FINAL Exam PSY 101

Cause of depression

(1)negative events, (2) severe losses early in life, and (3) lack of social support

Actor-observer effect

-tendency to make situational attribution for our own behavior and dispositional ones for the behaviors of others For example: in a situation where a person experiences something negative, the individual will often blame the situation or circumstances. When something negative happens to another person, people will often blame the individual for their personal choices, behaviors and actions.

young women, older women

.......are generally more fertile than ......., whereas older men generally have more resources than young men.

depressive disorder

A ............... is not a passing blue mood but rather persistent feelings of sadness and worthlessness and a lack of desire to engage in formerly pleasurable activities

Norm

A customary standard of behavior shared widely by members of a culture Example: Shaking hands when you meet someone

Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)

A disorder in which repetitive, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and ritualistic behaviors (compulsions) designed to fend of those thoughts interfere significantly with an individual's functioning

Frustration- aggression hypothesis

Agression occurs when goals are frustrated

fight-or-flight response

An emotional and psychological reaction to an emergency that increases readiness for action

Passionate love

An experience involving feelings of euphoria, intimacy, and intense sexual attraction

Cognitive dissonance

An unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconstancy of his or her action, attitudes, or beliefs. Example: smokers find all kinds of reasons to explain away their unhealthy habit. The alternative is to feel a great deal of dissonance

Normative influence

Another person's behavior provides information about what is appropriate. Example: In the US people look at the eyes when talking to older people, whereas in China if you look at the eyes means that you don't respect the elders. If you come from US to China and see that most of the people do not look at the elders' eyes when talking you should do the same because it is what is correct in that country

Attribution

Any claim about the cause of someone's behavior

Repressive coping

Avoiding situations or thoughts that are reminders of a stressor and maintaining an artificially positive viewpoint Example: A child who is abused by a parent later has no recollection of the events, but has trouble forming relationships. A woman who found childbirth particularly painful continues to have children (and each time the level of pain is surprising).

Cooperation

Behavior by 2 or more that leads to mutual benefit

Altruism

Behavior that benefits another without benefiting self. Example: Helping someone who I don't know

Aggression

Behavior with the purpose of harming another.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD):

Chronic excessive worry with three or more of symptoms: restless, fatigue, irritability, muscle tension and problems with sleep or concentration. Example: Gina struggled to make everyday decisions as basic as which vegetables to buy at the market and how to prepare her dinner.

Anxiety disorder

Distressing or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety The class of mental disorder in which anxiety is the predominant feature

Rational coping

Facing a stressor and working to overcome it. Example: I am going to be alright. My feelings are not always rational. I am just going to relax, calm down, and everything will be alright Anxiety is not dangerous—it's just uncomfortable. I am fine; I will just continue with what I am doing or find something more active to do

Diffusion of responsibility

Feeling less responsibility to act when others nearby are equally able to act. Example: A woman died at night when she was attacked by bandits. She was screaming for help but none of her neighborhoods helped her because everyone thought it was someone else duty to help her.

alarm, fight-or-flight response

First comes the ........ phase, in which the body rapidly mobilizes its resources to respond to the threat. Energy is required, and the body call on its stored fat and muscle. The alarm phase is equivalent to Connon's .........

Panic Disorder (PD)

Frequent anxiety and occasional panic attacks. A disorder characterized by the sudden occurrence of multiple psychological and physiological symptoms that contribute to a feeling of stark terror. Example: A person having it can feel a pressure in his or her chest and think that he or she is having a heart attack

The effect of stress on immune system functioning

Healthy subjects were exposed to the cold virus. Higher stress correlated Example: In a study, a set of selfless, healthy volunteers permitted researchers to swab the common cold virus in their noses. They found that some people got cold and other didn't. People with problems such as problem in their family, loosing the job were the people who got easily the cold

Reciprocal altruism

Helping others with understanding they are supposed to eventually help us Example: If I give money to my friend when he needs, it is because I am expecting to get money from him in the future when I need too

testosterone, powerful

High........... in men lead them to be more aggressive because it makes them to feel ........... and confident in their ability to prevail

Health Psychology

How behavior can improve health and prevent illness. Or the subfield of psychology concerned with ways psychological factors influence the causes and treatment of physical illness and the maintenance of health

exhaustion

If the GAS continues long enough, the .......... phase sets in. The body's resistance collapses. Many of the resistance-phase defenses create gradual damage as they operate, leading to costs for the body that can include susceptibility to infection, tumor growth, aging, irreversible organ damage, or death

Deindividuation

Immersion in a group causes one to become less aware of individual values. Example: Groups of excited, rioting sports fans celebrating a big win can end up committing acts they would never do alone, such as vandalism or arson (incendio culposo

Stanford prison experiment

In 1971, Psychologist Philip Zimbardo built a mock prison in the basement of the Stanford Psychology Department and invited two dozen students to play the roles of either a prisoner or a guard. After 6 days he was forced to halt his observational study because many guards had become so abusive toward the prisoners that he feared for their safety (Haney, Banks and Zimbardo, 1973). Why? I guess the guards had become so abusive because they were in duty to control the prisoners, so they tried to do anything they could do to obey the order.

Asch's experiments on conformity

In a classic study, psychologist Solomon Asch had participants sit in a rom with seven other people who appeared to be ordinary participants, but who were actually trained actors. An experimenter explained that the participants would be shown cards with three printed lines and that his or her job was simply to say which of the three lines matched a "standard line" that was printed on another card. The experimenter held up a card and then asked each person to answer in turn. The real participant was among the last to be called on. Everyone went well on the first two trials, but then on the third trial something really strange happened: the actors all began giving the same wrong answer! What the real participants do? 75% of them conformed and announced the wrong answer on at least one trial.

Contact hypothesis

Increasing contact and familiarity reduces negative attitudes Example: Judicial systems sometimes insist on petty (pequenos) criminals helping the people they have hurt. Do well, this helps both parties. (in this case, the contact between the criminals and the families they have hurt, reduce negative attitudes

Bipolar disorder

Involves a cycling of mood between periods of depression and periods of mania

Social phobia

Involves an irrational fear of being publicly humiliated or embarrassed. Example: fear of speaking publically, eating in public, and urinating in public bathrooms.

Prejudices

It is a positive or negative evaluation of another based on their group membership. ...........= Racism Example: Women are not allowed to drive in Saudi Arabia and they are required to walk behind the man who is with them.

Phobia

It is a type of anxiety disorder. It is a strong, irrational fear of something that poses little or no real danger

Specific phobia

It is an irrational fear of a particular object or situation that markedly interferes with an individual's ability to function. Example: (1) fearing animals, (2) natural environments (heights, darkness, water, storms), (3) situations (bridges, elevators, tunnels, enclosed places), (4) blood, injections and injury; and (5) other phobias, including shocking or vomiting; and in children loud noises or costumed characters.

Implicit association test

It is done to ask the people to use the computer keys to choose which word is associated with a certain object. For example: in a study participants played a video game in which photos of black or white men holding either cameras or guns were flashed on the screen for less than a second each. In this study, participants made two kinds of errors: They tended to shoot Black men holding cameras and tended not shooting white men holding guns

Bystander apathy

It is less likely to give aid when other present are present. It intervention is the act of helping strangers in an emergency situation. Example: If someone sees someone laying on the street he or she might ask this person if he or she is feeling well or even calling the ambulance

Self- fulfilling prophecy

It is the tendency for people to behave as they are expected to behave. For example: a high school volleyball coach expects freshmen to be less skilled, so she does not put them in to play very often. When she does put them in, they are rusty and don't do well, thereby fulfilling her expectation.

Perceptual confirmation

It is the tendency for people to see what they expect to see, and this tendency helps perpetuate stereotypes. Example: In one study, people were listening to a radio podcast of a college basketball game and were asked to evaluate the performance of one of the players. They heard the same podcast but they had different opinions, some said that the player must be African American and other thought that he must be white. The ones who believed that he was African American, thought he had demonstrated greater athletic abilities but less intelligence that did those who thought he was white. (Stone, Perry, & Darley, 1997)

Pluralistic ignorance

It occurs where the majority of individuals in a group assume that most of their others are different in some way, whilst the truth is that they are more similar than they realize. They thus will conform with supposed norms. When most people do this, the supposed norm becomes the norm. Example: When a lecturer asks a class 'Any questions?' there will often be a deafening silence, even if nobody understands

Milgram's experiment

It's an experiment in which participants played a role of being a teacher in which they were required to shock the students every time they made mistakes even though some of them asked to stop the experiment but the experimenters simply replied "you have no choice; you must go on" In conclusion, 80% of the participants continued to shock learner even after screamed, complained, pleaded, and fell silent. And 62% went all the way, delivering the highest possible voltage. Although this experiment was conducted nearly half century ago, a recent replication revealed about the same rate of obedience

HPA Axis: hypothalamus, pituitary, ACTH, adrenal

Just a few seconds after a fearful stimulus is perceived, the......... activates the ........ gland to release drenocorticotropic hormone (....). The ACTH then travels through the bloodstream to activate the ....... glands to release catecholamines (Epinephrine and norepinephrine) and cortisol, which energize the fight-or-flight response

Mood disorder

Mental disorders that have mood disturbance as their predominant feature

Stress management

Mind management Body management Situation management

resistance

Next is the ......... phase, the body adapts to its high state of arousal as it raises to cope with the stressor. Continuing to draw on resources of fat and muscle, it shuts down unnecessary process: digestion, growth, and sex drive stall; production of testosterone and sperm decreases. The body is being taxed to generate resistance, and all the fun stuff is put on hold

Norm of reciprocity

People should benefit those who have benefited them. Example: giving something to another person to expect something else in a return

Attitudes

Positive or negative evaluation of an object or event

6%, 8%

Prevalence of generalized anxiety disorder differ between the sexes: Approximately ...... of people in the US suffers from GAD at some time n their lives Women experience at a higher rate of ..... than men

Kin selection

Selection for genes that cause individuals to provide benefits for their relative

Chronic stressors

Sources of stress that occur continuously or repeatedly. Example: relationships, discrimination, bullying, overwork, money troubles.

Stressors

Specific events or chronic pressures that place demands on a person or threaten the person's well-being. Example: Good stressors: getting married, job interview, starting college, having a child, and buying a large ticket item; Bad stressors: losing your job, the death of a loved one, weather, confronting physical danger, and illness

Self-regulation

The exercise of voluntary control over the self bring the self into line with preferred standards

atherosclosis

The main cause of coronary heart disease is .........., a gradual narrowing of the arteries that occurs as fatty deposits, or plaque, build up on the inner walls of the arteries. Narrowed arteries result in a reduced blood supply and, eventually, when an artery is blocked by a blood clot or detached plaque, in a heart attack. Although smoking, a sedentary lifestyle, and a diet high in fat and cholesterol can cause coronary heart disease, chronic stress also is a major contributor.

Mere exposure

The more you see an individual/close, more likely you will like or be attractive to him or her Example: Adverts use this effect. By repeated exposure, viewers gradually start to like the product without even having tried it. It is also possible to become sick of endlessly repeated ads, so advertisers will regularly change the advertisement

Group

The need to belong A collection of people who have something in common that distinguishes them from others

First impressions

The primary effect is the principle that the first information learned about someone is the most powerful. Example: if I see someone spanking his or her child at the first time, I will automatically put in mind that he or she is not a good parent (in this case the first impression was so powerful that I resumed that person as a bad parent).

The Prisoner's dilemma

The prisoner's dilemma game illustrate the benefits and costs of cooperation. Players A and B receive benefits whose size depends on weather they independently decide to cooperate. Mutual cooperation leads to a relatively moderate benefit to both players, but if only one player cooperates, then the cooperator gets no benefit and the noncooperator gets a large benefit. In the video, there was two criminals (one with blue shirt and the another with a red shirt) in different jails. The detective proposed to ask them individually to confess the crime (robbery in the bank). If the blue one confess, his friend (red one) will be 10 years in jail and he can leave the jail, but if he does not say anything, they both will take a month in jail. However, the detective asked the same thing to the red one. In conclusion it is obvious that the best choice is if both stay quiet

Social cognition

The process by which people come understand others

Stereotyping

The process by which people draw inferences about others based on knowledge of the category to which others belong Example: If there is a data that says that most of the people who live on campus are introvert, then if I see someone from campus I will automatically assume that he or she is an introvert person.

Social Psychology

The study of the causes and consequences of sociality

Group polarization

The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than any member would have made. Example: Groups of young people will often do stupid things that they later bitterly regret

Groupthink

The tendency for groups to reach consensus in order to facilitate interpersonal harmony. Example: the presidential advisory group who almost led Kennedy into invading Cuba and potential nuclear war in the Bay of Pigs affair

Obedience

The tendency to do what powerful people tell us to do

obsessions, compulsions

There are two symptoms in OCD,...... (repetitive thoughts)- which are repetitive, unwelcome streams of thought, and.......... (repetitive behavior)- which are repetitive almost irritable actions.

Exposure therapy, Drugs

Treatment of OCD

Agoraphobia, psychotherapy, anti-depressant drugs

Treatment of PD

cognitive therapy, drug therapies

Treatment of depression

Psychotherapy, Medications

Treatments of GAD

Dispositional attribution

When we decide that a person's behavior was caused by a relatively enduring tendency to think, feel, or act in a particular way. Example: if another student is quiet on the first day of class we may infer that shyness is the cause of the person's quietness

Situational attribution

When we decide that a person's behavior was caused by some temporary aspect of the situation in which it happened

Compassionate love

Which is an experience involving affection, trust, and concern for a partner's well being

Stereotype threat

Which is the fear of confirming the negative beliefs that others may hold. For example: because of stereotype threat, students who are reminded of negative stereotypes about their gender or race before taking a test perform worse on these tests

Scapegoat theory

Which theories says prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone else to blame.

women

age: large eyes, high eyebrows, and small chin make girls to look immature and as a result to be attractive

Men

age: mature features.

Belief

an enduring piece of knowledge about an object or event.

Men

body's shape is attractive when approximate an inverted triangle

Women

body's shape when approximate an hourglass, or a perfect hourglass which is 70% the size of the hips.

Female

broad shoulder, mature face demonstrate which genre preference?

Testosterone, estrogen

causes males bodies to become "inverted triangle" just as.......... causes female bodies to become "hourglasses." High testosterone in males indicates more resources to devote to their offspring. High estrogen in women tend to be especially fertile and potentially have offspring to make use of those resources. Women with a perfect hourglass tend to bear a healthier children than do women with other waist-to-hip ratios

Heuristic persuasion

change in attitude or belief brought about by appeal to emotion and habit

Systematic persuasion

change in attitude or belief brought about by appeal to reason. It appeals to the logic and reason Example: When asked to donate to a charity I will quickly dig into my pocket. If asked to help more actively, I will think about it more carefully

Social influence

control of one's behavior by another

Type B behavior

easygoing unhurried, accommodating and less hostile. Examples: They work steadily, enjoying achievements but not becoming stressed when they are not achieved. When faced with competition, they do not mind losing and either enjoy the game or back down. They may be creative and enjoy exploring ideas and concepts. They are often reflective, thinking about the outer and inner worlds.

Social exchange/equity theory

favorable ratio of costs to benefits.

Reframing

finding a new or creative way to think about a stressor that reduces its threat. Example: You say it cant be done in time. But what if we staged delivery or got in extra help? I am sure we can produce an acceptable product in the timeframe. It does seem stupid, but it is also stupid not to look again and see what else can be done

Superordinate goals

goals that require people to cooperate in order to succeed. Example: If you have two groups of people that seriously dislike each other you might set up a situation in which they simply have to work together in order to be successful. This breaks down barriers and encourages people to see each other as just people and not as part of "that other group we dislike."

Women

have high rate of GAD because they are more likely to live in poverty, discrimination, or be subject of sexual or physical abuse

Type A behavior

highly competitive, inpatient, hurried person who typically has an angry and hostile temperament. Examples: They enjoy achievement of goals, with greater enjoyment in achieving of more difficult goals. They are thus constantly working hard to achieve these. They find it difficult to stop, even when they have achieved goals. They feel the pressure of time, constantly working flat out. They are highly competitive and will, if necessary create competition. They hate failure and will work hard to avoid it. They are generally pretty fit and often well-educated (a result of their anxiety).

Male

hourglass figure, immature face demonstrate which genre preference?

Symmetry

is a sign of genetic heath. Indeed women can detect symmetrical and asymmetrical faces by smell.

Mania

it is a state of extreme exuberance and agitation.

Major depressions

lack of pleasure, loss of interest in food and sex, feelings of worthless, sleep abnormalities, and the person may attempt suicide

agoraphobia

one of the common PD is ........, which is a specific phobia involving a fear of public places

symmetrical

people in all culture seem to prefer faces and bodies that are bilaterally....... - that is faces and bodies whose left half is a mirror image of the right half.

Social exchange

the hypothesis that people remain in relationships only as long as they perceive a favorable ratio of costs to benefits Example: My daughter put a lot of effort into buying her brother a birthday present. He was not sufficiently enthusiastic about it and so she decided to spend more time on her own rather than 'being ignored' by him

Conformity

the tendency to do what others do simply because others are doing it.

Social loafing

the tendency to expend less energy in a group than when alone

Fundamental attribution (correspondent bias)

the tendency to make dispositional attribution even when behavior is caused by situational attribution. Example: when I buy something from the corner shop and the owner does not serve me with a smile, I assume it is because he is a miserable old fool. (so what: if you want a person to be perceived by other to have a certain disposition, maneuver them into a situation where they perform actions whereby it may easily be assume that this is because their disposition)