Final Prep

Secondary Reinforcers

praise, money, A on exam

Delay of Gratification

putting off the pleasure of an immediate reward in order to gain a larger, later reward

Shaping

rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior

Schedules of Reinforcement

specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced

Neutral Response

stimulus that normally doesn't evoke a response

Learned Helplessness

through experience with unavoidable aversive stimuli, an organism learns that it has no control over negative outcomes

Schedules

timetables that determine when a behavior will be reinforced

In Watson and Rayner's experiment with little Albert, they paired a loud noise with a white rat. Although Albert had not initially been afraid of the rat, after only seven pairings of the loud noise with the white rat, Albert began to fear the rat, even when the loud noise was no longer sounded. In this experiment, the loud noise is an example of a(n)

unconditioned stimulus

Latent Learning

unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior

Latent/Implicit Learning

unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior

Biological Constraint

when the structure of an organism's body inhibits what the organism can learn

Ethology

- study of animal behavior

Id

- that part of the person that Freud called the "it," consisting of unconscious drives; the individual's reservoir of sexual energy

Homeostasis

- the body's tendency to maintain an equilibrium, or steady state

Human Sexual Response Pattern

- the characteristic sequence of physiological changes that humans experience during sexual activity, consisting of four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

Estrogens

- the class of sex hormones that predominate in females, produced mainly by the ovaries

Androgens

- the class of sex hormones that predominate in males, produced by the testes in males and by the adrenal glands in both males and females

Sexual Orientation

- the direction of an individual's erotic interests, today viewed as a continuum from exclusive male-female relations to exclusive same-sex relations

Motivation

- the force that moves people to behave, think, and feel the way they do

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

- the idea that facial expressions can influence emotions as well as reflect them

Self Actualization

- the motivation to develop one's full potential as a human being—the highest and most elusive of Maslow's proposed needs; s

Self Regulation

- the process by which an organism effortfully controls behavior in order to pursue important objectives

Yerkes Dodson Law

- the psychological principle stating that performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal rather than either low or high arousal

Autonomy

- the sense that we are in control of our own life

Set Point

- the weight maintained when the individual makes no effort to gain or lose weight; associated with obesity (fat)

Psychodynamic Perspective

- theoretical views emphasizing that personality is primarily unconscious (beyond awareness)

Negative Affect

- negative emotions such as anger, guilt, and sadness

Positive Affect

- pleasant emotions such as joy, happiness, and interest

Valence

- pleasant or unpleasant emotion(s)

Display Rules

- sociocultural standards that determine when, where, and how emotions should be expressed

Sexual Scripts

- stereotyped patterns of expectancies for how people should behave sexually

Self Determination Theory

- Deci and Ryan's theory asserting that all humans have three basic, innate organismic needs: competence, relatedness, and autonomy

Broaden-and-Build Model

- Fredrickson's model of positive emotion, stating that the function of positive emotions lies in their effects on an individual's attention and ability to build resources

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

- Maslow's theory that human needs must be satisfied in the following sequence: physiological needs, safety, love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization

Two Factor Theory of Emotion

- Schachter and Singer's theory that emotion is determined by two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive labeling (interpretation of the situation)

Need

- a deprivation that energizes the drive to eliminate or reduce the deprivation

Polygraph

- a machine (lie detector) that monitors changes in the body, and is used to try to determine whether someone is lying

Personality

- a pattern of enduring, distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize the way an individual adapts to the world

Drive

- an aroused state that occurs because of a physiological need

Instinct

- an innate (unlearned) biological pattern of behavior that is assumed to be universal throughout a species

Hedonic Treadmill

- any aspect of life that enhances one's positive feelings is likely to do so for only a short time because individuals generally adopt rapidly to any life change that would presumably influence their happiness

Arousal Level

- degree to which emotion is reflected in being active, engaged, or excited

Cannon Bard Theory

- emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously

James Lange Theory

- emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the environment

Individualistic Traits

- emphasize individual achievement, independence, and self-reliance

Collectivistic Traits

- emphasizes affiliation, cooperation, and interdependence

Evolutionary Approach

- emphasizes the role of species-specific instincts in directing behavior

Emotion

- feeling, or affect, that can involve physiological arousal, conscious experience, and behavioral expression

Structures of Personality

- id, ego, superego

Intrinsic Motivation

- motivation based on internal factors such as organismic needs (competence, relatedness, and autonomy), as well as curiosity, challenge, and fun

Extrinsic Motivation

- motivation that involves external incentives such as rewards and punishments

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus

Secondary Reinforcer

a reinforcer that acquires its positive value through an organism's experience; a secondary reinforcer is a learned or conditioned reinforcer

Primary Reinforcer

a reinforcer that is innately satisfying; one that does not take any learning on the organism's part to make it pleasurable

Law of Effect

The idea that consequences of a behavior can increase or decrease the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated is referred to as which of the following?

Law of Effect

Thorndike's law stating that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

a stimulus that produces a response without prior learning

Learning

a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience

Behaviorism

a theory of learning that only focuses on observable behaviors, discounting for importance of such mental activity as thinking, wishing, and hoping

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Counterconditioning

a classical conditioning procedure for changing the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response

Punishment

a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur

Operant Conditioning

a form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior's occurrence

Operant/Instrumental Conditioning

a form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior's occurrence; involved with voluntary behavior / organisms learn the association between a behavior and a consequence

Insight Learning

a form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem's solution

Aversive Conditioning

a form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus

Observational Learning

also known as modeling

Avoidance Learning

an organism's learning that it can altogether avoid a negative stimulus by making a particular response

Discrimination

an unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group simply because the person belongs to that group

Unconditioned Response (UR)

an unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by the unconditioned stimulus

Components of Observational Learning

attention, retention, motor reproduction, reinforcement

In Pavlov's original experiment, the conditioned stimulus (CS) was the

bell

Which of these was the neutral stimulus (NS) in Pavlov's original experiment?

bell

Habituation

decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations

Primary Reinforcers

food, water, sex

Law of Effect

law stating that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened

Classical Conditioning

learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response / organisms learn the association between two stimuli

Observational Learning

learning that occurs through observing and imitating another's behavior

Associative Learning

learning that occurs when an organism makes a connection, or an association, between two events

A Skinner box is a chamber with a highly controlled environment that was used to study

operant conditioning processes with laboratory animals

Acquisition

the initial learning of the connection between the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus when these two stimuli are paired; (contiguity & contingency)

Conditioned Response (CR)

the learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after conditioned stimulus-unconditioned stimulus pairing

Positive Punishment

the presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior

Positive Reinforcement

the presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior

Positive Reinforcement

the presentation or addition of a stimulus after a behavior occurs that increases how often that behavior will occur

Reinforcement

the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated

Spontaneous Recovery

the process in classical conditioning by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning

Reinforcement

the process in operant conditioning by which a stimulus or event following a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will be repeated

Negative Punishment

the removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior

Negative Reinforcement

the removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior

Preparedness

the species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others

Generalization (classical conditioning)

the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response

Instinctive Drift

the tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning

Applied Behavior Analysis / Behavior Modification

the use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior

Extinction (classical conditioning)

the weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent