron Equation
ln(p1/p2)=(-ΔHvap/R)(1/T2-1/T1) an equation that displays the exponential relationship between vapor pressure and temperature
Greatest Repulsion
lone pair - lone pair>lone pair- bonding pair> bond pair-bond pair
Crystal Lattice
long range pattern shown by repeating the unit cell
Gases have
low melting and boiling point
Ionic Bonding
m+nm; transfer electrons
Ionic Compound
metal+nonmetal
ionic compounds can usually be identified by the presence of both
metals and nonmetals; but ionic compounds containing the ammonium ion NH₄⁺ are exceptions
Quantum Mechanics
-describes electronic structure of atom
Lewis Theory
-only valence electrons play a fundamental role in bonding
Methane
1 carbon, CH4
ion
A charged atom
Kinetic Molecular Theory; Rudolf
1. Gases consist of large # of molecules in continuous random motion 2. Combined volume of gas particles is very small compared to the volume of the gases container 3. Attractive/ Repulsive Forces between gas molecules are negligible; not much attract/repul 4. Collisions between gases are perfectly elastic; avg KE is conserved and doesn't change w time 5. Avg KE is proportional to Temperature; increase T, increase KE
Molecular Geometry Steps
1. Identify the central atom
how to balance an exchange reaction
1. use chemical formulas of reactions to determine which ions are present
how to write a net ionic equation
1. write balanced molecular equation for the reaction
Deci (d)
10^-1 (0.1)
Centi (c)
10^-2 (0.01)
Milli (m)
10^-3 (0.001)
Kilo (k)
10^3 (1,000)
12C6, Nuclide of Carbon
12= p+n, 6= atomic number
EL Linear, 2 pairs
180 degrees
Order of Orbitals
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p
1nm=
1x10^-9m
Ethane
2 carbons, C2H6
Layer 3
2 possible arrangments, give rise to hcp+ccp 1. hexagonal close packing (hcp); 3rd layer packs DIREECTLY over 1st layer ABABAB.. 2. cubic close packing (ccp); 3rd layer packs over the holes formed in 1st two layers ABCABCABC.. Both cases minimize empty space and have 12 nearest neighbors w/ 26% empty space
Propane
3 carbons, C3H8
1 yard=
3 feet
Butane
4 carbons, C4H10
Visible Region
400-700nm
Pentane
5 carbons, C5H12
Hexane
6 carbons, C6H14
Heptane, Octane, Nonane, Decane
7,8,9,10 Carbons
CH3COO- /(C2H3O2-)
Acetate Ion
CH3COOH
Acetic Acid
Al3+
Aluminum Ion
NH4+
Ammonium Ion
Ionic Radii Larger
Anions are larger than the atoms from which they are formed; gain an electron, proton remain in nucleus cant pull as much
1600's belief on Pressure and Barometer Invention
Atmosphere has no weight; Torricelli created Barometer to debunk this as it measures pressure of an atmosphere Exp: Container put liquid Mercury and a tube in the center, Mercury would rise in tube and height measured; measure decreased on higher elevations
Intermolecular Forces
Attractive forces btwn molecules; proportional to electronegativity differences; NRG = 1-25 kT/mol Chemical species will do anything they can to achieve the lowest NRG or most stable state Interactions btwn molecules/intermolecular forces dictate the phases and physical properties of molecular solids, liquids, and gases
Accuracy
Average
Br-
Bromide Ion
DISCOEVERED OLKDEST TO NEWEST
COPPER, ELECTRON, 1116 ELEMNT
Characteristics of Gas Liquids and Solids
Gas: very far apart, very compressible, all gases are miscible (mix completely) forming homogenous mixtures, no definite shape/volume; gases take on the shape of their container and completely fill it; volume gas= volume container Liquid: typically touching, slightly compress definite volume but no shape Solid: particles closely packed, not readily compressible, definite shape and volume
#######Rutherford
Gold foil experiment, discovered nucleus
Strong bases
Group 1A metal hydroxides (LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH)
Main Group A
Group A: Main group elements (s and p); the number of valence electrons is equal to the group number
Main Group B
Groupe B: Transition Metals (d)
Hydrogen- Bonding Forces **strongest;1
H must be directly bonded to small atom of high EN; N,O,F
monoprotic acids
HCl and HNO₃
Diatomic Elements
HOFBrINCl
HBr
Hydrobromic Acid
HCl
Hydrochloric Acid
HF
Hydrofluoric Acid
H+
Hydrogen ion
HI
Hydroiodic Acid
OH-
Hydroxide Ion
Ideal Gas Equation
PV=nRT R= .0821 Latm/molK hypothetical gas that behaves according to the ideal gas law under all conditions
Collecting gases Over H2O
Patm=Pinside Pt= Pgas+Ph2o Pgas=Pt-Ph2o If a gas is controlled in a inverted tube full of H2O+ the volume is measured by raising/lowering the container until the H2O levels are equal.
ClO4-
Perchlorate Ion
MnO4-
Permanganate Ion
O2 2-
Peroxide Ion
PO4 3-
Phosphate Ion
H3PO4
Phosphoric Acids
K+
Potassium Ion
Daltons Law of Partial Pressures
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3... or PT=NT(RT/V) at constant temperature and volume, the total pressure is determined by the # of moles present states that the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures of all the gases in the mixture
Presicion
Range
BONDS
SINGLE= SIGMA
LATTICE NRG
SMALLER RADII= HIGHER LATTICE
Bond Length
Shortest/strongest; triple bond
Ag+
Silver Ion
Na+
Sodium Ion
Sublimation
Solid to gas
Layer 2
Spheres rest in depressions formed by 1st layer
Covalent Network Solids
atoms help together in 3- Dimensions by covalent bonds; hard, high melting pt ex. diamond, graphite
Normal boiling point
boiling point of a liquid at 1 atm (760 torr)
speed of light
c = 3.00 x 10^8 m/s
Paramagnetism
contains unpaired electrons; net spin
Extensive Properties
depend on the amount of matter that is present ex. volume, mass, temperature, and the amount of energy
Pressure and Volume
directly proportional, depend on the temperature of a gas; how fast the particles are moving
solvent
dissolving medium of a solution; component of solution that is normally the greater amount
Intensive Properties
do not depend on the amount of matter present
water is a very ______ solvent for ionic compounds
effective`
Nonpolar Covalent bond
electrons are shared equally; equal atoms on each side
Magnetic Properties
electrons have changes and always spin which creates magnetic field
PT Vertical Groups/Families
elements within groups have the same properties
Triple Point
equlibrium of all three phases
Ion-Dipole Forces 2
exist btwn ion and the partial charge on the end of a polar molecule; increase charge of ion, increase magnitude of dipole (diff in EN)
Dipole- Dipole Forces 3
exists when polar molecules are close together; increase with polarity (diff in EN)
pi bonds P=PI
forms when parallel orbitals overlap and share electrons
Angular Nodes
s, l=0
Energy Levels
s=2
Isoelectronic Species
same number of electrons
Alkanes
simple organic molecules that consist entirely of single-bonded carbon atoms and hydrogen, ex. C2H6, Ethane
sigma bonds
single covalent bonds]ANTIBONDING STAR-NODE-PREVENTS BOND FORMATION-DECREASES STABILITY
photon
smallest increment of NRG, E=HC/λ, H=6.626x10^-34
Unit Cell
smallest piece of the crystal required to show a repeating pattern
Fusion (Melting)
solid to liquid (endothermic); ice flat
HBr
strong acid (hydrobromic acid)
HClO3
strong acid, chloric acid
HCl
strong acid, hydrochloric acid
HNO3
strong acid, nitric acid
HClO4
strong acid, perchloric acid
H2SO4
strong acid, sulfuric acid
strong electrolytes (completely ionized in solution)
strong acids and strong bases
ionic substance =
strong electrolyte
water-soluble ionic compounds are
strong electrolytes
solute
substance that is dissolved in a solvent to form solution.
where does the conductivity of bathwater originate from?
substances dissolved in the water, not the water itself
an example of a solute that dissolves in water but does not make the water conductive
sugar (sucrose)
an example of a solute that dissolves in water but does make the water conductive
table salt (NaCl)
HCl (g)→H⁺(aq) + Cl⁻ (aq) (strong electrolyte)
the absence of the left-pointing arrow indicates that the H⁺ and Cl⁻ ions have no tendency to recombine to form HCl molecules
Standard Atmospheric Pressure
the atmospheric pressure measured at sea level 760 mm of mercury 1 atm= 760 mm Hg= 760 torr= 1.01325x10^5 Pac
Surface Tension
the energy required to increase surface area by a unit amount surface molecules experience a net inward force from adjacent molecules \ -pull molecules from the surface into the liquid-> reduces surface area; higher IMF, higher surafce tension
remember about exchange reactions
the equation can be balanced only after the chemical formulas of the products have been determined
what do half arrows mean in reactions?
the reaction is significant in both directions
what happens to molecular substances when they dissolve in water?
they dissolve without forming ions; they stay together as groups
Deconstructive Interference
two waves combine to make a smaller amplitude wave