final chem

Thomas Graham 1846

(T1/M2/T2M1)^1/2 at constant temp. r1/r2=(M2/M1)^1/2 discovered the effusion rate of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molar mass

HF

**weak acid, be careful, hydrofluoric acid

HCl intermolecular forces

- Chemical bond forms btwn H-Cl, ex. of intermolecular force; bond NRG= 200-1100 kJ/mol (much larger than focres)

solution

A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances

electrolyte

A solute that produces ions in solution; an electrolytic solution conducts an electric current. (NaCL)

Ca2+

Calcium Ion

C4+

Carbon Ion

CO3 2-

Carbonate Ion

H2CO3

Carbonic Acid

Cation v Anion

Cation; smaller than the atoms from which they are derived

Ionic Radii Smaller

Cations are smaller than the atoms from which they are formed; lose an electron, proton remain in nucleus pulls stronger

ClO3-

Chloeate Ion

Cl-

Chloride Ion

CrO4 2-

Chromate Ion

Cu2+

Copper (II)/ Cupric Ion

CN-

Cyanide Ion

Reverse Reaction

Delta H becomes negative

Cr2O7 2-

Dichromate Ion

Layer 1

Each sphere is surronded by 6 others

Ionization Energy (remove)

Energy required to move the most loosely held electron from an atom in the gaseous state

F-

Fluoride Ion

Pressure

Gas particles exert pressure by colliding w/ the walls of their container P=Force/Area unit: n/m^2 (Pa)

Condensation

Gas to liquid

Deposition

Gas to solid

diprotic acids

H₂SO₄; the ionization of these occurs in two steps

Molecular Solids

IMF are weak; soft, low melting point, non-conductive, typiclly l or g at room temp ex. He gas, H2O l, CO2 g

Heating Curve for H2O

Ice, liquid, water vapor

Vapor Pressure

In a liquid, the IMF btwn molecules enable it to remain in the liquid phase. If a certain KE barrier is reached, there will be enough NRG to convert the l->g; increase temp, increase KE; more molecules can escape to g phase and increase IMF, decrease vapor pressure and increase temp, increase VP

I-

Iodide Ion

Ionic and Molecular Bonds

Ionic; ionic bonds hold atoms together

Metal/Nonmetal Characteriszed by.

Ionization energy

Fe2+

Iron (II)/ Ferrous Ion

Fe3+

Iron (III)/ Ferric Ion

BORN-HABER CYCLE APPLIES HESS LAW TO CALCULATE

LATTICE NRG

Primitive Cubic Structure

Lattice points only on corners; each corner is shared by 8 different cells ex. 8 atomsx1/8 atom (corner)= 1 atom

Body Center Cubic Structure

Lattice pts on 8 corner+ center ex. 8 atomsx1/8 atom(corners)= 1 atom 1atomx1atom = 2 in total

Face-Center Cubic Structure

Lattice pts on faces +corners 8 atomsx1/8 atom=1 6 atomsx1/2 atom=4 in total

Pb2+

Lead (II)/ Plumbous Ion

Freezing

Liquid to solid

Molarity Eq

M=moles/volume

Mg2+

Magnesium Ion

Hg2+

Mercury (II)/ Mercuric Ion

Poor Accruacy

Miscalibrated

Mole Fraction

N1/NT = P1/PT OR X=P1/PT

most common bases

NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2; along with NH3 even though it does not have OH-

NO3-

Nitrate Ion

HNO3

Nitric Acid

N3-

Nitride Ion

Noble Gas Bonds

Noble gas; very stable, do not form compounds bc have unique electron configuration ns2np6; very stable, He: 2s2 very stable

Alcohols

OH group found on the molecule; ex. 2-propanol states OH is on 2nd Carbon atom

O2-

Oxide Ion

Boyles Law 1600

P1V1=P2V2 Volume v. Pressure, shown in graph and manipulated to be linear PV= Constant

neutralization reaction

acid and base react in equivalent amounts; reaction between an acid and metal hydroxide produces water and salt

gas formation

acid+salt(CO32-, SO32-,S2-), salt will seperate from H2O in product and be gaseous component, bubbling in soltuion will confirm decomposition

a few molecular substances that do have aqueous solutions that contain ions

acids

all ionic compounds of the _______________________ and of the __________________ are soluble in water

alkali metal ions; ammonium ions NH₄⁺

Diamagnetism

all electrons paired; no net spin/spins cancel

solubility

amount of substance that dissolves in a given quantity of solvent at a given temperature to form a saturated solution,

complete ionic equation

an equation that shows dissolved ionic compounds as dissociated free ions; all soluble strong electrolytes shown as ions

net ionic equation

an ionic equation that includes only the particles that participate in the reaction; do not include the spectator ions that were cancelled out

liquids in solution

are not broken down; similar to precipitate

Metallic Solids

array of metal cations held together by mobile e-, wide range of hardness +melting pt, excellent conductors, malleable and ductile

molecular equation

no ions shown; doesn't show what kind of electrolyte it is

Amorphous Solids

no long-range order, do not melt at specific temperature ex. glass, plastic

Covalent Bonding

nonmetal+nonmetal

Molecular Compound

nonmetal+nonmetal

#######Millikan

oil drop experiment, charge of electron

weak acids

partially dissociate in water

Crystalline Solids

particles ordered in well-defined repeating patterns, highly ordered, properties are the same throughout ex. quarts, diamonds

Dipole Moment

polar covalent bonds; nm+nm

Pure water is a ________ conductor of electricity

poor

Cation and Anion

positive charge; loses electrons

bases

produce hydroxide ions when they dissolve in water; proton accepter, fully dissolve in solution

precipitation reaction

reaction that occurs between substances in solution in which one of the products is insoluble,

Viscosity

resistance of liquid to flow; large IMF= increase viscosity and increase temperature=decrease viscosity

Distributions of Molecular Speed

u= (3RT/M)^1/2 Molecules at any instant have a wide range of speeds **Larger the molecule is, slower it moves

therefore, sugar molecules in solution are ____________ and salt molecules in solution are ___________

uncharged; charged

Polar Covalent Bond

unequal sharing of electron pair, partial negative charge on electronegative atom

Combustion Reaction

v+O2->

frequency equation, hz

v=c(3.00x10^8)/λ

London Dispersion Forces 4

very weak interaction formed by the uneven e- cloud in a molecule; increase polarizability (e- cloud distorted), increase size/molecular weight

HC2H3O2

weak acid, acetic acid

weak electrolytes (partly ionized)

weak acids and weak bases

NH3

weak base, ammonia

Hees's Law

when a system undergoes a change from state 1 to state 2, delta H depends only on the nature of states 1 AND 2 and not on any details of the path.

solubility does not equal

whether an electrolyte is strong or weak

HI

Strong Acid, hydroiodic acid

SO4 2-

Sulfate Ion

S2-

Sulfide Ion

H2SO4

Sulfuric Acid

Standard Temperature and Pressure STP

T=0 c or 273.15 K, P= 1 atm, Vol gas at STP= 22.4 L/mol PV= nRT-> PV/T= nR P1V1/T1=P2V2/T2

Electronegativity

The ability of a given atom in a molecule to attract electrons to itself,

Electron Affinity (gain)

The amount of energy associated with the gain of an electron by a gaseous atom

#####Thomson's Model

The atom is made up of negative particles equally mixed in a sphere of positive materials.

Effusion

The escape of tiny gas molecules through a tiny hole into an evacuated space ex. He molecules in ballon, gas molecules go through tiny holes and deflate

Constructive Interference

The interference that occurs when two waves combine to make a wave with a larger amplitude

equivalence point of a titration

The point at which the unknown solution has exactly reacted with the known solution. Neither is in excess.

solvation

The process of surrounding solute particles with solvent particles; helps stabilize the ions in solution and prevents cations and anions from recombining

Diffusion

The spread of one substance through a space occupied by one or more other substances ex. perfume dissuing from one side of a room to another

Avogadro's Law 1800

V1/N1=V2/N2 Equal volumes of gases, at the same Temp and Pressure contain equal #of particles; volume of gas=# moles of gas vol= constant x n (moles)

Charles Law 1700

V1/T1=V2/T2 Volume v. Temperature, linear relationship V= Constant x T V/T= Constant

Zn2+

Zinc Ion

Heterogenous/ Inhomogeneous Mixture

a mixture in which the composition is not uniform throughout

Homogenous Mixture

a mixture in which the composition is uniform throughout

exchange/methathesis reactions

a reaction between compounds that when written as a molecular equation appears to involve the exchange of ions between the two reactants

strong electrolyte

a solution in which all or almost all of the solute exists as ions; strong acids, strong bases, most salts; essentially all water-soluble ionic compounds and a few molecular compounds

weak electrolyte

a solution in which solutes exist in mostly the form of neutral molecules with only a small fraction being in the form of ions, weak acid/base

nonelectrolyte

a substances that does not ionize in water and therefore results in a nonconducting solution (sugar), will not see electricity

NRG and Frequency

go Together, the wavelength is independent

what do h20 molecules do when an ionic compound is dissolved in it?

h20 separates, surrounds, and uniformly disperse the ions into the liquid

Delta +H

heat absorbed, endothermic

Delta -H

heat released, exothermic

ER Spectrum

high to low NRG,

EL Trigonal Pyramid, 3 pairs

hybridization; sp2

EL Tetrahedron, 4 pairs

hybridization; sp3

EL Trigonal Bipyramid, 5 pairs

hybridization; sp3d

EL Octahedral, 6 pairs

hybridization; sp3d2

Mendeleev/ Meyer Periodic Law (1869)

if the elements are listed in order of increasing atomic weight, a certain number of properties repeat periodically

Atomic Radii Trend

increases down a group; orbital numbers, decreases across a period; bc adding a proton to the nucleus but core electrons remain the same, these core electrons are pulled more tightly and become closer to nucleus (effective nuclear charge increases)

Ionic Solids

ionic bond btwn cation-anion, bond strength/ lattice NRG is proportional to Q+Q-/d; hard and brittle, non conducting solids, conducting liquids,

salt

ionic compound formed from cation from base and anion from acid

acids

ionize in aq solutions to form hydrogen ion H+; proton donors, strong acids will fully dissociate in water

spectator ions

ions that do not participate in a reaction; they appear on both sides of the complete ionic equation

molecular substance; is it an acid or base?

it is an acid if it either has H first in the chemical formula or contains a COOH group

vaporization (evaporation)

liquid to gas (endothermic)

The Clausius- Clapeyron Equation

ln(p1/p2)=(-ΔHvap/R)(1/T2-1/T1) an equation that displays the exponential relationship between vapor pressure and temperature

Greatest Repulsion

lone pair - lone pair>lone pair- bonding pair> bond pair-bond pair

Crystal Lattice

long range pattern shown by repeating the unit cell

Gases have

low melting and boiling point

Ionic Bonding

m+nm; transfer electrons

Ionic Compound

metal+nonmetal

ionic compounds can usually be identified by the presence of both

metals and nonmetals; but ionic compounds containing the ammonium ion NH₄⁺ are exceptions

Quantum Mechanics

-describes electronic structure of atom

Lewis Theory

-only valence electrons play a fundamental role in bonding

Methane

1 carbon, CH4

ion

A charged atom

Kinetic Molecular Theory; Rudolf

1. Gases consist of large # of molecules in continuous random motion 2. Combined volume of gas particles is very small compared to the volume of the gases container 3. Attractive/ Repulsive Forces between gas molecules are negligible; not much attract/repul 4. Collisions between gases are perfectly elastic; avg KE is conserved and doesn't change w time 5. Avg KE is proportional to Temperature; increase T, increase KE

Molecular Geometry Steps

1. Identify the central atom

how to balance an exchange reaction

1. use chemical formulas of reactions to determine which ions are present

how to write a net ionic equation

1. write balanced molecular equation for the reaction

Deci (d)

10^-1 (0.1)

Centi (c)

10^-2 (0.01)

Milli (m)

10^-3 (0.001)

Kilo (k)

10^3 (1,000)

12C6, Nuclide of Carbon

12= p+n, 6= atomic number

EL Linear, 2 pairs

180 degrees

Order of Orbitals

1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p

1nm=

1x10^-9m

Ethane

2 carbons, C2H6

Layer 3

2 possible arrangments, give rise to hcp+ccp 1. hexagonal close packing (hcp); 3rd layer packs DIREECTLY over 1st layer ABABAB.. 2. cubic close packing (ccp); 3rd layer packs over the holes formed in 1st two layers ABCABCABC.. Both cases minimize empty space and have 12 nearest neighbors w/ 26% empty space

Propane

3 carbons, C3H8

1 yard=

3 feet

Butane

4 carbons, C4H10

Visible Region

400-700nm

Pentane

5 carbons, C5H12

Hexane

6 carbons, C6H14

Heptane, Octane, Nonane, Decane

7,8,9,10 Carbons

CH3COO- /(C2H3O2-)

Acetate Ion

CH3COOH

Acetic Acid

Al3+

Aluminum Ion

NH4+

Ammonium Ion

Ionic Radii Larger

Anions are larger than the atoms from which they are formed; gain an electron, proton remain in nucleus cant pull as much

1600's belief on Pressure and Barometer Invention

Atmosphere has no weight; Torricelli created Barometer to debunk this as it measures pressure of an atmosphere Exp: Container put liquid Mercury and a tube in the center, Mercury would rise in tube and height measured; measure decreased on higher elevations

Intermolecular Forces

Attractive forces btwn molecules; proportional to electronegativity differences; NRG = 1-25 kT/mol Chemical species will do anything they can to achieve the lowest NRG or most stable state Interactions btwn molecules/intermolecular forces dictate the phases and physical properties of molecular solids, liquids, and gases

Accuracy

Average

Br-

Bromide Ion

DISCOEVERED OLKDEST TO NEWEST

COPPER, ELECTRON, 1116 ELEMNT

Characteristics of Gas Liquids and Solids

Gas: very far apart, very compressible, all gases are miscible (mix completely) forming homogenous mixtures, no definite shape/volume; gases take on the shape of their container and completely fill it; volume gas= volume container Liquid: typically touching, slightly compress definite volume but no shape Solid: particles closely packed, not readily compressible, definite shape and volume

#######Rutherford

Gold foil experiment, discovered nucleus

Strong bases

Group 1A metal hydroxides (LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH)

Main Group A

Group A: Main group elements (s and p); the number of valence electrons is equal to the group number

Main Group B

Groupe B: Transition Metals (d)

Hydrogen- Bonding Forces **strongest;1

H must be directly bonded to small atom of high EN; N,O,F

monoprotic acids

HCl and HNO₃

Diatomic Elements

HOFBrINCl

HBr

Hydrobromic Acid

HCl

Hydrochloric Acid

HF

Hydrofluoric Acid

H+

Hydrogen ion

HI

Hydroiodic Acid

OH-

Hydroxide Ion

Ideal Gas Equation

PV=nRT R= .0821 Latm/molK hypothetical gas that behaves according to the ideal gas law under all conditions

Collecting gases Over H2O

Patm=Pinside Pt= Pgas+Ph2o Pgas=Pt-Ph2o If a gas is controlled in a inverted tube full of H2O+ the volume is measured by raising/lowering the container until the H2O levels are equal.

ClO4-

Perchlorate Ion

MnO4-

Permanganate Ion

O2 2-

Peroxide Ion

PO4 3-

Phosphate Ion

H3PO4

Phosphoric Acids

K+

Potassium Ion

Daltons Law of Partial Pressures

Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3... or PT=NT(RT/V) at constant temperature and volume, the total pressure is determined by the # of moles present states that the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures of all the gases in the mixture

Presicion

Range

BONDS

SINGLE= SIGMA

LATTICE NRG

SMALLER RADII= HIGHER LATTICE

Bond Length

Shortest/strongest; triple bond

Ag+

Silver Ion

Na+

Sodium Ion

Sublimation

Solid to gas

Layer 2

Spheres rest in depressions formed by 1st layer

Covalent Network Solids

atoms help together in 3- Dimensions by covalent bonds; hard, high melting pt ex. diamond, graphite

Normal boiling point

boiling point of a liquid at 1 atm (760 torr)

speed of light

c = 3.00 x 10^8 m/s

Paramagnetism

contains unpaired electrons; net spin

Extensive Properties

depend on the amount of matter that is present ex. volume, mass, temperature, and the amount of energy

Pressure and Volume

directly proportional, depend on the temperature of a gas; how fast the particles are moving

solvent

dissolving medium of a solution; component of solution that is normally the greater amount

Intensive Properties

do not depend on the amount of matter present

water is a very ______ solvent for ionic compounds

effective`

Nonpolar Covalent bond

electrons are shared equally; equal atoms on each side

Magnetic Properties

electrons have changes and always spin which creates magnetic field

PT Vertical Groups/Families

elements within groups have the same properties

Triple Point

equlibrium of all three phases

Ion-Dipole Forces 2

exist btwn ion and the partial charge on the end of a polar molecule; increase charge of ion, increase magnitude of dipole (diff in EN)

Dipole- Dipole Forces 3

exists when polar molecules are close together; increase with polarity (diff in EN)

pi bonds P=PI

forms when parallel orbitals overlap and share electrons

Angular Nodes

s, l=0

Energy Levels

s=2

Isoelectronic Species

same number of electrons

Alkanes

simple organic molecules that consist entirely of single-bonded carbon atoms and hydrogen, ex. C2H6, Ethane

sigma bonds

single covalent bonds]ANTIBONDING STAR-NODE-PREVENTS BOND FORMATION-DECREASES STABILITY

photon

smallest increment of NRG, E=HC/λ, H=6.626x10^-34

Unit Cell

smallest piece of the crystal required to show a repeating pattern

Fusion (Melting)

solid to liquid (endothermic); ice flat

HBr

strong acid (hydrobromic acid)

HClO3

strong acid, chloric acid

HCl

strong acid, hydrochloric acid

HNO3

strong acid, nitric acid

HClO4

strong acid, perchloric acid

H2SO4

strong acid, sulfuric acid

strong electrolytes (completely ionized in solution)

strong acids and strong bases

ionic substance =

strong electrolyte

water-soluble ionic compounds are

strong electrolytes

solute

substance that is dissolved in a solvent to form solution.

where does the conductivity of bathwater originate from?

substances dissolved in the water, not the water itself

an example of a solute that dissolves in water but does not make the water conductive

sugar (sucrose)

an example of a solute that dissolves in water but does make the water conductive

table salt (NaCl)

HCl (g)→H⁺(aq) + Cl⁻ (aq) (strong electrolyte)

the absence of the left-pointing arrow indicates that the H⁺ and Cl⁻ ions have no tendency to recombine to form HCl molecules

Standard Atmospheric Pressure

the atmospheric pressure measured at sea level 760 mm of mercury 1 atm= 760 mm Hg= 760 torr= 1.01325x10^5 Pac

Surface Tension

the energy required to increase surface area by a unit amount surface molecules experience a net inward force from adjacent molecules \ -pull molecules from the surface into the liquid-> reduces surface area; higher IMF, higher surafce tension

remember about exchange reactions

the equation can be balanced only after the chemical formulas of the products have been determined

what do half arrows mean in reactions?

the reaction is significant in both directions

what happens to molecular substances when they dissolve in water?

they dissolve without forming ions; they stay together as groups

Deconstructive Interference

two waves combine to make a smaller amplitude wave