Final Prep
Secondary Reinforcers
praise, money, A on exam
Delay of Gratification
putting off the pleasure of an immediate reward in order to gain a larger, later reward
Shaping
rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior
Schedules of Reinforcement
specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced
Neutral Response
stimulus that normally doesn't evoke a response
Learned Helplessness
through experience with unavoidable aversive stimuli, an organism learns that it has no control over negative outcomes
Schedules
timetables that determine when a behavior will be reinforced
In Watson and Rayner's experiment with little Albert, they paired a loud noise with a white rat. Although Albert had not initially been afraid of the rat, after only seven pairings of the loud noise with the white rat, Albert began to fear the rat, even when the loud noise was no longer sounded. In this experiment, the loud noise is an example of a(n)
unconditioned stimulus
Latent Learning
unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior
Latent/Implicit Learning
unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior
Biological Constraint
when the structure of an organism's body inhibits what the organism can learn
Ethology
- study of animal behavior
Id
- that part of the person that Freud called the "it," consisting of unconscious drives; the individual's reservoir of sexual energy
Homeostasis
- the body's tendency to maintain an equilibrium, or steady state
Human Sexual Response Pattern
- the characteristic sequence of physiological changes that humans experience during sexual activity, consisting of four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution
Estrogens
- the class of sex hormones that predominate in females, produced mainly by the ovaries
Androgens
- the class of sex hormones that predominate in males, produced by the testes in males and by the adrenal glands in both males and females
Sexual Orientation
- the direction of an individual's erotic interests, today viewed as a continuum from exclusive male-female relations to exclusive same-sex relations
Motivation
- the force that moves people to behave, think, and feel the way they do
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
- the idea that facial expressions can influence emotions as well as reflect them
Self Actualization
- the motivation to develop one's full potential as a human being—the highest and most elusive of Maslow's proposed needs; s
Self Regulation
- the process by which an organism effortfully controls behavior in order to pursue important objectives
Yerkes Dodson Law
- the psychological principle stating that performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal rather than either low or high arousal
Autonomy
- the sense that we are in control of our own life
Set Point
- the weight maintained when the individual makes no effort to gain or lose weight; associated with obesity (fat)
Psychodynamic Perspective
- theoretical views emphasizing that personality is primarily unconscious (beyond awareness)
Negative Affect
- negative emotions such as anger, guilt, and sadness
Positive Affect
- pleasant emotions such as joy, happiness, and interest
Valence
- pleasant or unpleasant emotion(s)
Display Rules
- sociocultural standards that determine when, where, and how emotions should be expressed
Sexual Scripts
- stereotyped patterns of expectancies for how people should behave sexually
Self Determination Theory
- Deci and Ryan's theory asserting that all humans have three basic, innate organismic needs: competence, relatedness, and autonomy
Broaden-and-Build Model
- Fredrickson's model of positive emotion, stating that the function of positive emotions lies in their effects on an individual's attention and ability to build resources
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
- Maslow's theory that human needs must be satisfied in the following sequence: physiological needs, safety, love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization
Two Factor Theory of Emotion
- Schachter and Singer's theory that emotion is determined by two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive labeling (interpretation of the situation)
Need
- a deprivation that energizes the drive to eliminate or reduce the deprivation
Polygraph
- a machine (lie detector) that monitors changes in the body, and is used to try to determine whether someone is lying
Personality
- a pattern of enduring, distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize the way an individual adapts to the world
Drive
- an aroused state that occurs because of a physiological need
Instinct
- an innate (unlearned) biological pattern of behavior that is assumed to be universal throughout a species
Hedonic Treadmill
- any aspect of life that enhances one's positive feelings is likely to do so for only a short time because individuals generally adopt rapidly to any life change that would presumably influence their happiness
Arousal Level
- degree to which emotion is reflected in being active, engaged, or excited
Cannon Bard Theory
- emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously
James Lange Theory
- emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the environment
Individualistic Traits
- emphasize individual achievement, independence, and self-reliance
Collectivistic Traits
- emphasizes affiliation, cooperation, and interdependence
Evolutionary Approach
- emphasizes the role of species-specific instincts in directing behavior
Emotion
- feeling, or affect, that can involve physiological arousal, conscious experience, and behavioral expression
Structures of Personality
- id, ego, superego
Intrinsic Motivation
- motivation based on internal factors such as organismic needs (competence, relatedness, and autonomy), as well as curiosity, challenge, and fun
Extrinsic Motivation
- motivation that involves external incentives such as rewards and punishments
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus
Secondary Reinforcer
a reinforcer that acquires its positive value through an organism's experience; a secondary reinforcer is a learned or conditioned reinforcer
Primary Reinforcer
a reinforcer that is innately satisfying; one that does not take any learning on the organism's part to make it pleasurable
Law of Effect
The idea that consequences of a behavior can increase or decrease the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated is referred to as which of the following?
Law of Effect
Thorndike's law stating that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
a stimulus that produces a response without prior learning
Learning
a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience
Behaviorism
a theory of learning that only focuses on observable behaviors, discounting for importance of such mental activity as thinking, wishing, and hoping
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Counterconditioning
a classical conditioning procedure for changing the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response
Punishment
a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur
Operant Conditioning
a form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior's occurrence
Operant/Instrumental Conditioning
a form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior's occurrence; involved with voluntary behavior / organisms learn the association between a behavior and a consequence
Insight Learning
a form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem's solution
Aversive Conditioning
a form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus
Observational Learning
also known as modeling
Avoidance Learning
an organism's learning that it can altogether avoid a negative stimulus by making a particular response
Discrimination
an unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group simply because the person belongs to that group
Unconditioned Response (UR)
an unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by the unconditioned stimulus
Components of Observational Learning
attention, retention, motor reproduction, reinforcement
In Pavlov's original experiment, the conditioned stimulus (CS) was the
bell
Which of these was the neutral stimulus (NS) in Pavlov's original experiment?
bell
Habituation
decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations
Primary Reinforcers
food, water, sex
Law of Effect
law stating that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened
Classical Conditioning
learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response / organisms learn the association between two stimuli
Observational Learning
learning that occurs through observing and imitating another's behavior
Associative Learning
learning that occurs when an organism makes a connection, or an association, between two events
A Skinner box is a chamber with a highly controlled environment that was used to study
operant conditioning processes with laboratory animals
Acquisition
the initial learning of the connection between the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus when these two stimuli are paired; (contiguity & contingency)
Conditioned Response (CR)
the learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after conditioned stimulus-unconditioned stimulus pairing
Positive Punishment
the presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior
Positive Reinforcement
the presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior
Positive Reinforcement
the presentation or addition of a stimulus after a behavior occurs that increases how often that behavior will occur
Reinforcement
the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated
Spontaneous Recovery
the process in classical conditioning by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning
Reinforcement
the process in operant conditioning by which a stimulus or event following a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will be repeated
Negative Punishment
the removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior
Negative Reinforcement
the removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior
Preparedness
the species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others
Generalization (classical conditioning)
the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response
Instinctive Drift
the tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning
Applied Behavior Analysis / Behavior Modification
the use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior
Extinction (classical conditioning)
the weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent