FINAL Terms

King George's War

(1744-1748). The third of the four major French and Indian wars. When a French attack was organized to take Nova Scotia, French forces were delayed, and their Native American allies attacked on their own. After a few days, the natives gave up their attack. When the French arrived, the siege was tried again, but they still could not capture Nova Scotia. Also, British forces captured the supposedly impregnable French fortress in Louisbourg, at the mouth of the St. Lawrence River. The war ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, and the English returned Louisbourg to France.

Phillis Wheatley

(1753-1784) The most notable African American poet. Her writing was so influential that George Washington praised her work. She was the first African-American female to get published.

Quebec Act

(1774) Quebec, since the end of the French and Indian War, was governed by Britain, and this act set up a formal governing procedure for the province. It was not part of the Intolerable Acts, but the colonists mistakenly thought it was, and that the British were punishing them. The act did three things that worried and angered the colonists: 1. It took a huge amount of Ohio away and gave it to Canada. 2. It established Catholicism as the official religion of Quebec (colonists hated Catholics). 3. It set up an unrepresentative government in Quebec. The colonists thought the British were getting ready to impose #2 and #3 on them!

Battle of Yorktown

(1781) The Battle of Yorktown was a combined victory of American forces led by George Washington and French forces led by the Comte de Rochambeau over a British Army. The British Army was commanded by General Lord Cornwallis. The Yorktown campaign was the last major land battle of the American Revolutionary War in North America. Cornwallis' army surrendered, which caused the British government to eventually negotiate an end to the conflict.

French Revolution

(1789-99) Due to terrible living conditions and national bankruptcy, the French commoners and middle class wanted to change the government. The starving people of Paris attacked the prison of Bastille on July 14, 1789. This started the French Revolution, and people rose against the monarchy all across the country. During the Revolution, many people were beheaded by the guillotine if they were seen as traitors to the revolution (sort of like how Loyalists were treated in America, but much more extreme). Feudalism was abolished and all the people were to have equal rights, rich and poor. King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette were beheaded. It is believed that the American Revolution inspired the French citizens to overthrow the monarch and set up their own government. Democratic-Republicans supported the Revolution, believing that the French people were fighting for their freedom like America did during our own Revolution. Federalists opposed the Revolution, appalled by the slaughter of rich aristocrats by the masses of the people. They were afraid that the idea of killing the rich and sharing their property might catch on in America.

Jay's Treaty

(1795) It was a treaty between the United States and Great Britain promising that British subjects would leave American lands in the Northwest Territory within one year (as they had promised in the Treaty of Paris in 1783). The treaty also allowed Americans to trade with British colonies in India and the Caribbean, in return for the US agreeing to limit its exports of cotton to other countries (angering the South). Many Americans were upset with this treaty, but the United States still had little negotiating strength because we were so weak. Alexander Hamilton convinced George Washington that it was the best the United States could do. Disagreement with this treaty played a major role in Thomas Jefferson forming the Democratic-Republican Party.

Treaty of Greenville

(1795). It was the treaty that established the "Greenville Treaty Line." The Greenville Treaty Line was the boundary between Native American territory and lands open to white settlers for several years. However, the treaty line was often ignored. The treaty gave the US control over nearly all of Ohio, which is why it is historically significant.

Pinckney's Treaty

(1796) This treaty established friendship between the United States and Spain. It: 1. defined the southern boundary of the United States with the Spanish colony of Florida at 31 degrees North latitude; 2. gave the U.S. navigation rights on the Mississippi River and the right to use the port of New Orleans.; and 3. the US and Spain both agreed not to encourage Native Americans to attack settlers.

Gabriel Prosser

(1800) He was a literate blacksmith who planned a revolt on Richmond, Virginia. He planned to round up over 1,000 slaves to storm into Richmond and demand freedom. "Death or Liberty" was the motto for his revolt. He hoped to get help from the Haitians, but his plans were found out, and he was hanged with 35 other slaves. Still, the idea of a slave revolt terrified white Southerners, and they became more paranoid and protective of slavery in the South. After this, there was no chance Virginia was going to end slavery.

Denmark Vesey

(1822) He was a carpenter who lived in Charleston, S.C. Vesey planned to invade the city, and steal horses and weapons. He even had house slaves involved, instructed them to hold their masters hostage, and if anyone tried to escape, they were to kill them! His ultimate goal was to seize Charleston, then sail with the slaves to Haiti. However, two days before the revolt, two house slaves confessed the plan, and Vesey was hanged with 35 others. 37 other slaves were sold down the river. "Remember Denmark Vesey of Charleston!" was the battle cry of the first black regiment formed to fight in the Civil War.

South Carolina Exposition and Protest

(1828). It was a widely circulated defense for nullification, written by Calhoun but signed anonymously because he had been elected as Jackson's Vice President. While Calhoun saw nullification as a safeguard of the rights of the minority (the States), Jackson saw it as a threat to national unity. Word of Calhoun's authorship leaked out, leading to a rift between Jackson and Calhoun.

Nat Turner

(1831) He was a slave who planned a rebellion in Southampton County, Virginia. Turner's plan moved forward after Turner had a vision and a solar eclipse convinced him that God was telling him to slay white people. One night, he rounded up a bunch of escaped slaves to go kill white people. By the next morning, they had killed 55 whites. The group was found, but Turner escaped and lived in the woods for two months before being found. He was hanged with 55 others. Turner's Insurrection was the only actual slave rebellion in the 19th century. Across Virginia and other southern states, state legislators passed new laws prohibiting education of slaves and free blacks, restricting rights of assembly and other civil rights for free blacks, and requiring white ministers to be present at black worship services.

Specie Circular

(1836) this was an announcement from Andrew Jackson saying that all public land had to be paid in hard money (specie) as opposed to paper money. He created this after noticing the inflation caused by the increased use of paper money being issued by pet banks. Demanding the payment of debts in gold created massive economic problems. Biddle said that Jackson was directly responsible for the irresponsible creation of paper money by the state banks. I agree with Biddle! Jackson's war on the Bank caused the Panic of 1837.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

(1848) It was the treaty between the Americans and Mexicans that put an end to the Mexican-American War. The treaty gave Americans all of California and lands that are now known as New Mexico, Utah, Arizona, California, Nevada and southern Colorado (collectively known as the Mexican Cession). It also set the southern border of Texas at the Rio Grande. In return, the Mexicans received 15 million dollars and 2 million dollars that it owed America was forgiven.

Gadsden Purchase

(1853) It was a territory in present-day southern Arizona and New Mexico purchased by the United States. The US paid $10 million for this additional 29,670 square miles from Mexico. The US purchased the land because Franklin Pierce, the president at the time, was heavily influenced by his Secretary of War, Jefferson Davis (yes, the Jefferson Davis), who wanted to build a transcontinental railroad to connect the South to the west coast. The land in southern Arizona is flatter than further north, and would have been easier to build the railroad.

First Reconstruction Act

(1867) It was passed over Johnson's veto. Divided the South into 5 military districts subject to martial law. In order to restore the South, Congress required new constitutional conventions. These were elected by universal manhood suffrage. Once these states had new constitutions, it gave slaves voting rights and ratified the 14th Amendment and made it eligible to rejoin the Union. Supplementary legislation, also passed over the Prez veto, invalidated the provisional governments, empowered the military to administer voter registration, and required the oath of loyalty to the US.

Battle of Little Bighorn

(1876) The site of "Custer's Last Stand" in present-day Montana. George Armstrong Custer and his 7th Cavalry (approx. 210 men with Custer) were annihilated by at least three times as many Sioux and Cheyenne warriors.

US v. Reese & US v. Cruikshank

(1876). The court cases restricted federal power to enforce the KKK Act of 1871. It left prosecution up to the states. According to the Supreme Court, the 14th Amendment only applied to discrimination by states, not to discrimination by individuals or groups. Also, the 15th Amendment did not guarantee the citizens the right to vote, it only prohibited denial based on color, race, or previous condition of servitude.

United States v. Reynolds

(1879). The Supreme Court ruled that Mormons were free to believe whatever they wanted to believe, but they were forbidden to practice polygamy. The ruling led to two acts of Congress: the Edmunds Act and the Edmunds-Tucker Act.

Battle of Trenton

(Dec. 26, 1776) This battle includes the famous crossing by George Washington of the Delaware River north of Trenton, New Jersey. The weather conditions were so terrible that the Hessians thought they were safe and didn't even post a dawn sentry. After a Christmas feast, with lots of drinking, most of the soldiers fell asleep. Almost two thirds of the British and Hessian forces were captured. This sparked hope for the revolution, as a week earlier it almost seemed like a lost cause. Because of Trenton, more soldiers re-enlisted and new recruits were attracted.

Thomas Hart Benton

(Old Bullion) He was a U.S. Senator from Missouri and a supporter of westward expansion. He advocated trade with India by way of the Missouri and Columbia rivers and pointed out that Pacific trade would greatly increase if the U.S. held the harbors of the west coast. Obviously, Americans' understanding of geography was somewhat lacking!

Adams-Onis Treaty

(Transcontinental Treaty of 1819). General Andrew Jackson attacked Spanish Florida even though he was not instructed to do so. His offensive showed Spain that Americans could take Florida by force. Secretary of State John Q. Adams convinced Spain to cede (give) Florida to the US and to give up its claim to Louisiana Territory and Oregon. In return, the US canceled their claim to Texas and released Spain from 5 million dollars of debts to Americans. The treaty is one of JQA's great accomplishments and pushed American expansion forward.

Virginia Plan, James Madison

(aka "Large State Plan"). At the Constitutional Convention, James Madison proposed the Virginia Plan. He thought that the US should have a bicameral Congress, with the number of representatives elected for each state determined by the population of each state. The Plan also called for a single, powerful executive.

New Jersey Plan, William Paterson

(aka "Small State Plan") William Paterson proposed the New Jersey Plan, which thought that the legislature should be unicameral, with the number of representatives equal for each state. The plan called for multiple executives.

Robert E. Lee

"Great" Confederate general. He was a graduate of West Point (#2 in his class!) and was offered command of the Union army by Lincoln. Lee decided to fight for the Confederacy instead, after his home state of Virginia seceded (following Fort Sumter). Southerners still worship him today, despite the fact that his armies lost the Civil War!

Patrick Henry Quote

"I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty or give me death!"

Dummer's War

(also called "Lovewell's War"). It was a series of battles between New England and the Wabanaki Confederacy (specifically the Mi'kmaq, Maliseet, and Abenaki), who were allied with New France. The eastern theatre of the war was fought primarily along the border between New England and Acadia in present-day Maine as well as in Nova Scotia; the western theatre was fought in northern Massachusetts and Vermont at the border between Canada (New France) and New England. The conflict was over land ownership of northern New England. The French were the first to explore up to what is now Maine, but the English had begun to colonize in Maine. The French didn't like this, allied with Wabenaki Confederacy, and began attacks against the English settlers. The British gained control of Maine, and the Wabanaki lost Fryeburg, Norridgewock, and Old Town.

Walter Raleigh

(see #1). He also supposedly took off his cloak and threw it over a mud puddle so Queen Elizabeth I wouldn't get her feet wet, but this never actually happened!

Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1890)

"While not authorizing the free and unlimited coinage of silver that the Free Silver supporters wanted, it increased the amount of silver the government was required to purchase every month. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act had been passed in response to the growing complaints of farmers and mining interests. Farmers had immense debts that could not be paid off due to deflation caused by overproduction (too many crops!), and they urged the government to pass the Sherman Silver Purchase Act in order to boost the economy and cause inflation, allowing them to pay their debts with cheaper dollars. Mining companies, meanwhile, had extracted vast quantities of silver from western mines; the resulting oversupply drove down the price of their product, often to below the point where it was not profitable to mine it. They hoped to enlist the government to artificially increase the demand for silver." (Wikipedia) And, they did! This act forced the Treasury to purchase another 4.5 million ounces of silver per month, on top of the $2 million they were already buying because of the Bland-Allison Act. Unfortunately, many people traded their silver coins for gold dollars, thereby depleting the country's gold reserves. Creditors demanded payment in the form of gold, so this caused big economic problems. In 1893, President Cleveland convinced Congress to repeal the act, angering advocates of Free Silver.

Mary Ludwig Hays

'Molly Pitcher' was a nickname she earned during the war because she had been brave enough to bring water out to the Patriots on the battlefield. At Monmouth, in 1778, she took her husband's place at the cannon when he was overcome with heat, and was rewarded by Washington, who made her a non-commissioned officer. After that, she was known as "Sergeant Molly."

Bacon's Rebellion

(1670s) Freed indentured servants on the western frontier of Virginia demanded the removal of Native Americans on treaty-protected land. Governor Berkeley refused because he did not want a war on the Virginia frontier. Since the freemen had no voice in the House of Burgesses, they had no other choice but to rebel. Their leader was Nathaniel Bacon. Against Berkeley's wishes, the settlers attacked the Indians. Bacon was arrested, but quickly escaped. He and his men attacked Jamestown and burned it to the ground. The rebellion ended when Bacon died of dysentery. Historians consider this event important because it was an example of how colonists were not content with being ruled by a small minority. They demanded political rights and a say in their government. It also showed the Eastern elite that indentured servitude could result in a dangerous population of independent men on the frontier. This led to greater use of African slaves.

Culpeper's Rebellion

(1670s). Like Bacon's Rebellion, this Rebellion was a conflict between western settlers and the eastern government that didn't represent them. The rebellion was in North Carolina, and it failed.

Peace of Utrecht

(1713). Peace treaty between English and Spanish, and English and French. The English received Acadia and renamed it Nova Scotia. They also received Newfoundland and areas near Hudson Bay from the French. In addition, the English were given the asiento - the contractual right to sell unlimited numbers of slaves to the Spanish colonies.

Benjamin Banneker

(1731-1806) An African-American writer, surveyor, and astronomer who wrote an almanac. The almanac was respected by people of all colors, and inspired various African-American writers, such as Jupiter Hammon, one of the founders of African-American literature. Banneker argued for racial equality.

War of Jenkins's Ear

(1739). It was a war between the English and Spanish in the Caribbean and Georgia. The Spanish king canceled the asiento with England. The Spanish coast guard boarded English ships. An English captain, Robert Jenkins, insulted a Spanish captain and had his ear cut off. When Jenkins returned to England, he testified against the Spanish, displaying his ear to Parliament, sparking a war. In the end, the English gave up the asiento in return for a cash payment and the right to conduct trade with Spain's South American colonies.

Zachary Taylor

He was the Whig nominee for President in 1848, and won the election despite never having held political office and not even ever having voted! He was known as the "Hero of Buena Vista" for his heroics during the Mexican War. He was also known as "Old Rough and Ready." Taylor was a slave owner, but refused to take a position on the issue in the election. He served as President for two years, dying in 1850 of some kind of intestinal problem.

Fredrick Law Olmsted

He was the architect who designed Central Park in NYC, but more importantly, he designed Fenway Park in Boston!

Little Turtle

He was the chief of the Miami tribe, and one of the most successful Native American military leaders of his time. He fought a number of fairly successful battles against the US during the 1790s, but became an advocate for peace with the US in the years before the War of 1812.

Edward Braddock

He was the commander of British forces at the Battle of Fort Necessity and the Battle of the Monongahela. He was shot during the latter battle, and died during the retreat.

General Zachary Taylor

He was the commander of an American army in northern Mexico. He was ordered by President Polk to protect Texas from a Mexican attack. He led a group of soldiers from the Nueces River to the Rio Grande where a brief battle broke out with some Mexican forces. This was a step that led to the Mexican-American War because Mexico considered the land south of the Nueces to be their territory. Most historians believe that Polk ordered Taylor south of the Nueces to provoke a war; Abraham Lincoln criticized Polk for this from the floor of the House. Taylor earned the nickname "Old Rough and Ready" for his heroics.

John Jacob Astor

He was the first multi-millionaire in US history, making his money through the fur trade, real estate, and opium. His fortune in today's money would be over $110 billion! He is significant because he donated a huge portion of his income to the arts, sponsoring Audubon and Edgar Allen Poe, and because his wealth showed how the American economy was industrializing - creating a lot of wealth for a few rich people.

General Winfield Scott

He was the general who led the Americans to victory at Veracruz. He also led his army into battle against Santa Anna on the way to Mexico City and finally captured Mexico City in Sept. 1847. After a long hard- fought battle with the Mexicans, they finally surrendered Mexico City. This was the end of Mexican resistance. Scott then became governor of Mexico City. He had the awesome nickname, "Old Fuss and Feathers" because of his snappy sense of dress!

Edmund Andros

He was the governor of the Dominion of New England, and was very unpopular. He tried imposing the Anglican Church on New England (quite unpopular with the Puritans!), banning town meetings, and challenging land titles. He was arrested after the collapse of the Dominion of New England.

J.P. Morgan

He was the greatest corporate banker and industrial financier of the late 19th century. He arranged the creation of General Electric and U.S. Steel, two of the largest corporations in the world. He was so rich that he saved the US economy twice; in the Panic of 1893, he loaned the government millions in gold, and in the Panic of 1907, he bought out a brokerage firm whose over-speculation had helped cause the Panic. Near the end of his life, he threw his support behind the creation of the Federal Reserve System, which is what we have today.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

He was the leader of the Haitian slave rebellion against the French. He, and his group of slaves, overthrew Napoleon's governor, forcing him out of Haiti. Though L'Ouverture was captured and died in prison, his efforts freed Haiti from French rule. He is very important to American history in an indirect way. Before the rebellion, Haiti was France's richest possession in America because of sugar. Napoleon obtained control over Louisiana in order to use Louisiana as a giant farm to support Haiti's slaves. When Haiti won its independence, Napoleon decided to sell Louisiana to the US.

Martin Van Buren

He was the only person in Jackson's Cabinet who didn't have a wife and therefore didn't have a problem with Peggy Eaton (see #17). While the wives of the other Cabinet members were causing social problems within the Cabinet, nothing important could get done. Van Buren was also part of the group called the Kitchen Cabinet (see #18). Van Buren served as Jackson's Secretary of State, and then as his VP. He became President in 1837.

John Quincy Adams

He was the son of the second president, John Adams. John Quincy Adams was Secretary of State under Monroe, and like his father he became president (in 1825). He was a bitter enemy of slavery and predicted the Civil War. He also negotiated the Rush-Bagot Treaty and the Adams-Onis Treaty. He was the author of the Monroe Doctrine.

Neolin- (a.k.a. "The Prophet")

He was the spiritual leader of the Delaware tribe. He tried to get the Natives to stop their dependency on European products and ideas, like alcohol and materialism. He got this idea from seeing the Great Spirit. He thought the Delaware should be more traditional, like using the bow and arrow and dressing in animal skins. His biggest follower was Pontiac, the military leader of the Delaware tribe.

Aaron Burr

He was the third vice president of the United States, and served under Thomas Jefferson. He was the first vice president who never served as president. He was an important political figure in the beginning of our early history, but his political career ended after he was accused of treason. Burr is famous for shooting and killing Alexander Hamilton in a duel in 1804. He was arrested for treason in 1807 after attempting to get the West to secede (break away) from the Union, but not convicted.

John Trumbull

He went to London to study under West. There, he painted Battle of Bunker Hill. He was known for his high detail and his historical paintings.

Elijah Lovejoy

He wrote and published antislavery articles in Illinois. On four separate occasions, angry pro-slavery mobs attacked his warehouse and destroyed his press. The fifth time, he was killed by a pro-slavery mob that attacked the warehouse where his press was operated. They then threw his press in the river! For standing for what he believed in, he is seen as a martyr by many.

James Fenimore Cooper

He wrote the Leatherstocking novels, a series of semi-historical novels, The Last of the Mohicans being the most famous, and became known in both America and in Europe. His novels were about the nobility of the Native Americans while the Americans defeated them.

Henry Clay

Henry Clay was from Kentucky and represented the West. He was charming, witty, and always eager to forge political compromises, and was known as the "Great Compromiser." He was Speaker of the House of Representatives from 1811 to 1825 and later served in the Senate. Clay promoted the American System, which looked to improve national roads, canals, and railroads, and add protective tariffs and a national bank. He became the Secretary of State when J. Q. Adams became president, part of what some people consider the "corrupt bargain."

Comstock Lode

Henry Comstock's discovery of silver led to a silver rush along the Carson River in Nevada in 1858. Only large companies who could afford the drilling equipment struck it rich.

Margaret Corbin

Her husband, John Corbin, commanded a cannon while defending Fort Washington (in Manhattan) but died during the battle. She took his place and fired the cannon until she was seriously injured. Margaret was the first woman to receive a pension from Congress for her military service.

Richard Henry Lee

His Resolution of June 7, 1776, a motion in Congress to declare American independence, led to the Declaration of Independence, which Lee signed.

John Wesley Powell

His exploration of the Grand Canyon (1869) was the most famous geological survey. He led a series of expeditions through the area surrounding the Grand Canyon, including a three-month trip down the Colorado River.

James Garfield

His presidency lasted only 200 days, ending with his death at the hands of Charles Guiteau. He was a Half-Breed, who favored civil service reform. He also supported bimetallism and civil rights for African-Americans. Interestingly, his death was probably more important than his presidency because Guiteau killed Garfield because Guiteau felt that Garfield owed him an office because of Guiteau's support in the 1880 election. The death of the president shocked Chester Arthur so much that Arthur ended his Stalwart ways and supported the Pendleton Civil Service Act (see #63).

Mutualistes

Hispanic-Mexican alliances that worked to provide sickness and death benefits to Mexicano families in the late 19th century.

Stephen A. Douglas

Illinois Senator. Known as the "Little Giant" for his size and energy, Douglas wanted the first transcontinental railroad to go from Illinois to the Pacific by following a central route. His motives included benefiting his home state economically by making the railroad terminus in Chicago, and becoming popular with the South because of his support for popular sovereignty in the new territories, Kansas and Nebraska, which would be formed before the railroad could be built. Kansas, located above 36 degrees, 30 minutes, could have become a slave state with popular sovereignty, whereas it could not have according to the terms of the Missouri Compromise.

American Party

Immigrants came in hordes in from Ireland and Germany and they alarmed the people already here. The supporters of the party were called "nativists," a term used to describe anyone opposed to immigration. They were anti-foreign and anti-Catholic and formed the American Party. It was also called the Know-Nothing Party because they were secretive. Whenever asked about their beliefs, they replied, "I know nothing." They nominated ex-president Fillmore to run again in 1856. Their slogan was "Americans Must Rule America." They threatened to cut into the Republicans' strength in the election. Fillmore received 8 electoral votes. The Democrat, James Buchanan, did end up winning the election.

Tarring and feathering

Importing tea from England to America made a person "an enemy to his country" because the colonists boycotted British tea to protest the Tea Act. Some groups of people hung ads threatening tarring and feathering if people imported tea. Tarring and feathering referred to dumping hot pine tar over a person's body and then covering it with feathers. The purpose was humiliation.

Boston Tea Party (1773)

In 1773, English ships filled with tea refused to leave Boston. The colonists did not want the ships to be there because they refused to pay the tax on the tea. So, at a large meeting, Samuel Adams spoke to a captain of one of the ships, but failed to convince him to remove the ships. After the meeting, 50-60 colonists dressed as Mohawks invaded a ship, dumping 45 tons of tea (342 chests!) into Boston Harbor. The tea party led Parliament to pass the Intolerable Acts, which further united the colonies because people felt that Boston was being too harshly punished for the Tea Party.

Tea Act

In 1773, this gave the British East India Company a monopoly on all tea imports. Even though the Act made the price of tea actually decline, it was a tax. The colonists weren't happy!

Canada Act

In 1791, the British Parliament passed the Canada Act. This act created the province of Upper Canada (Ontario) and granted Canadians limited self-government. British troops remained at a series of posts within American territory to protect the province, which violated the Peace of Paris (1783). The British settlers provided weapons to Native Americans in Ohio Territory to keep American settlers from encroaching upon Canadian land.

Louisiana Purchase

In 1803, the United States bought the territory of Louisiana from the French for $15 million. Louisiana Territory was not just the Louisiana that we know of today. This territory included modern-day states Louisiana, northern Texas, Oklahoma, Missouri, Arkansas, Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming, Nebraska, Iowa, Minnesota, South and North Dakota, and Montana. The French sold this territory because they were desperate. They were being driven out of the Caribbean and were on the verge of another war with Britain. They needed funds and this was a great way to gain those funds. For the US, the Purchase doubled the size of the US for less than 3 cents per acre! The Purchase kicked off a controversy because the Constitution does not contain any provision giving the federal government the power to buy land. Hypocritically, Thomas Jefferson, one of the staunchest strict constructionists, pushed Congress to approve the Purchase.

Black Codes

In 1830, the South starting tightening up on these, or laws regulating free African Americans. The reason was because so many revolts had been planned in the last decade or so (two of the most famous being by free African Americans) and whites were beginning to think free blacks had too much freedom. Free African Americans were not allowed to bear arms or buy slaves unless they were family; they were subject to slave punishments such as whippings and trial with no right to a jury, could not testify against white people, and they were forbidden to vote, have guns, serve in the military, or hold public office.

Nullification Crisis

In 1832, the nullification controversy became a full-blown crisis. Congress passed the Tariff of 1832, which retained high taxes on woolens, iron, and hemp, although it reduced taxes on other items. In response to the high taxes, South Carolina held a special convention where they came up with the Ordinance of Nullification, whereby they rejected the tariff and refused to collect the taxes it required. Even further, they threatened to secede from the Union if Jackson tried to use force to make them pay the tariff.

John Deere

In 1837, he developed the first steel plow. This plow proved effective in tilling the thick clay soils of the West.

"Fifty-four Forty or Fight!"

In 1844, James K. Polk ran for President using the slogan, "fifty-four forty or fight!" This referred to the Oregon territory. He threatened war with Britain unless they relinquished ownership of everything south of latitude 54 degrees and 40 minutes, which is the southern border of Alaska. However, once in office, he signed the Oregon Treaty.

California Statehood Controversy

In 1849, CA applied for statehood, despite not having been an organized territory first (a standard established by the Land Ordinances of the 1780s). Their constitution disallowed slavery, thereby alarming the South. Part of CA is below 36-30, and the Southerners felt that the Missouri Compromise required that land to be open to slavery. CA's entry as a free state would upset the delicate balance of free to slave states (at the time, it was 15 of each). It would be left to the Compromise of 1850 to resolve the crisis.

Cortina's War

In 1859, Juan Cortina and 60 followers attacked white-owned stores in South Texas and killed 4 Anglos (who had killed several Mexicans and weren't punished by the law). The war is representative of the conflicts between the new Anglo settlers and the people who had traditionally held the land, the Mexicanos.

National Bank Act of 1863

In 1863, Congress (without Southern opposition because they had left the Union) passed the National Bank Act to prohibit states from issuing their own bank notes. It forced state banks to issue the new national currency put into place by the Legal Tender Act of 1862.

Blacks in politics

In 1865 and 1866, blacks organized scores of mass meetings, parades, and petitions that demanded civil equality and the right to vote. Black political groups closely followed the professional debates over Reconstruction policy and argued for land confiscated and for distribution. Politics was the only area where black and white Southerners were on an equal basis. The first black Senators were Hiram Revels and Blanche Bruce.

US Grant

In 1868, when the Senate overruled Stanton's suspension, Grant broke openly with Johnson and vacated the office. In the election of 1868, Grant ran as a Republican for President. He was born in Ohio and went to school at West Point. He dedicated most of his life to the Army as a general. He totally lacked political experience. He didn't want fighting politicians to become President because he thought it would mess things up. But, then he was elected President. He won 24 of the 36 states, for an electoral victory of 214-80. He won the popular vote by only 306,000 votes more than Horatio Seymour. More than 500,000 African-American voters cast their ballots for Grant. This demonstrated their overwhelming support for the Republican Party.

Enforcement Acts of 1870-1871

In 1870-1871, the Radical Republican-controlled Congress passed three Enforcement Acts designed to help fight racial terrorism. It provided federal supervision of voting and allowed the president to send the army and suspend writ of habeas corpus in areas declared to be in a state of revolt. These acts were very successful, and KKK activity was diminished.

Mugwumps

In 1884, the Republican Party nominated James G. Blaine as their candidate for the election. Blaine's reputation caused a group of Republicans to break from the party and support the Democrat, Grover Cleveland. The group was strong enough in New York that it cost Blaine the presidential election.

Omaha Platform

In 1892, the interests of the farmers, miners, greenbackers, and urban laborers combined in a new third party. This party, known as the Populist Party (sometimes "People's Party"), set forth a list of beliefs known as the Omaha Platform. The Platform: 1. Government ownership of the railroads, telegraph, and telephone lines, 2. Free and unlimited coinage of silver and gold at the 16:1 ratio, 3. A graduated income tax (an income tax where the more you make, the more you pay), 4. A postal savings banking system (government-owned savings institutions), 5. Direct election of US Senators by the people (like it is today), 6. No government subsidies for any corporation for any reason (in other words, the government would not give money to corporations, like it does today), 7. The initiative and the referendum (the people can make or end laws without legislators involved. For example, we did this recently by voting to allow a casino in Oxford), 8. Make it harder for immigrants to come into the country, 9. Adopt the Australian (secret) ballot for all voting. This platform was so popular that the Populist Party received over 1 million votes and won 22 Electoral votes in the 1892 election. Unfortunately for the Populists, they failed to enact any of these reforms. In the next generation, the Progressives would succeed in doing many of them, though.

Ethan Allen/Green Mountain Boys

In May 1775, Ethan Allen commanded a small force of New Englanders and surprised the British at Fort Ticonderoga, demanding that the British commander surrender. The cannon were then taken by land all the way to Boston to be used to force the British out of the city.

African-American churches

In SC in 1877, only a few hundred black Methodists went to biracial churches, compared to 40,000 in 1865. They hosted schools, picnics, festivals, and political meetings. They also helped form associations for mutual aid, such as temperance clubs, Masonic lodges, burial societies, and trade associations. Ministers were respected in almost every community for speaking skills, organization skills, and leadership. The first black churches were in rr cars and outdoor arbors. Before emancipation, blacks had to sit in the back row of churches, and were second-class members. They were not allowed to hold governing positions in the church. Before Emancipation, in their messages, white ministers justified slavery with the Bible. So, after emancipation, lots of blacks left the biracial churches. The five most popular black churches: Methodists, Presbyterians, Episcopalians, Baptists, and Congregationalists.

Antietam

In Sept. 1862, General McClellan and General Robert E. Lee faced off in Union territory for the first time (only two major battles were fought during the war in the North). The battle took place near Sharpsburg, Maryland (the South calls it the Battle of Sharpsburg). It was the bloodiest single day of fighting in US history. Over 5,000 men died and more than 19,000 were wounded. Since McClellan succeeded in pushing Lee back into Virginia, the Union declared victory. Lincoln had been waiting for a victory so he could announce the Emancipation Proclamation. By the way, the major reason that McClellan wasn't crushed at Antietam was because two Union soldiers found Lee's orders wrapped around a packet of cigars dropped by a Confederate officer!

Fort McHenry

In September 1814, Americans beat back a British attack on Baltimore and Fort McHenry, which somewhat made them feel better about the burning of the Capitol. An onlooker named Francis Scott Key watching the "rockets' red glare" was motivated to write the Star Spangled Banner.

Range Wars

In the 1870s, sheepherders and farmers began to fence in fields with barbed wire. These fields had been wide-open range for the cattle drive. Cowboys cut the fences, and farmers would fight back. The violence was so bad that President Hayes sent in federal troops to stop it.

Assumption Plan

In the Report on the Public Credit, Hamilton called for the payment of all of the state debts incurred during the Revolution. This plan was very controversial because some states had already paid most of their debts, while others still owed a lot of money. Led by Virginia, the states that had nearly paid their debts protested at the idea of paying the debts of other states. Also, it was controversial because the plan benefitted rich people who had bought bonds at a fraction of their real value. Word of Hamilton's Assumption Plan had been leaked out to some of his wealthy friends, who then literally ran from community to community buying up as many "worthless" government bonds from unwitting veterans and other ordinary people. They purchased bonds for as little as 15 cents on the dollar. When it became known that the government was going to pay back all bonds at 100% ("at par"), the veterans and ordinary people were a tad upset! Thomas Jefferson and James Madison protested, calling the Assumption Plan "radically immoral."

Arminianism

In the eighteenth century, many Puritans turned to the much more comforting idea that God had given people the freedom to choose salvation by developing their faith and doing good works, a theological principle known as this (similar to the beliefs of Catholicism).

Democratic Party Views in the Election of 1868

In the election of 1868, the Democrats wanted to reverse Congressional Reconstruction. Horatio Seymour was their candidate. He was the former governor of NY. He didn't support emancipation, and he supported states' rights. The N and Southern Democrats, to get votes, made their issue "the abolition of the Freedmen's Bureau; and all political instrumentalities, designed to secure Negro supremacy."

Scalawags

In the eyes of most Southerners, they were an unprincipled group of traitorous opportunists who had deserted their countrymen and ingratiated themselves with the hated Radical Republicans for their own material gain. In other words, they were people from the South who helped put the Radical Republican policies into place. Many scalawags were sincere in their belief that conformance with the dictated measures of the Reconstruction Acts was the best and fastest way to end Reconstruction and return the South to home rule. However, other scalawags, whose ranks included planters and businessmen as well as poor whites, joined the most unscrupulous of the Northern carpetbaggers in pillaging state treasuries and being the political pawns of the Radical Republicans in Congress. Scalawags who persisted in aiding the Northern Republicans after the passage of the First Reconstruction Act, which instituted military rule in the Southern states to enforce black suffrage and political equality, were especially detested and would sometimes become the target of vigilantism by groups such as the Ku Klux Klan.

Indian Removal and Sectionalism

Indian removal was a sectional issue. The Southern and Western states were generally for it, and so was Jackson. The Northern states, however, were completely against it. The Indian Removal Act passed the House of Representatives by a mere 3 votes.

Slaughterhouse Cases of 1873

Involved a Louisiana charter that gave a New Orleans meat-packing company a monopoly over the city's butchering business on the grounds of protecting Public Health. Rival group of butchers sued, claiming that the law violated the Fourteenth Amendment. The Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment protected slaves, not butchers, and only protected national rights and not the ones of separate sovereign states. The ruling denied the original intent of the 14th amendment to apply national rights to the states, so it was only a matter of time after this until the states denied rights to African-Americans.

Medicine Lodge Treaty of 1867

It assigned land in Indian Territory (Oklahoma) to 9 tribes. The land assigned to them was incapable of supporting subsistence agriculture, leading to competition between tribes over scarce land.

Second Powhatan War

It began with the Indian Massacre of 1622, when Powhatan's brother, Opechancanough, led a group of Algonquians in a war against the colonists. One third of the English settlers were killed in the war, including 25% of them in a single day (Good Friday, 1622). The war lasted until 1632.

New Orleans

It came under Spanish rule in 1763 due to the French loss in the Seven Years' War, and in 1800, the population had about half blacks, half whites. Most of the blacks were slaves, but the remaining 1/3 were "persons of a free color" and because of French law, had equal rights to white people. The whites were a mix of cultures such as Irish, Spanish, Germans, Americans, English and the French exiles of Acadia. All these people were here because of New Orleans becoming a thriving port city. In 1801, the city shipped more than $3 million worth of goods to Europe!

12th Amendment

It changed the system by which the Electoral College elected the president and vice-president. (Before it was changed, the president and vice president were on the same ballot. The person who got the most votes was president, the person with the second most became vice-president regardless of their political party.) The 12th Amendment made two separate ballots, one for those running for president and one for vice-president. It also says that the House of Representatives chooses the President if no person wins a majority of electoral votes.

Treaty of Paris (1783)

It ended the American Revolutionary War. The US: 1. gained its independence, 2. borders were extended to the Mississippi River, 3. promised to stop the seizure of Loyalist property, 4. gained the right to fish the Grand Banks, 5. agreed that its citizens would still pay back their loans to British creditors, 6. agreed to try to get the states to return Loyalist property (though the states never did), 7. The US and Britain would each have perpetual access to the Mississippi River (which becomes a source of conflict between us and Spain in the 1780s). 8. The British agreed to leave the Northwest Forts (which they didn't end up doing), and they give up control over East and West Florida to Spain.

Civil Rights Bill of 1866

It gave African-Americans full citizenship, overturned the Dred Scott decision, and overturned the Black Codes. It said that everyone born in the US except Indians were national citizens. Included the rights to make and enforce contracts, to sue, to give evidence, and to buy and sell property. Under this bill, blacks got the same rights as whites. Passed by the US Congress.

14th Amendment

It gave national citizenship to all people born or naturalized in the US. It reduced state representation in Congress proportionally for any state disfranchising male citizens. They denied Confederates the right to hold state or national office. It also repudiated Confederate debt. It provided for due process of law for all citizens and provided equal protection of the law for all citizens. Republicans adopted the 14th Amendment as their platform in 1866.

Natchez

It is a city in Mississippi by the river. It was known for having the largest population of free black men. Ironically, it was also known for having the most successful slave trading market in the state of Mississippi, called the Forks in the Road Market. Prior to the Civil War, it was one of the richest communities in America.

Lowell girls

It is a name given to female textile workers in Francis Cabot Lowell's mill in Lowell, Massachusetts. About 3/4 of all the workers at the mill were women. The mill girls agitated for better working conditions and better wages, since they worked an average of 73 hours per week. They typically worked from 5am to 7pm. The women were kept in boarding houses, and six women shared a single bedroom. They went on strike (refused to work until their demands were met) in 1834 (failed) and in 1836 (they succeeded in preventing the company from raising their rent).

Oberlin

It is a private liberal arts college in Oberlin, Ohio. It was the first American institution of higher learning to admit female and black students (in addition to white males).

Brooklyn Bridge

It is located in New York City. The bridge is also known as The Great East River Bridge, and was built across lower East River between Brooklyn and lower Manhattan. It was designed by the engineer John Augustus Roebling in 1869. When he died during the construction, this 1.5 km-long structure (the longest suspension bridge of its time), was completed by his son Washington Roebling in 1883. It displays remarkable engineering, especially for the time period in which it was created (19th century). Two neo-Gothic towers and steel-wire cables anchor it. Its architecture influenced many architects, engineers, painters, and poets. Mr. Carver actually owns a piece of the bridge and will sell it to the right person!

Bill of Rights

It is the first ten amendments to the Constitution. It was adopted during the first session of the new federal Congress, and was first proposed during the debates over ratification. The amendments were made because George Mason and other Antifederalists wouldn't sign the Constitution without them. They feared that a strong central government created by the Constitution would strip the people of their freedoms, so a Bill of Rights was necessary.

Trail of Tears

It is the name given to the trail traveled by the Cherokee after they were removed from U.S. territory. 4,000 of the 15,000 Cherokees died on the trail from disease, exposure, and starvation. The Cherokees never formally agreed to the Indian Removal Act, so they tried to fight it with the white's man tool, the law (see #43). However, they were forced to move to the west of the Mississippi River. They walked 1,000 miles with almost no clothing or shoes. The Americans gave them blankets, but they had been used in a hospital that recently experienced a smallpox outbreak. The tribe was not allowed to pass through towns or villages because of the disease, making the walk even further.

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad

It is the oldest railroad in the country. Baltimore wanted to compete with the Erie Canal, so the railroad was constructed. The railroad connected Maryland to the Ohio River. It originally opened with only 13 miles of track!

Non-Intercourse Act (1809)

It replaced the Embargo Act and was put into place just four days before the end of President Thomas Jefferson's second term as president. It was virtually impossible to enforce this act. The act lifted trade restrictions between America and every country except Britain and France. The goal behind the bill was to hurt or damage each of the two country's economies. Like the act it replaced, it was largely ineffective.

Macon's Bill #2 (1810)

It replaced the Non-Intercourse Act and lifted the ban on American ships trading with Britain and France. It allowed the trading as long as each country stopped attacking American ships. If one country attacked, they would lose their trade privileges until they recognized America's neutrality rights. France treated our shipping with more respect than Britain, so we ended up banning trade with Britain, a big reason why we went to war against them and not France.

Judiciary Act of 1789

It set up a system of federal courts. It was the most important piece of legislation to emerge from the first session of Congress.

Compromise of 1850

It temporarily resolved many of the issues that had arisen since the Mexican Cession. The major figures in Congress who debated it were Clay, Calhoun, and Webster. Clay tried to push the Compromise through as a major piece of legislation, but received a lukewarm response by President Taylor. When the Compromise seemed doomed to failure, the "Little Giant," Stephen A. Douglas, stepped to the forefront. He broke up the Compromise into its various parts and passed each one separately by putting different coalitions of voters in Congress together. And, after Taylor died, the new President, Fillmore, was more receptive to the Compromise. The parts: 1. California became a free state, 2. Texas gave up its land claims in exchange for $10 million to pay for debts incurred during the Mexican War, 3. The slave trade (not slavery) was abolished in Washington D.C., 4. The Fugitive Slave Law was greatly strengthened and would be enforced by federal officials, 5. New Mexico and Utah territories would have slavery decided by popular sovereignty.

The People the Best Governors

It was a 1776 pamphlet that indicated the democratic thinking of an anonymous New England author; power should be vested in a single popularly-elected assembly. The pamphlet was a model for constructing more democratic state constitutions.

Amistad

It was a Spanish ship transporting slaves to America in 1839. On the journey, the slaves, from Africa, were able to take control of the ship. They then sailed all the way to Long Island. When the Americans got ahold of them, they were sent to jail. Great dispute followed because ownership of them could not be determined. The court decided that the Africans appeared to be in possession of the ship when they arrived in America; therefore, the Africans were released from prison and allowed to return to Africa. John Quincy Adams aided in their legal case.

Whiskey Ring

It was a conspiracy between whisky distillers and United States revenue agents, whose job it was to collect the whiskey tax. Instead of fighting each other, they decided to work together and help each other out to steal the government's revenues. Scandal during the Grant administration, Grant's personal secretary, Babcock, got caught in the scandal, and was forced to resign from office. Grant stepped in and got him cleared of all crimes. It made the party seem corrupt, weakening them during the campaigns of 1876.

Battle of Fallen Timbers

It was a decisive battle fought in Ohio between US forces and the Shawnee tribe. The US won and hostilities in the region were ended until the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811. The conflict was resolved by the Treaty of Greenville in 1795.

Half-Way Covenant

It was a form of partial church membership created in 1662 by the Puritan church. They created it because many of the children of the Puritan church weren't as strict with religion. Kids yearned not for the knowledge of God, but material items. So, the church leaders created the Covenant to draw more of them to the church, but did not make them full members of the church. To have a full membership, a person must have a conversion experience, and only people of full membership could have their children baptized. The church thought if they granted partial memberships, where people attend the Puritan church, follow the creed, and are able to baptize their children, that they will be "born again." This led to the Great Awakening because many felt that the HWC allowed people to not care enough about God.

Headright Grant

It was a gift of land designed to attract settlers to the English colonies. Anyone who paid his own transportation to the New World received 50 acres of free land, and received 50 more acres for each person he brought with him. Obviously, this caused a lot of emigration to the New World!

Rocky Mountain School

It was a group of landscape painters who were part of the Hudson River School, but painted Western landscapes. Thomas Moran, Thomas Hill, Albert Bierstadt, and William Keith are referred to as belonging to the Rocky Mountain School. It made people want to move westward, because it was so beautiful. Bierstadt's Yosemite Valley follows:

American Colonization Society

It was a group of people who tried to solve the "problem" of large numbers of free blacks in the United States by sending them to Africa. Robert Finley founded the society in 1817. The society was virtually ineffective; they sent about 13,000 African-Americans to West Africa in 50 years. More slaves were born in one week than the society sent back in 50 years! One result, though, was the establishment of a country of former slaves - Liberia.

Cholera

It was a major cause of death on certain parts of the Overland Trail along the Platte River. Contaminated water spread the disease, and caused vomiting and diarrhea. This in turn caused dehydration and often death, sometimes in one night. It killed a least a thousand people a year in 1849 and the early 1850s.

Enlightenment

It was a major period in intellectual history during the 17th and 18th centuries. The focus of the Enlightenment was on reason and logic, and deemphasized was faith. The "Enlightened" thought their knowledge and reason could end ignorance, superstition and tyranny.

Transcendentalism

It was a major philosophical movement in America from the 1830s-1850s. It favored the importance of the individual and frowned upon conformity. It emphasized emotion and the power of nature over cold logic and reason. The movement was basically a reaction against the changes brought on by industrialization.

Whigs

It was a new political party that opposed the Democrats. Their ideas were based on the old Federalist views. They believed in having a national bank, a strong federal government, and high protective tariffs. They believed that the government should be very active and should get involved in cases involving the economy and in solving societal problems. For example, they supported a public education system, while the Democrats did not because they felt it would limit freedom. Whig presidents were William Henry Harrison, John Tyler and Zachary Taylor. Another famous Whig was Henry Clay, who pushed the American System forward.

"Clinton's Ditch"

It was a nickname for the Erie Canal to make fun of its creator, DeWitt Clinton. Critics of Clinton's plan to build the canal argued that the canal was a huge waste of money. They were wrong!

Paul Revere's engraving

It was a picture printed by Revere and featured in newspapers that shows many British soldiers firing rifles into a defenseless crowd of civilians. The print is believed to be inaccurate because the event wasn't as malicious as pictured. The colonists antagonized the soldiers relentlessly. Only a few people were wounded and 5 died. Check it out: http://www.earlyamerica.com/review/winter96/enlargement.html

Bucktails

It was a political faction formed in 1819 by the New Yorker Martin Van Buren. They were a party formed of average Americans, and were angered by the actions of rich aristocrats in the government (especially DeWitt Clinton, the governor of New York).

Proclamation of 1763

It was a proclamation issued in 1763 by King George III. Its purpose was to politically organize the land in the British Empire; it was also to improve relations between the British and the Natives. The King drew a line down the Appalachian Mountains, reserving the land west of the line as Indian Country. The Line caused a huge amount of resentment from colonists who had lost loved ones during the French and Indian War, and among wealthy land speculators who already owned land west of the Line.

"Burned-Over District"

It was a region of Upstate New York along the Erie Canal. The district earned its nickname because of the many reform movements that swept through the area like wildfires (like temperance and anti-prostitution).

First Great Awakening

It was a religious revitalization that happened in the 1730-40s in New England. It started by powerful preaching that gave people personal guilt and the need of salvation by Christ. Jonathan Edwards is credited for starting it. It spread across the Northeast and the western frontier. It was only effective in the short term; once people stopped being scared, they drifted away from the church again.

Bear Flag Revolt

It was a revolt in California when a group of Americans declared their independence from Mexico in 1846. They designed a flag with a bear and flag that read, "California Republic." However, the Republic lasted only a few weeks, and Fremont showed up with the US Army to hold California.

Empress of China

It was a ship that set sail in 1784 from New York for Canton (not Maine!) with 40 tons of ginseng. It returned in 1785 with teas, chinaware and silks. Robert Morris and his partners that sponsored the voyage made a 30% percent profit. This sparked interest for other merchants to follow their example.

Tariff of 1789

It was a tax placed on foreign goods in order to raise revenue. The tariff was placed on things like glass and pottery, and it was meant to raise money for the new government. The rate was between 5 and 10 percent, depending on the item. Hamilton was eager to pass the tariff as a main source of revenue for the government and to encourage home manufacturing in the US, as we had become dependent on foreign imports.

Liberty Party

It was a third party in 1844, and they were advocates for the abolition of slavery. They wanted to disallow the admission of new slave states to the Union, to get rid of slavery in the District of Columbia, and to put an end to the interstate slave trade. The party ran in the Election of 1844, and took away enough votes from Henry Clay to give the election to Polk (in other words, people who would have voted for Clay if it was only Clay vs. Polk voted for them). Their presidential candidate was James Birney.

New Harmony

It was a utopian community founded by Scottish industrialist Robert Owen in 1825. Owen had established a workers' community at his manufacturing plant in New Lanark, Scotland, where workers were treated well and education was emphasized. New Harmony, Indiana was established for the same purpose. It was supposed to be a manufacturing community without poverty and unemployment. The community only survived for three years.

Oneida

It was a utopian community in New York founded by Jonathan Noyes. Those of the community practiced "complex marriage," meaning that sexual activity was highly regulated and only a select few males could father children (including Noyes, of course!). Practices of the Oneida earned them a bad reputation and prevented the group from growing past 200 members.

Pontiac's Rebellion

It was a war that began in 1763 in the Great Lakes region. Its combatants included several tribes led by Pontiac against the British, who were settling in the region. The Natives were angry because the British commander, Jeffrey Amhearst, ordered an end to the practice of giving gifts to them. Amhearst reasoned that the British could stop the practice now that they no longer needed to gain Native American allies against the French. Pontiac managed to destroy 8 of the 12 British forts in the West before the war ended in 1766.

Non-Importation Act of 1806

It was an act Congress passed which forbade the importation of certain British goods in an attempt to convince Britain to suspend its impressment of American sailors and to respect American sovereignty and neutrality on the high seas. This was the first attempt Jefferson's administration to respond economically, instead of militarily, to British actions. The Act failed and was replaced by the Embargo Act of 1807.

Indian Intercourse Act (1790)

It was an act created to regulate intercourse (trade) between the Native Americans and the colonists, and to regulate the travel of non-Natives on Native land. These were designed to try to stop conflict with the Natives, but failed because settlers kept intruding on Native land.

Donation Land Claim Act of 1850

It was an act designed to encourage people to move into the new territory acquired from the Oregon Treaty. The government promised every 18+ white male 320 acres, and every married couple 640 acres if they settled in the region. However, African Americans, Hawaiians, and American Indians were not open to this deal. When a married couple moved, half of the land owned was in the wife's name. This was one of the first times married women were allowed to own land under their name. There were a couple stipulations. The participants had to arrive there before December 1, 1850, however, if you arrived after December 1 and before 1854, you could still be granted half the amount. Also, you had to live on the land and cultivate it for four years before you completely owned it.

Female Moral Reform Society

It was an anti-prostitution movement with 558 supporting chapters. The Society viewed prostitution as an economic issue more than a moral one. The Society tried to find alternative work for the poor women who worked in prostitution. It was one of the first and most effective anti-prostitution groups. Evangelical women in New York in 1834 founded it. Its first president was Lydia Finney, wife of Charles G. Finney.

Federalist # 10

It was an essay written by James Madison for the Federalist Papers. It addressed the question of how to guard against factions (special interest groups). It is one of the most famous of the Federalist Papers.

The Second Great Awakening

It was an evangelistic religious movement from about 1790 to the 1840s. The sermons were strong and emotional, and salvation from sin was a broader concept. People were still scared of original sin, and of Hell, but there were ways (they believed) to rid themselves of damnation. Those saved felt especially inclined to demonstrate their faith in their daily behavior. In other words, they tried to be "good!" It was most popular in the West.

Lewis and Clark Expedition

It was an exploratory trip across the West led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. They were the first to travel all the way to the Pacific Ocean and back. Their goal was to explore the land America gained in the Louisiana Purchase. Thomas Jefferson specifically told them to explore the Missouri River and follow it back to its source. Throughout their journey, Lewis and Clark drafted over a hundred maps, giving people an idea of the Northwest. They recorded 122 species of animals and 178 species of plants. They also made friendships with natives in the area, specifically Sacajawea.

National Road

It was another migration route, only it was in the middle states. It began in Baltimore and led to Wheeling, West Virginia.

Election of 1836

It was between Van Buren and 4 Whigs, including William Henry Harrison. The Whigs used the strategy of nominating four Whigs from different parts of the country in hopes of denying Van Buren an electoral majority, thereby throwing the election into the House of Representatives to be decided. The Whigs made up the majority in the House, so this could have worked. This tactic failed, though, and Van Buren won in a close race.

Battle of Quebec

It was fought on December 31, 1775 between American Continental Army forces and the British defenders of the city of Quebec, early in the Revolution. The battle was the first major defeat of the war for the Americans, and it came at a high price. General Richard Montgomery was killed, Benedict Arnold was wounded, and Daniel Morgan and more than 400 men were taken prisoner.

Russian America

It was in what today is Alaska, but Russian settlements extended as far south as California. Russian America brought sea otter furs and a new trading port. Russian traders often intermarried with Natives. Settlers over-hunted, so often had to move. They eventually set up forts on the Pacific coast, all the way down to Fort Ross (near the middle of today's California). The presence of Russian settlements worried the Spanish, who claimed land all the way up to the southern border of Alaska.

Panic of 1857

It was not as bad economically as the Panic of 1837. The California gold had inflated the currency. The Crimean War in Europe had overstimulated the growing of grain (lots of grain had been produced for the armies). Once the war was over, the demand for grain diminished. Speculation on land and railroads was also a cause. This caused the collapse of over 5,000 businesses and unemployment and hunger in urban areas. The Panic hit the North the hardest, while the South enjoyed the rising cotton prices. To the South, the Panic proved that the Southern agricultural economy was greater than the northern industrial economy.

Wilderness Road

It was one of four major migration routes used by Americans to travel west. The road connected Virginia to Kentucky. The route was blazed by Daniel Boone in 1775.

Mohawk and Genesee Turnpike

It was one of the four main migration routes to the West. It was in up-state New York, and led the people of New England to Lake Erie, where they then took a boat to Ohio.

Sherman Antitrust Act (1890)

It was passed in response to public pressure to regulate the abuses of the trusts, but most members of Congress saw the act as a largely symbolic measure and the courts steadily weakened it after its passage. In other words, they passed it to pacify the people, not to actually make change. The act made illegal any combination in restraint of trade. Most people believed that meant the trusts, but the Justice Department used the law to break up unions instead! The act wasn't enforced correctly until the early 20th century.

Anaconda Plan

It was the 3-part Union plan to defeat the Confederacy: 1. Naval blockade to stop the South from getting supplies. At first, this was only a "paper blockade" - it couldn't be enforced. Eventually, though, the Union was fairly successful in keeping the South from receiving vital supplies. 2. Take the Mississippi River to split the Confederacy. Led by General Ulysses S. Grant, Union armies took control of the Mississippi by July 1863, decisively defeating the Confederates at Vicksburg. 3. Take Richmond. This seemed to be the simplest objective, but the Union failed to take it in the Peninsular campaign in 1862. It was finally captured in April 1865, at the end of the war.

Trans-Appalachian Region

It was the Ohio country along the Ohio River. With very fertile land, the region was extremely lucrative to the French. Also, it had become a refuge for Native Americans who had fled the Northeast. English colonists attempted to settle there, which made the French feel threatened. Because the Ohio River runs into the Mississippi, it was strategic to maintain control of the Ohio to continue to be able to use the Mississippi for trade. To keep Ohio for themselves, the French put up forts from Lake Erie to the junction of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers (in Pittsburgh).

Freedom's Journal

It was the first African-American newspaper, founded by John Russwurm and Samuel Cornish. Freedom's Journal provided international, national, and regional information on current events and contained editorials declaiming slavery, lynching, and other injustices. The Journal also published biographies of prominent African-Americans and listings of births, deaths, and marriages in the African-American New York community. The newspaper employed subscription agents. One of these, David Walker, in 1829 published the first of four articles that called for rebellion.

Chisholm v. Georgia (1793)

It was the first major case to reach the US Supreme Court. Two South Carolina residents sued the state of Georgia for the recovery of confiscated property. The state of Georgia refused to show up, arguing that they were a sovereign state and could not be sued unless they agreed to be sued. The Court ruled in favor of the residents and against Georgia. With this ruling, the Court overthrew the common law principle that a sovereign state could not be sued without its consent, and supported the Constitution's grant of federal jurisdiction over disputes "between a state and citizens of another state." In other words, the Court said that an individual could sue a state government whether the state liked it or not! It alarmed the states so much that it led to the 11th Amendment.

Report on the Public Credit

It was the first of the three reports written by Alexander Hamilton on economic policy. It discussed ways to diminish the national debt acquired from the Revolution, and explained the country's current financial situation. The Congress adopted the report. All the debts would be paid up front at face value with government bonds paying about 4% interest. In other words, the government would sell bonds to investors. Investors would buy these bonds to get the interest (4%). The money that was paid by investors to the government for the bonds would be used to pay off all state and national debts. The interest was to be paid by an excise tax on liquor and a new tariff.

Northwest Territory

It was the first possession of the United States, comprising the region known as the Old Northwest. It was south and west of the Great Lakes, northwest of the Ohio River, and east of the Mississippi River, including the present states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota. Ohio was the first of these territories to become a state, in 1803.

Anti-Masonic Party

It was the first third party to run in an election; they ran in 1832. They were basically insignificant except for the conventions they held to nominate party candidates. They were the first to do so and this became a trend with political parties.

Standard Oil Company

It was the nation's biggest oil refining company in late 19th century. It controlled 90% of the nation's refining capacity. Its owner was J.D. Rockefeller.

Queen Anne's War

It was the second war between England and France in this hemisphere (King William's War was the 1st). England fought France and Spain in a war that started in 1702. It was fought in the Caribbean and New France. The French, with the Algonquians, raided New England and the English fought back, capturing Port Royal. In the South, the British captured St. Augustine. The war ended with the Treaty of Utrecht.

Horseshoe Bend

It was the site of a battle in Wisconsin, The Battle of Horseshoe Bend, in 1832. It was a turning point in the Black Hawk War, because the U.S. won the battle. It is also the name of the famous battle in 1814 where Jackson destroyed the Creeks.

Oregon Treaty (1846)

It was the treaty that established the border of the US and Canada at the 49th parallel. That is still the border today.

Virginia Declaration of Rights

It was written by George Mason in June 1776 separately from the Virginia constitution (but later became the first article of it). It set the tone that all men are by nature equally free and independent, and was based upon the belief that when born, everyone acquires the rights to enjoy life and liberty. This made the government a servant of the people. It granted freedom of speech, religion, and the right to a jury. This later led to the creation of the first ten amendments to the Constitution, the Bill of Rights.

Washington's Farewell Address

It was written to the people of the nation as a closing to his second and final term as president. He gave advice to the country for the future. He warned that the nation could only keep its independence through the unity of the states. He warned against political parties, saying that parties cared more about themselves than they do about the country. Most famously, he warned Americans not to get into "entangling alliances" with foreign nations. In other words, we shouldn't make friendships with countries that would force us to go to war to defend them.

The World Turned Upside Down

It's an English ballad (song). Tradition has it that when Lord Cornwallis surrendered at the Battle of Yorktown, the British band played this tune. "If ponies rode men and grass ate cows, And cats were chased into holes by the mouse . . .If summer were spring and the other way round, Then all the world would be upside down." The world was indeed turned upside down a group of rinky-dink, backwater colonies defeated the mighty British Empire!

Pacific Railway Act of 1862

Its purpose was to create a transcontinental railroad to connect California to the East. The Union Pacific railroad and the Central Pacific railroad were granted huge government loans and free public land. The government granted loans based on a $ amount per mile that it would cost to build the railroad. $16,000 per mile was granted across the plains. The act said that building the railroad between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra-Nevada Mountains, double will be provided ($32,000). In the mountains they get triple per mile ($48,000). Chinese and Irish built the nations' railroads with their cheap labor. Railroads were awarded 10 miles of free public land on each side of the railroad. This amounted to the size of Texas....10% of nation's land. Then, they turned around and sold those lands for huge profits.

Jackson and executive power

Jackson freely used his office to strengthen the executive branch of government at the expense of the judiciary and legislature. Jackson vetoed more bills than all other presidents before him combined (12-9). As a result, he earned the nickname "King Andrew" from his opponents.

Force Bill

Jackson obtained the authorization to use force from Congress after South Carolina's threat of secession. It stated that the federal government had authority to collect the tariff in South Carolina at gunpoint if necessary. So, basically, Jackson called S.C.'s bluff - he would not permit them to secede from the Union!

Jackson's Inauguration

Jackson took the unusual step of inviting the public to the White House to celebrate his Inauguration on March 4, 1829. Unfortunately, alcohol was served, and the people became a drunken mob. Thousands of dollars in damages, including broken china and broken windows, were done. The mob was only dispersed when the punch bowls were brought outside on the lawn!

Maysville Road Bill Veto

Jackson vetoed the Maysville Road Bill of 1830. The bill authorized a nationally funded road in Kentucky. He claimed it was unconstitutional because the road was entirely within a state (intrastate). He believed, as a strict constructionist, that the Constitution did not give the federal government the power to fund intrastate projects. The reason the veto was surprising was because it was against Jackson's biggest supporters, who were Westerners wanting better transportation. He turned the veto in his favor by explaining that federal funding would limit states' rights, which appealed to southerners. Incidentally, the veto was a nice way for Jackson to strike at his bitter enemy Henry Clay of Kentucky, too!

Jackson, common man?

Jackson was not a common man. He was a war hero, a rich slave owner, lived in a huge mansion, and had an undemocratic personality. He ran as a regular guy to get votes, much like some politicians do today. Jackson was the first candidate to respond to the ways that the extension in suffrage to more "regular Joes" changed politics. For some reason, Americans have often been attracted to hard cider-drinking good old boys, and Jackson was a great example of that.

Tariff of Abominations

Jackson's supporters in Congress passed high tariffs on iron in order to increase northern support from NY and PA for him in the presidential campaign of that year (1828). The tariff greatly angered the South because it raised prices on iron, but Southerners in Congress didn't have enough votes to block the tariff. It led to South Carolina threatening to nullify the law.

National Capitol

James Madison and Thomas Jefferson wanted the new capitol to be somewhere on the Potomac River, but they did not have enough support in Congress. Hamilton was trying to get Congress to pass the Assumption Plan around the same time. The three worked together on a compromise. Hamilton would get supporters of moving the new capitol from New York (his home state), while Madison and Jefferson would get supporters for the Assumption Plan. That's why the Capitol moved from New York City to Washington D.C. I guess it was not so "radically immoral" after all!

Election of 1816

James Monroe (Secretary of State for Madison) defeated Rufus King in the election for president with 183 to 34 electoral votes. It marked the end of the Federalist Party; they never entered another candidate. This was due in part that Federalists had lost ground by not supporting the War of 1812. The DRs had also adopted Federalist polices of a national bank and protective tariffs, which left the Federalists without much to argue. In 1820, James Monroe ran for reelection without a Federalist opponent. He was reelected in 1820, 231 votes to only 1 opposing vote (The 1 vote was ceremonial - they wanted to keep it so that GW was the only unanimously-elected President).

Agrarian Republic

Jefferson believed that America provided the true citizenship necessary to a republican from of government. He envisioned a nation of small family farms clustered together in rural communities. He also believed that only a nation of equal yeoman farmers who weren't dependent on someone else for their livelihood, would be essential for this republic. He also believed that rural contact with nature was essential to the republican character. He said, "those who labor in the earth are the chosen people of God." His 'farm,' however, was the slave-owning plantation known as Monticello. It seems odd to argue that the people who worked the land were considered the chosen ones, yet were slaves on Jefferson's farm!

"Revolution of 1800"

Jefferson referred to the Election of 1800 as this because it was the first peaceful transfer of power from one political party to another. In most countries, when power transfers from one group to another, people die.

The frugal Thomas Jefferson

Jefferson was brought into office determined to reverse Federalist policies. He promised to cut internal taxes, decrease the size of the army and navy, and limit the numbers of the government staff to prevent national debt. He kept those promises, unlike most Presidents.

Abigail Adams

John Adams' wife. She is known for the letters she wrote to her husband while he was away. In these letters, she talked a lot about her ideas of politics and government. John sought the advice of Abigail throughout his life, so she was a huge influence on his political and governmental decisions. She was also an advocate of women's property rights and more opportunities for women, especially education. When the Founding Fathers were putting the country together, she exhorted her husband, "don't forget the ladies." He forgot them!

Pottawatomie Creek

John Brown was angered when the proslavery people burned part of Lawrence. Therefore, he led a band of followers to Pottawatomie Creek and killed five men in May 1856. This showed that free-soilers would retaliate from the proslavery people. This caused a small civil war in Kansas while the free-soilers and proslavery people fought for control of the government.

John Deere

John Deere invented the steel plow. This was important because the steel plow was strong enough to break through the thick sod on the Great Plains. The sod was up to a foot thick - people even built sod houses!

Johnson's Reconstruction Plan

Johnson wanted to restore the union as quickly as possible. He blamed individual southerners for leading the South into secession. In 1865, Johnson restored property to all Confederates who pledged loyalty to the Union. Johnson appointed provisional governors for 7 of the former Confederate states.

First Battle of Bull Run

July 1861. Also called the First Battle of Manassas, especially in the South. It was the first major land battle of the Civil War. Led by the first in a series of awful Union generals, Irvin McDowell, the Union Army marched to capture the Confederate capitol of Richmond. At first, the Union Army overwhelmed the inexperienced Confederate Army, but the arrival of reinforcements changed the tide of battle. After Colonel Thomas Jackson and a regiment of Virginians stood their ground like a stone wall, the Confederates launched a counter-attack and forced the Union to flee for Washington D.C. Luckily, the Confederates did not chase the Union soldiers into D.C. or the war might have ended right then with a Confederate victory. The battle showed both sides that this war was going to longer and bloodier than anyone had anticipated.

George Calvert (Lord Baltimore)

King Charles I awarded him a proprietary grant to settle what is now Maryland. The colony was at first a haven for Catholics.

Dominion of New England

King James II (r. 1685-1688) decided to create a super colony to defend against the French and Indians and to make sure that the Navigation Acts were followed. The new colony replaced all of the New England colonies, New York, and New Jersey. The King placed Sir Edmund Andros in charge of the new colony, with Governor Nicholson in charge of the area around New York City. This decision was extremely unpopular with the colonists, who resented the imposition of centralized authority from England. Luckily, the Glorious Revolution broke out in England in 1688, distracting England enough so that Andros was arrested and Nicholson kicked out of power during Leisler's Rebellion in New York City.

Thomas Reed

Known as Czar Reed, he was a Congressman from Portland, Maine from 1877-1899. During the 1890s, he was Speaker of the House. He did a lot to increase the power of the Speaker, hence his nickname.

Plague of 1616

Known as the "Great Dying," this bubonic plague wiped out somewhere between 75% and 95% of the Native Americans living in New England just before the Pilgrims came. This plague allowed the English to easily spread their settlements with minimal resistance.

Land Ordinance of 1785

Land was divided in 36 sections of one square mile each (640 acres each), known as townships. This was for the surveying and selling of western lands. Land was sold in one square mile increments for $640 and could not be sold by the government in smaller units. This policy of selling the land in large units, instead of in smaller plots, benefitted speculators. $640 was a lot of money back in the day! Speculators were wealthy people who bought land, subdivided it, and sold the smaller pieces for profit.

Depression of 1873

Lasted for 65 months. Characterized by job-less men wandering from community to community trying to find work- the strolling poor/tramps. The Panic of 1873 caused 25% unemployment in many cities. NYC, as usual, had riots during the Panic.

Black Codes

Laws like the Negro Act of 1740 that were passed to prevent blacks from moving, becoming educated, and from carrying weapons.

Cochise

Leader of the Apaches in the Southwest during the 1870s. He agreed to move his people onto reservations.

Half-Breeds

Led by James G. Blaine of Maine, they were a faction of the Republican Party that supported civil service reform and a merit system. Their opponents, who considered them half-Republicans, named them "this" They were successful in passing the Pendleton Act.

Stalwarts

Led by Senator Roscoe Conkling of New York, the Stalwarts were a faction in the Republican Party during the 1870s that supported the spoils system (patronage system) and were therefore against civil service reform. The Stalwarts were big supporters of Grant, and had a reputation for corruption. They were political enemies of Rutherford B. Hayes, the president after Grant. In the 1880 election, they failed to get Grant a third term, but did succeed in getting one of their own, Chester Arthur, chosen as VP for James Garfield, a Half-Breed. Some people at the time believed that the Stalwarts were behind the assassination of Garfield in 1881 (to get Arthur in power).

Appomattox Courthouse

Lee surrendered to Grant at this site in Virginia on April 9, 1865 (almost exactly 4 years after Fort Sumter). It marked the end of the Civil War. 620,000 Americans had died. more than all of our other wars combined.

Lincoln-Douglas Debates

Lincoln challenged Douglas to a series of 7 debates in 1858. The two men were running for US Senator from Illinois. The most famous of the debates was at Freeport (see next term). Douglas ended up winning the election, but "Honest Abe" won a moral victory in the debates by taking the higher moral ground.

Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction

Lincoln offered full pardon and full restoration of property excluding slaves to all those who would pledge their allegiance to the US and to promise to free the slaves. Not valid to leaders of the Confederate Army. Had to abide by all federal laws, including the Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln also proposed a plan to reinstall state government once 10% of the state's population swore allegiance to the US. In the North, the Radical Republicans opposed the plan because they saw the reconstruction of the South as an opportunity to change the South and make them good Republicans like the North.

Fort Pitt

Located between a fork in the Monongahela and Allegheny Rivers, in what is now Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, it was built during the French and Indian War next to the site of Fort Duquesne. Duquesne was owned by the French, and attacked by the British. Instead of allowing the British to capture Duquesne, the French destroyed it. Britain then built Fort Pitt next to the ruins of Fort Duquesne.

Breed's Hill

Located in the Charlestown section of Boston, Massachusetts, it is the location where most of the fighting of the Battle of Bunker Hill took place early in the American Revolutionary War. The Battle of Bunker Hill was fought on June 17, 1775. It took the British three tries to take the hill (Breed's Hill). Even though they won, the British suffered so many casualties taking the hill, that it is considered an American victory. The British lost nearly 1/3 of their forces, over 1,000 men.

The Alamo

Located in what is now San Antonio, Texas, it was a huge battle in the Texas Revolution fought on March 6, 1836 between the Texans and Tejanos against Mexico. President Santa Anna led an army into Texas to hold a 13-day siege on the fort. There were about 187 Texans stationed at the fort including James Bowie, William Travis, and Davy Crockett. The Texan army went on the beat the Mexicans at the Battle of San Jacinto.

John Locke (natural rights)

Locke believed that God gave certain rights to people that could never be taken away by any government. These rights are called natural rights. The three natural rights were the right to life, the right to liberty, and the right to own property. Thomas Jefferson later plagiarized these ideas in the Declaration of Independence, but changed "property" to "pursuit of happiness" because it sounds nicer!

Stanton and Anthony v. Stone and Douglass

Long-time abolitionist allies had contradicting ideas about the amendments, causing them to split. Lucy Stone was one of the leaders of the moderate American Women's Suffrage Association (AWSA). It focused on achieving women's suffrage at the state level. Maintained close ties with the Republican Party and the old abolitionist networks. It worked for the 15th Amendment, and actively sought the support of men. Anthony and Stanton founded the National Women's Suffrage Association, NWSA, which opposed the 15th Amendment. They had a broader spectrum of goals for women's rights. Anthony voted illegally in 1872 and was arrested to protest blacks being able to vote, but not women.

Matthew Lyon v. Roger Griswold

Lyon was a Democratic-Republican of Vermont, and Griswold was a Connecticut Federalist. During a debate in the House of Representatives, Lyon spit in Griswold's eye. Griswold retaliated by hitting Lyon with his cane. Lyon ended up using a pair of fire tongs to defend himself against Griswold. The two had to be pulled apart. Lyon went to jail later that year for writing an article that opposed John Adams' decision to fight France (Quasi-war), and he became the only Congressman in US history to be re-elected while in jail.

Jesse Chisholm

Made the trail used for the cattle drives from Texas to Kansas.

Democratic beliefs and support

Many Democrats were farmers, who were for a weak central government and were strict constructionists. Poor farmers, poor businessmen, and people from the South and West supported the party.

Battle of Veracruz

March 1847. This was a battle between the Mexicans, in the city of Veracruz, and the Americans, led by General Winfield Scott. The Americans laid siege upon the city and 20 days later, the city fell. It was an extremely easy victory that resulted in only 13 American deaths. This was the first stop on Scott's journey to Mexico City.

Mount Holyoke

Mary Lyon created Mount Holyoke Female Seminary in Massachusetts. The young women who attended hoped to be missionaries in distant lands. The seminary was among the most rigorous academic institutions at the time. The school not only had challenging academic courses, but also stressed the importance of the moral and religious lives of its students. Along with Oberlin, it was one of the two schools open to women in the US before the Civil War.

Commodore Matthew Perry

Matthew Perry was sent across the Pacific by President Franklin Pierce, and his mission resulted in a treaty with Japan, opening them to American trade in 1853. When Perry went to Japan, he brought a four-ship squadron with him, and was ready to fight if negotiations went sour. This was an example of gunboat diplomacy.

Master

Member of the guild who has completed an apprenticeship and had a masterpiece approved as a journeyman. He may house apprentices. Masters are the leaders of their craft and can open their own shop and hire people to work for them.

Special Field Order 15

Military order issued by General Sherman in January 1865. It set aside the Sea Islands off the coast of Georgia and some of the low country rice region in S.C. for the freed people. Each family would get 40 acres and a loan of a mule from the Army. "40 acres and a mule." It gave blacks hope for a life. Sherman wanted to relieve the demands on his army by the blacks following his army. By the summer of 1865, 40,000 freed people settled on "Sherman's land" on 400,000 acres of land (from Atlanta to Florida). Unfortunately, this order was revoked in the fall of 1865 by Johnson.

Era of Good Feelings

Monroe made a goodwill tour after his Inauguration, the first president since GW to do so. When he visited Boston, the Federalist newspaper Columbian Centinel proclaimed an era of good feelings. Monroe wanted national and political unity. He placed both Federalists and Democratic-Republicans in office instead of just DRs. The phrase Era of Good Feelings has become attached to Monroe's presidency. It ended with the Panic of 1819.

Maternal Associations

Monthly church associations where mothers discussed ways to raise their children to be true Christians. They believed that all children were sinful at birth, and their wills must be broken to be "godly." Yeah!

Republican Motherhood

Mothers were supposed to know the Republican values. Children would be raised with Republican beliefs, therefore making them ideal citizens. Mothers played an important part in shaping the values of the next generation. So, women could not vote or hold office, but they were expected to raise their sons to love freedom and liberty!

New Amsterdam/New York

New Amsterdam was taken by the English during the Anglo-Dutch Wars and renamed New York in 1665 in honor of the King's brother, James, duke of York. Interestingly, Wall Street was originally the wall on the edge of the settlement, built to defend the city from Native American attacks.

John Singleton Copley

New England-born artist, he painted mostly portraits that were highly realistic. He famously painted Sam Adams, Paul Revere, and John Hancock. Check it out: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Singleton_Copley

Erie Canal

New York Governor DeWitt Clinton proposed building a canal to connect the Hudson River to Lake Erie. At the time, roads helped people move around, but moving bulky goods was slow and expensive. Water transportation on the rivers was only north to south, or along the coastlines, so east to west transportation was needed dearly. Clinton proposed the canal in 1817, and investors chipped in $7 million for the project, an immense sum for the time. The Erie Canal was 364 miles long, 40 feet wide by 4 feet deep, and included 83 locks and more than 300 bridges. It was a miracle of engineering for the time. Irish immigrant labor built much of it. The canal was completed in 1825.

Stamp Act Congress

Nine colonies met in New York City for the Stamp Act Congress. Though mobs had become rare, most of the stamp distributors had resigned in fear by 1765, which made enforcing the Stamp Act impossible for Britain. The Congress decided that non-importation was the way to force Parliament to nullify the Stamp Act. It worked!

Morrill Tariff Act

Now that the South wasn't part of the Union, Republicans lived up to their campaign promises by nearly doubling tariff rates.

Impeachment

On February 24, 1868, Radical and Moderate Republicans in the House of Representatives joined forces and voted to impeach Johnson by a vote of 126-47. They charged him with 11 counts of high crimes and misdemeanors. They focused upon the violation of the Tenure of Office Act. In the Senate trial, Johnson agreed to abide by the Reconstruction Acts. In May, the Senate voted 35 votes for conviction to 19 votes for acquittal. Just missed the 2/3 needed to remove him. 1 more vote and he would have been booted from the Presidency. This set the precedent that only criminal acts, not political disagreements, warranted removal from office.

Freedom dues

Once the indentured servant completed his contract, the master gave him a gift of land, clothing, or tools so he could start his own life in the New World.

Benjamin West

One of his most famous paintings, The Death of General Wolfe, became the most frequently reproduced painting of the time. He was best known for his historical paintings.

Joseph McCoy

One of the earliest entrepreneurs to build the cattle market in western Kansas following the Civil War.

Gauge Problems

One of the early problems with railroads is that the gauges (widths) of the rails were not standard. Some were narrow, while others were wide. As a result, freight on railroads had to be loaded and unloaded every time the gauges differed. This is why canals remained important for awhile, instead of being immediately replaced by railroads.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

One of the few pieces of legislation of the Articles of Confederation period, it prohibited slavery in the Northwest Territories, and provided the model for the incorporation of future territories into the union as co-equal states. Once a territory reached 60,000 people, that territory could apply for statehood. Upon entry as a State, it became equal in every way to the already-existing states. This is extremely important, since it was the way the US avoided the problems England had with colonies. The act also was the first time in American history that slavery was prohibited anywhere.

Anaconda Copper Mining Company

One of the successful large businesses to strike it rich, it was one of the nation's most powerful corporations in the late 19th century.

Section 16

One section out of the 36 in a township, the income derived from selling parts of it was reserved for the support and funding of local schools.

Federal Road

Originally the Georgia Road, it became the this Road after the federal government pumped money in to improve it. It was the southernmost of the four major trails; it allowed farmers from South Carolina and eastern Georgia to travel into Alabama and Mississippi.

Immigrants on the Plains

Over 2 million European immigrants settled the Plains between 1870 and 1900. The majority was German, but substantial numbers of Swedes, Norwegians, Poles, Danes, Czechs, and Russian-Germans (Germans who had fled Germany to live in Russia) also settled on the Plains.

Liberal Republicans

Part of the Republican Party, but had different ideas. They decided that the Republican Party been trying to help the freedmen, but that it was time to cut them off. The Radical Republicans opposed them, but the Liberals won control of the Republican Party by the mid-1870s. They felt that government jobs should be awarded based on ability, not on who you know. They passed the Pendleton Act, which would give job seekers the Civil Service examination, and is still given today. They felt that our government should be ruled by 'the best men', wealthy smart people. They distrusted the regular people. Their economic policy was known as Laissez-Faire, which means the government should keep its hands off business. In other words, business should be able to do whatever it wants, with no government regulations to control it.

Intolerable Acts (Coercive Acts, Repressive Acts) (1774)

Passed by Parliament to punish Boston for the Tea Party, it included several acts. Boston Port Bill - closed Boston Harbor until bill for the lost tea was paid. Massachusetts Government Act - forbade town meetings and gave the governor power over nearly all civil offices. Act for the Impartial Administration of Justice - Colonial courts could no longer try British soldiers, placing the soldiers above colonial law. Quartering Act - forced colonists to house and feed British soldiers in their homes. These acts were very unpopular.

Black Codes

Passed by Southern state governments to keep blacks as close to slave status as possible. Meant to restrict the freedom of the black labor force. If a black left his job early, he would have to give up previous wages, and then could be arrested by any white citizen. Some clauses said that children would work without pay, some states tried to ban blacks from land ownership, exclude them from juries, and ban interracial marriage.

Pendleton Act

Passed in 1883, this act stipulated that government jobs be awarded based upon merit, instead of the spoils system. Employees now have to pass an exam to get a government job. It is also now illegal to fire or demote people because of their political beliefs. The US Civil Service Commission was created to enforce this law.

Fifteenth Amendment

Passed in Feb. 1869. It said, "the right of citizens of the US to vote shall not be denied or abridged on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." Congress had power to enforce this article on legislatures that didn't agree with it. Republicans wanted to make sure that the Amendment was ratified, so they required MS, TX, and VA to ratify the 15th amendment before they were readmitted into the US.

Fries' Rebellion

Pennsylvania farmers rebelled (again!) against high taxes in 1799. Federal troops were sent by Adams to restore order. He and two others were tried for treason and sentenced to be hanged. Against nearly every other Federalist, Adams pardoned the men. This, along with ending the war against France, split the Federalist Party.

Industrial motherhood

People believed that women were more gentle, moral, and loving, so childrearing was left to them. The men went to work and the women stayed home.

Sharecropping

People did this when they lost their land or didn't own their own land. They would farm land that belonged to someone else, usually a rich family who owned the land. The family would plow, plant, weed, and harvest. They could only keep a share of what they farmed. The rich family would take the rest (most of it).

Vasco da Gama

Portuguese explorer who was the 1st European to reach India by sailing around Africa. This discovery led to Portuguese domination of trade in the Far East, making huge profits off of spices, gold, and slaves.

Bartolomeu Dias

Portuguese explorer who was the first European to round the Cape of Good Hope.

Old Lights

Preachers that kept the old style of preaching during the First Great Awakening. The Old Lights were serious and sat quietly in their pews.

New Lights

Preachers with the new style of preaching that were more passionate about religion. The New Lights were much more emotional, and sang and danced during church services. John Edwards, George Whitefield, and the Tennents were New Lights.

Electoral Commission of 1876

President Grant appointed a commission to resolve the 1876 election. The commission was made up of 5 US Senators, 5 US representatives, and 5 US Supreme Court justices. Out of those 15, there are 8 Republicans and 7 Democrats. They brought up each contested vote. On every vote, the 8 Republicans voted for Hayes and the 7 Democrats voted for Tilden. For all 20 of the votes up in the air, it was an 8-7 vote all in favor of Hayes. Democrats were enraged, and they refused to accept those results.

Election of 1840

President Martin Van Buren fought for re-election against a depression and a Whig party unified behind war hero William Henry Harrison. Campaigning under the slogan "Tippecanoe and Tyler too," the Whigs defeated Van Buren easily. Unfortunately, the Whig choice of John Tyler, a former Democrat from Virginia, to win southern votes ended up backfiring when Tyler became President following Harrison's death.

Kansas-Nebraska Act

Proposed by Douglas in 1854, the K-N Act would have organized the Nebraska Territory into two states, and slavery would be decided by popular sovereignty. The act abolished the Missouri Compromise, as Nebraska Territory was north of 36-30. Douglas sold the idea to the South with the understanding that Kansas would probably become a slave state, whereas Nebraska would be a free state. Douglas got the bill through Congress and Pierce signed it, despite an uproar from the North. This act led directly to the Civil War, as people from slave states and people from free states flooded Kansas to try to make it a slave or free state. The close proximity of people willing to travel all the way to Kansas because of slavery led to violence.

Radical Republican vision

RR's careers had been shaped by the slavery controversy. They believed in equal political rights and equal economic opportunity. Argued for universal education, free labor, and equal rights in the South - that region would be able to share in the North's material wealth, progress, and social mobility. In a radical's view, the power of the federal government would be central to the remaking of Southern society, especially in guaranteeing civil rights for freedmen.

Putting on airs

Refers to celebrations put on by free African-Americans after the emancipation and the Civil War. It was a term used by whites to criticize black celebratory behavior.

Great Migration

Refers to the time of migration of English settlers (mostly Puritans) between 1620 and 1640 to the New World. Roughly 20,000 settlers came to Massachusetts Bay during this time, and the colony grew so large that it absorbed Plymouth in 1691.

Restoration vs. Reconstruction

Restoration was the idea that we should put the union back together and treat the South nicely, and kind of pretend that the CW had never happened, but without slaves. Reconstruction was supported by the RR. It was to rebuild the South like the North and punish the South. Make them just like the North with industries and schools ands businesses.

Treaty of Fort Laramie

Resulted from the Great Sioux War in 1868. Most of South Dakota was granted to the Sioux, including the Black Hills. Though promised the land for "as long as the grass grows," the Sioux would lose it after gold was discovered there in 1874.

Great Compromise

Roger Sherman- The Great Compromise (aka "The Connecticut Compromise") was a political compromise brought on by a dispute between how representation in Congress would be determined. Virginia wanted representation to be by population because they had a lot a people. New Jersey, on the other hand, had less people, so they wanted equal representation. Then, Roger Sherman came up with this compromise. This created a bicameral legislature with equal representation in the Senate and representation by population in the House of Representatives. The Compromise also determined that the US would have one president, who serves for four years.

Grimké sisters

Sarah and Angelina Grimké were the first female public speakers in the history of the United States. Since they had grown up in a household where slavery was present, they knew the cruelty of slavery firsthand. They were often recruited to talk about the evils of slavery. They were criticized because common belief disapproved women voicing their opinion. In fact, the abolitionist movement split when Garrison supported their right to speak out, while other abolitionist leaders did not. Fun fact - Angelina Grimké was married to Theodore Weld.

Legal Tender Act of 1862

Secretary Chase authorized the printing of paper money through this act. It replaced state bank notes. The new money was green and was called "greenbacks."

Edwin Stanton

Secretary of War. Stanton effectively supplied the Union Army, giving it a huge advantage over the poorly supplied Confederates.

Salmon P. Chase

Secretary of the Treasury under Lincoln. He was a radical abolitionist, who thought that Lincoln was not active enough when it came to freeing the slaves. He later was a leader of the "Radical Republicans," a group that wanted to punish the South for seceding (after the war was over). During Lincoln's presidency, Chase and others vocally challenged Lincoln, which shows that Lincoln was man enough to have people in his Cabinet that didn't say, "yes sir!" to everything he wanted. He valued differing opinions, which may be one of the reasons why he is considered America's greatest president.

Sumner v. Brooks

Senator Charles Sumner of Mass. was an abolitionist who insulted the slaveryites. Senator Preston S. Brooks of South Carolina got angry and called a duel. He approached Sumner on the floor of the United States Senate and pounded him with an 11-ounce cane until it broke. The Senate could not get enough votes to expel Brooks from Congress but he resigned and was then reelected by southerners, who hailed him as a hero for defending southern honor. Brooks was even sent golden canes by his supporters! Sumner had serious head injuries and had to resign for 3 years and go to Europe for treatment. He was also reelected. After the Civil War, Sumner was a leader of the Radical Republicans, a group of northern Congressmen who wanted to punish the South!

Dorothea Dix

She led asylum reform. Dix explained the terrible treatment of the insane, who were locked up with regular criminals. She traveled the country voicing her views on the treatment of the insane. She told the Massachusetts legislature about how the women were being treated. They were being "incarcerated up with criminals, locked up in cages, pens, closets, stalls. They were chained, naked, beaten with rods and lashed into obedience." By 1860, 28 states had separate places for the insane to go, and conditions had improved some.

Mary Lease

She was a Populist from Kansas who said that Wall Street controlled America, instead of the people controlling it. She is famous for the quote, "Raise less corn and more Hell!" though she never actually said it.

Sally Hemings

She was a mixed race slave owned by Jefferson. Some journalists at the time, and historians later, said he may have fathered many children with her after his wife's death. DNA testing of her descendants conclusively proved a link with the Jefferson family.

Mercy Otis Warren

She was a political writer at the center of Patriot political activity. Before the war, she wrote poems and plays that attacked royal authorities. She was the daughter of James Otis, who had attacked writs of assistance (search warrants to allow British authorities to search homes for evidence of smuggling without probably cause). In 1805, she published one of the earliest histories of the American war for independence, a three-volume work and the first history of the Revolution authored by a woman.

Margaret Fuller

She was a transcendentalist thinker. She advocated women's rights and thought that women were entitled to an education and the right to hold jobs. She also advocated emancipation for slaves and prison reform. She expressed her opinions in her book, Woman in the 19th Century.

Deborah Sampson

She was an American woman who impersonated a man named Robert Shurtliff of Massachusetts for 17 months to serve in the Continental Army. She was wounded and honorably discharged. Because she was a woman, she did not receive a pension for her military service, as all men did.

Harriet Tubman

She was an escaped slave from Maryland. She helped with the Underground Railroad, making 19 rescue missions and freeing over 300 slaves.

Harriet Beecher Stowe

She was the author of Uncle Tom's Cabin. This was one example of many stories by abolitionists condemning slavery as evil and immoral. It was the #2 best-selling book of the 19th century, behind only the Bible. Many people, including Abraham Lincoln, believe that the novel did much to cause the Civil War. It shocked Europeans so much that they refused to allow their governments to join the Confederacy against the United States in the Civil War.

Peggy Eaton

She was the beautiful wife of Secretary of War, John Eaton; allegedly she was unfaithful to her former husband (which may have caused him to commit suicide) and had been John Eaton's mistress before they married. The other Cabinet wives didn't accept her because of this accusation, and that caused problems within the Cabinet. Jackson, still angered by the accusations of bigamy leveled at his wife (who died of a broken heart!), defended her. But, he was unsuccessful. The women snubbed poor Peggy. The meanest witch of all of them was Mrs. Calhoun. She made Jackson so angry that he transferred his favor of John C. Calhoun, his vice-president, to Martin Van Buren, his Secretary of State. Van Buren, a widower, had been nice to Peggy! Calhoun soon resigned from the vice-presidency (after this and the Jefferson Day Dinner - see #37). Some historians say that the Peggy Eaton Affair caused Jackson to elevate Van Buren to the vice-presidency and then to the presidency. Jackson dismissed almost all of his Cabinet and relied instead on the "Kitchen Cabinet." The Peggy Eaton Affair is sometimes called the "Petticoat Affair."

Rachel Robards Jackson

She was the wife of Andrew Jackson. During the election of 1828, she was accused of having been married to two men at once (bigamy). Although this was a true accusation, her "crime" was a mistake. Her divorce files from her first marriage had not been processed by the time she married Jackson, so she wasn't truly unmarried at the time of their wedding. Her alleged bigamy and his rumored seduction of a married woman were the basis of frequent fist fights with opponents, and occasional duels. In 1806, for example, in response to an insult about his wife's character, Andrew Jackson fought a duel with attorney Charles Dickinson, who wounded him before being shot and killed by the future President. Rachel died less than two months after the 1828 campaign, supposedly due to a broken heart because the National Republicans were so mean! Jackson blamed the National Republicans and Adams for her death.

Mary Boykin Chesnut

She was the wife of a wealthy slave owner from South Carolina and kept a diary, writing down everything. "God forgive us, but ours is a monstrous system....Like the patriarchs of old, our men live all in one house with their wives and their concubines, and the mulattoes one sees in every family party resemble the white children. Any lady is ready to tell you who is the father of all the mulatto children in everybody's household but their own. Those, she seems to think, drop for the clouds." I imagine it was tough for Southern women to look the other way while their husbands were raping slave women!

Susanna Haswell Rowson

She wrote poetry, plays and novels. She was also an actress. More books were being written for women readers; She wrote an extremely popular book for women, Charlotte Temple, that was in print for over 100 years. She also had a school for girls.

Webster-Ashburton Treaty

Signed in 1842, the Webster-Ashburton Treaty resolved the Aroostook War, establishing the official border between Maine and New Brunswick. The treaty also revised the borders between Lake Superior and the Lake of the Woods, previously defined by the Treaty of Paris in 1783. The British apologized for the Caroline Affair, and promised not to interfere with American slavery. The treaty was a huge milestone in Anglo-American relations, and shows how the US had become much more respected by the British.

African Methodist Episcopal Church

Since slaves were unable to practice their African religions because of fear of rebellion, they adopted Christianity. They wanted to incorporate their traditional ceremonies with singing, dancing, and other such aspects of African religions with the Christianity they now believed, hence the birth of the AME, founded by Richard Allen in 1793.

Isaac Singer

Singer was a U.S. inventor and manufacturer. He is famous for producing an improved version of Elias Howe's sewing machine in 1851. He then founded I.M. Singer & Co.

Aroostook War

Sometimes called the Pork and Beans War, this was an undeclared war between Britain and the U.S. This war was over the boundary location between Maine and Canada. Beginning in 1838, this war involved no actual battles, and was resolved by the Webster-Ashburton Treaty. The only fighting was between a few lumberjacks who threw potatoes at each other.

Radical Republicans

Sometimes men whose jobs were shaped by slavery. They believed that men had equal political rights and economic opportunities. Once free labor, universal protection, and equal rights are brought into the South, financially and economically the South would be better off because of more industries. Northerners who wanted to totally change the South to make it like the North. Leaders were Benjamin F. Wade of Ohio and Henry W. Davis of Maryland. They saw reconstruction as a chance to change Southern society.

Proslavery Arguments

Southerners came up with many reasons why slavery was essential to them. These reasons developed into proslavery arguments going against the mostly northern, antislavery arguments. The South used everything they could for these arguments, such as the Constitution and even the Bible. Their strongest argument was that the Constitution allowed slavery. They also said that slavery was good for uplifting the primitive black man into civilization.

Northern New Spain

Spain sent people to colonize the Pacific coast in fear of the British and Russians. The British claimed the region north of California to the southern border of Alaska. So, Russia, Britain, and Spain all claimed the same territory. Spain explored Vancouver Island, Columbia River, and the southeastern Alaska coast. Spain tried to get a foothold in the fur trade but failed. In an extra effort to protect against the British and Russians, a series of twenty missions was set up, including Los Angeles. LA was the biggest (about 300 people in 1800).

Steamboat Act of 1838

Steamboats were dangerous and often had fires, explosions, or sank. The act provided better security for people on board of vessels propelled in whole or in part by steam. At first, the government was scared to pass any adequate safety laws because of the fear of interfering with the growing steamboat industry, which was a big part of the country's economic development. The act was one of the first uses of the federal regulatory power in the public's best interest. In other words, the power of the government was used to protect the safety of the public.

Captivity Narrative

Stories told about someone being captured by "primitive" people. Examples are stories of Englishmen being captured by pirates and people being captured by Native Americans.

Republic of Texas

Texas gained independence from Mexico in the Treaties of Velasco, but the Mexicans refused to sign the agreement. Texas' boundary was set at the Rio Grande in the south. Texas was not added to the Union, originally, because it would cause an imbalance in the ratio of slave states to non-slave states. Due to the threat of a Texan alliance with Britain, among other other political reasons, Texas became a state in 1845. It was also known as the "Lone Star Republic" from 1836-1845, when it was an independent nation.

Texas Land Claim

Texas had been part of Mexico before the Texan War of Independence. When it was part of Mexico, it was part of a much larger province that included most of New Mexico and a narrow strip of land all the way north to the 42nd parallel (Wyoming)! Texas became angry when the federal government proposed taking the land away, especially when it appeared that the land would be free of slavery. This issue was also decided by the Compromise of 1850.

1883 Civil Rights Cases

The 1883 Civil Rights Cases declared the Civil Rights Act of 1875 unconstitutional. The majority of the Justices felt that it was time for blacks to fend for themselves. The Supreme Court decisions stopped federal attempts at protecting the rights of African Americans until the 1950s.

"Billion-Dollar Congress"

The 51st Congress which had access to approximately a 1 billion dollar surplus in the Treasury. Yeah, we actually had a surplus back then! The "Billion Dollar" Congress passed the Pension Act of 1890, which provided pensions for all Union Civil War veterans who had served for 90 days and were no longer capable of manual labor. This policy solved the dilemma of the existing surplus. It was also politically brilliant because giving money to the Grand Army of the Republic's (GAR) veterans was popular.

Differences between the British and the American colonists

The Americans viewed the British soldiers as loud and violent. British officers were seen as cruel and inhuman, as they savagely whipped soldiers for disobedience. In addition, the British sneered at American culture and thought of us as backwater hillbillies! After the 7 Years' War, the American colonists increasingly realized they were different than the British.

Bank War

The Bank War arose when Nicholas Biddle, President of the Second Bank of the United States, applied for the renewal of the bank's charter. Biddle did this four years before the charter was supposed to expire because he knew Jackson was going to let the bank charter expire before the next presidential election; by making it an election issue, he hoped to save the bank. In the election, Biddle supported Henry Clay. The plan didn't work because Jackson crushed Clay in the 1832 election! After the election, Jackson decided that all government money would be removed from the Second Bank of the United States and would be invested in smaller state banks. Jackson's opponents referred to the state banks Jackson chose to hold the federal deposits as "pet banks" - Jackson's favorites. In response, Biddle decided that the country would suffer because of the actions of the president. He didn't allow the bank to issue any new loans and forced people to pay their existing loans immediately. The country's economy struggled for a few years because Andrew Jackson refused to support the bill that would extend the bank's charter.

Bank opposition - why?

The Bank's frugality with currency (in other words, it was hard to get a loan from the Bank) was troublesome for western land speculators and farmers who wanted to get money easily and with low interest. Some people greatly disliked the economic power of the bank, worrying that rich elites used it to their advantage to the detriment of the poor.

Concord

The British burned a small amount of supplies in Concord. Already hearing news of Lexington, the American militia had concluded that the British were burning colonial homes. The Americans attacked a British company, killing 73 soldiers. The British fled back to Boston, and Americans attacked them along the way.

Burning of the Capitol

The British had a strong navy and were harassing coastal shipping and attacking settlements at will. In the summer of 1814, the most humiliating attack happened. The British burned the Capitol, forcing President Madison and Congress to flee. Dolley Madison, the president's wife, famously saved a portrait of George Washington as she fled.

Northwest forts

The British possessed forts in the northwest (mostly Ohio Territory) during the 1780s, even after we won our independence. They promised to leave in the Peace of Paris (1783), but did not do so. Their refusal to leave caused a lot of friction between the US and Britain during the 1790s and early 1800s, especially after western frontiersmen found British weapons on dead Indian bodies (Indians who had attacked us). This issue helped lead to the War of 1812.

Ohio Company

The British thought that they been cheated out of their claims on Ohio by the French, so they got mad! To take control of the region, King George II decided to grant a huge chunk of land in Ohio (200,000 acres) to the Ohio Company. This company planned to build a fort at present-day Pittsburgh (at the junction of the Allegheny, Ohio, and Monongahela Rivers) to undermine the French, and take Ohio for the British. The French already had a fort at that location, so this act escalated tensions between France and Britain.

Election of 1848

The Democratic party and the Whig Party were the two main parties running for president in the election of 1848. The Democrats' nominee was Lewis Cass, who proposed the popular sovereignty system. Two separate biographies of him were handed out by his campaign, one for the North and one for the South. The northern biography made it sound like the popular sovereignty system was the best way to keep slavery out of new states, and the southern one made it sound the opposite. Opponents quickly figured out what he was doing, and called him "Cass the Jackass" and "General Gass" (he was a general in the War of 1812). The Whig nominee was a war hero from the Mexican-American war, General Zachary Taylor. Taylor decided not to take a position on the Wilmot Proviso, allowing both northerners and southerners to vote for him without defining his position on slavery. Since Taylor had no political experience at all (he hadn't even voted before!), no one knew his views. A third candidate ran for the Free-Soil Party, former president Martin Van Buren. He knew he could not win, but successfully split the Democrats' votes (because he had been a Democratic president), allowing Zachary Taylor to win the presidency.

Election of 1824

The Democratic-Republican Party leadership chose William Crawford of Georgia as their nominee for president. However, Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and John C. Calhoun decided not to accept the choice of the party leadership, and instead chose to run against Crawford. Calhoun dropped out early and ran as Jackson's VP. In the election, none of the candidates won a majority of the vote, so the election went to the House of Representatives. Clay and Crawford did poorly in the election, so the contest was between Adams and Jackson. Even though Andrew Jackson had the majority of the popular and electoral votes, Speaker of the House Henry Clay chose John Quincy Adams to be president. Some people think that a "corrupt bargain" was made between Adams and Henry Clay (who was the Speaker of the House at the time), because Adams chose Clay as Secretary of State afterwards. On the other hand, Clay and Adams both believed in the American System, while Jackson did not, so it is natural that Clay would support Adams.

Democratic Conventions

The Democrats met for their 1860 convention in Charleston, South Carolina. Douglas was the leading candidate for the northern wing of the Democratic Party. The South did not like him because of his opposition to the Lecompton Constitution and the position he took on the Freeport Question. The South pulled away from the convention, making it so that Douglas did not get the 2/3 vote necessary for the nomination. So, the Southern Democrats seceded from the Convention! The Democrats tried to reunite the party by calling a second convention at Baltimore, but the South once again left the convention. The Southern Democrats held a rival convention in Baltimore - so there were two Democratic conventions going on in Baltimore! The South chose John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky and the North chose Stephen A. Douglas. This split in the party guaranteed that the Republicans would win the election of 1860.

Redemption

The Democrats were brought back into power during the 1870s all over the South. As states returned to Democratic rule, including control by former Confederate officials, African Americans faced more harsh obstacles and lost any chance of having equal rights with whites.

Navigation Acts

The English Navigation Acts were a series of laws that restricted the use of foreign shipping for trade between England and its colonies, which started in 1651. Since colonies existed to benefit the mother country, the English Parliament restricted colonial trade with other countries, especially with the French, Dutch, and Spanish. Enumerated goods - goods that could not be produced in England, like sugar and rice - could not be traded with any other country. Their importance: "The Navigation Acts, while enriching Britain, caused resentment in the colonies and contributed to the American Revolution. The Navigation Acts required all imports either to be sold in England or bought from England no matter what price could be obtained elsewhere. The rationale was the theory of Mercantilism: the more money one country or colony has, the more power it will hold. The colonists resorted to smuggling. Writs of assistance (search warrants) were issued to enforce the Navigation Acts." Colonists resented royal authorities searching their property.

Expansion of the Freedmen's Bureau

The FB Act of 1865 specifically required that abandoned land be leased for three years in 40-acre lots with an option to buy. Frequent reference in the Congress and press was the question of land distribution. It made the idea of 40 acres and a mule not just a pipe dream, but a matter of public debate.

Federalists

The Federalists were in favor of the Constitution and a strong central government.

Franco-American Alliance of 1778

The Franco-American alliance was between the US and Louis XVI's France. The French provided arms and money, and most importantly, their navy. This was during the American Revolution, and they engaged in a full-scale war with Britain. Spain and the Netherlands allied with the French, though they did not directly assist the colonies. Britain was without allies. This alliance was made possible when the Americans captured a British army at Saratoga, New York.

Freeport Doctrine

The Freeport Doctrine was a result of the debate between Lincoln and Douglas. Lincoln brought up the Freeport Question - "suppose the people of a territory vote slavery down? The Supreme Court in the Dred Scott decision had decreed that they could not. Who would prevail, the Court or the people?" Douglas' answer, the Freeport Doctrine, was that if the people vote slavery down, then it would stay down no matter what the Court said. It was a slick political answer, but it made Lincoln look good when he took the high moral ground and Douglas gave a politician-style answer.

Acadian Expulsion

The French and Indian War started with two years of British failure and the worst defeat of the British in the eighteenth century when Edward Braddock's forces were destroyed at the Battle of Monongahela. The British were desperate and took out their anger on French colonists who had lived in Acadia peacefully for 40 years. Because the Acadians refused to swear their allegiance to the British king in 1755, English soldiers forced 10,000 Acadians to relocate, and sold their land to immigrants. Thousands of Acadians died during the Expulsion; many of them moved to Louisiana and are the ancestors of the Cajuns.

Acadia

The French continued to occupy Louisbourg, though they no longer controlled all the land around it (Acadia). This fortress protected French fishing grounds and the St. Lawrence River entrance to New France. Britain took control of the fort in 1758 and destroyed it. Acadia included Maine north of the Kennebec River, eastern Quebec, and the Maritime Provinces.

Gaspée Affair

The Gaspée Affair involved the English ship Gaspée, which was anchored near Rhode Island. It was a customs vessel designed to stop smugglers. In 1772, a colonial sloop (boat), the Hannah, lured the Gaspee onto a sandbar. The Gaspee was boarded and burned by Patriots. This event is generally regarded as an open act of defiance against Britain. Obviously!

Republican Party

The Kansas-Nebraska Act led to the creation of a new political party, the Republican Party. The party was a purely sectional party of the North - when Abe Lincoln ran for the Presidency in 1860, for example, he did not even appear on the ballot south of the Mason-Dixon Line. The party included northern Democrats dissatisfied with slavery, Whigs, Free-Soilers, and Know-Nothings (a party that hated immigrants and Catholics). The party began in 1854, and miraculously controlled Congress after the 1856 Congressional elections. The development of the purely sectional Republican Party convinced many in the South that secession was now necessary to protect their property and their interests.

Kitchen Cabinet

The Kitchen Cabinet was an informal group to which Jackson confided, more so than his actual Cabinet. This Cabinet consisted of Van Buren and some old western friends of Jackson's. The rest of his actual Cabinet was not included in this group, though. Basically, it was a bunch of Jackson's drinking buddies sitting around making government decisions!

Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871

The Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 made the breaking and violating of civil and political rights a federal crime that could be punishable by the national government. This was one of the three Enforcement Acts set up by Congress to try to make up for, and counter the racism, and terrorism against African Americans. Any actions that interfered with voting was now a federal offense, and the act called for supervision of voting by federal officials. The KKK Act was used as a reason to send in troops into 9 counties in SC, and it was very effective in breaking the KKK power.

Meridian (1871)

The March 1871, 3 African Americans were arrested in Meridian, Mississippi, for giving "incendiary" speeches. At their court hearing, the KKK killed 2 of the defendants and the Republican Judge, and 30 more African Americans were killed in the day of the rioting. It is an example of racial violence during the Reconstruction period.

Merrimack v. Monitor

The Merrimack, an old wooden Union ship, was fitted with metal armor by the Confederacy and renamed Virginia. In 1862, the Union built its own metal-plated ship, the Monitor. The two ships fought to a standstill, and the Confederacy failed to break the Union blockade. It was the first battle between ironclad warships.

Moses and Steve Austin

The Mexicans granted Moses Austin 18,000 acres in Texas in order to keep the heart of Mexico farther away from the Comanches. Moses died shortly after the deal, so his son, Stephen F. Austin (also known as the Father of Texas), took his father's place and became the first American land agent or empresario. Austin brought 300 families to start the colonization of Texas. Upon the start of the colony, Austin agreed that he and the settlers would become Mexican citizens and become Catholic. Not surprisingly, most Americans did not live up to their side of the deal, refusing to become Catholic or Mexican.

Panic of 1819

The Panic of 1819 was the first major financial crisis in America. Unlike the other panics of the time, the Panic of 1819 was caused because of failings in the U.S's economy (not external factors). This panic was the end of the economic expansion that had followed the War of 1812 and the end of the Era of Good Feelings.

Pennsylvania constitution (1776)

The Pennsylvania constitution was made at Philadelphia in July 1776. The constitution gave the right to vote to all men, judges could be removed at any time by a vote of the people (very democratic and protects against abuse of judicial power), and it was the most democratic constitution in America.

Ostend Manifesto

The Pierce Administration secretly decided to try to purchase Cuba - fertile ground for more slave states - from Spain or take it by force if Spain refused to sell it. American ministers in Ostend, Belgium offered $120 million for Cuba, but Spain refused to sell it. Before Pierce could act, the proposal leaked out and became public. The North was angry at this blatant attempt by the Slave Power (as they called it) to acquire more slave territory, and Pierce was forced to back off.

Puritan decline

The Puritans discovered that it was difficult to keep their members involved in the church, as many of them were more concerned about survival and material comfort. In addition, Massachusetts Bay expelled several ministers for disagreements over Puritan belief, and they founded their own Puritan churches. These disagreements weakened the control of the church over the people.

"Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion"

The Reverend Samuel Burchard, a supporter of Blaine's, used this slogan at a campaign rally, in Blaine's presence. Burchard meant that Democrats were the party of alcohol, Catholics, and Confederates. Blaine did not say anything to contradict Burchard, which cost him the support of Catholics, who he needed to get elected. By the way, he was not against Catholics at all, since his sister was a nun! Blaine later acknowledged that this slogan cost him the election.

Caroline Affair

The SS Caroline was an American supply ship, giving goods to Canadian rebels, who were fighting to separate Canada from Britain. On December 29, 1837, British loyalists seized the ship and burned it before setting it adrift over Niagara Falls. One American was killed. This event caused high tension between Britain and America. American newspapers had drawings showing innocent Americans trapped in the ship plunging to violent deaths over Niagara Falls, but the truth was that the ship had been abandoned.

Mother Ann Lee, Shakers

The Shakers were the oldest utopian group, founded by "Mother" Ann Lee. They were very similar to the Quakers. They believed that America should get rid of the traditional family and start thinking of brothers and sisters living as equals. They believed in complete equality of the sexes. They grew a lot between the 1820s through 1830s. Their isolated lifestyle drew many new followers, especially women. They did not believe in sex, so keeping their membership was challenging! The last Shaker community in the world is in Maine.

Secession - Why did the South break away from the Union?

The South felt that the political balance was going against them; the territories remaining did not appear to be likely to become slave states, and the North had opposed efforts to acquire territories like Mexico and Cuba that would have become slave. Also, the South felt threatened by Lincoln and the sectional Republican Party. They feared that the Republicans would take away Southern rights, including the right to own slaves. They also did not like the "interference" of the abolitionists in their affairs - as Jefferson Davis said, they just wanted to be left alone. The South also believed that the Declaration of Independence supported their side, as it said that a government that does not represent the people does not deserve the loyalty of the people. Finally, the South felt that the North would not fight and that they were too dependent on Southern cotton to want to disrupt their economy.

Presidio

The Spanish name given to a fortified town.

U.S. v. Wong Kim Ark (1898)

The Supreme Court ruled that no act of Congress could limit the 14th Amendment's citizenship guarantee for people born in the US. Wong was born to Chinese parents in the US, so nativists argued that he should not be a citizen because Chinese people had been excluded by the Chinese Exclusion Act. Wong won! This issue is still contested a lot. Some Americans, for example, do not feel that children of illegal immigrants should be citizens, but so far they have not prevailed in denying these children citizenship rights.

Tammany Society

The Tammany Society was an organization in New York City that ran the Democratic Party, and reached voters through techniques such as rallies, parades, songs, and party newspapers. Tammany was a "political machine," an organization established for the sole purpose of keeping one political party in power. The machine effectively worked by buying votes through providing public services. In other words, you vote for us, we pick up your trash!

Declaration of Independence

The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, which announced that the 13 American colonies then at war with Great Britain were now independent states, and no longer a part of the British Empire. Written by Thomas Jefferson, the Declaration is an explanation of why the colonists had been forced to declare their independence from Britain. The Declaration actually separated America from Britain on July 2, which should be the date Americans celebrate, but we celebrate the 4th because that is the date it was formally adopted.

Lakota

The Western Sioux, they lived in what is today the Dakotas. They followed the buffalo on horseback. The elimination of the buffalo by whites led the Lakota to fight!

Young America

The Young America Movement was a sense of national pride following the Mexican War. It was the belief that since our system of democracy was so much better than other forms of government, our nation would inevitably expand. The term is applied to the early 1850s to the Pierce Administration, before the violence broke out in Kansas in 1854.

Popular Sovereignty

The belief that the residents of a territory should be able to choose to allow or disallow slavery when they applied for statehood. People liked the idea because it fell in line with the American idea of self-determination and democracy. It held the potential to cause problems, however, because people above the Missouri Compromise line might choose slavery, and people south of the line might forbid it. The idea's best-known proponents were Lewis Cass and Stephen A. Douglas.

Birth control and abortion

The birth rate fell dramatically during the 19th century. The average woman had 7 kids in 1800, but only 4 in 1900. This was through abstinence and abortion. Surgical abortions became very common after 1830 - 1/4 of all pregnancies were aborted between 1840-1860.

Colfax (1873)

The bloodiest part of the Reconstruction where violence took place in Colfax, Louisiana, on an Easter Sunday 1873. Close to 100 African Americans were killed after they failed to hold a besieged courthouse during a contested election.

Dartmouth College vs. Woodward (1819)

The case arose after the college trustees fired the college president. The New Hampshire legislature, which disagreed with the trustees' decision, then attempted to force the college to become a public college and place the ability to appoint trustees in the hands of the governor. The college took the State of New Hampshire to court. The Supreme Court ruled for Dartmouth College and upheld the original charter of the college. The decision settled the nature of public versus private charters and resulted in the rise of the American business corporation. It meant that private contracts could not be broken by state governments.

Colonial troublemaking (1769-1770)

The colonists built and placed liberty poles (tall wooden poles representing freedom) in town squares, only to have them taken down by the British. Many colonists picked bar fights with the British troops. Sam Adams released stories of the British abusing women, and many colonists created new versions of Yankee Doodle (a British soldiers' song from the French and Indian War that made fun of the ragtag American soldiers) to taunt the British troops. The colonists also used tarring and feathering (covering a person with hot tar and feathers) and the Grand Tory Ride (tying a person to a split rail fence and then carrying him around town) to humiliate people who collaborated with the British.

Maryland constitution (1776)

The constitution of this state gave equal voting rights to every citizen regardless of the land they owned. It also gave the people freedom of religion and said that all government power came from the people. So, this is an example of a quite democratic government, but not as democratic as Pennsylvania.

E.L. Godkin

The editor of the Nation magazine; it was very conservative, but now it's very liberal. Godkin argued that poor people deserve to be poor, and rich people deserve to be rich. He also said that we shouldn't give anyone charity because charity makes people lazy, and they should rely on themselves. In the Christmas issue of the Nation, he wrote "free soup must be prohibited, and all classes must learn that soup of any kind, beef or turtle, can only be had by being paid for." The Christmas issue! What a Grinch!

18th Century Population Growth

The eighteenth century's population explosion was due mainly to the high fertility rate. It was common for colonial women to bear seven or more children! The annual growth rate was a heaping 3 percent. The low mortality rate also played its part. Another important aspect was the abundance of food. People generally had plenty to eat and this paved the way for population explosion. Infant mortality rates were also very low. Because life was relatively good in the colonies, many immigrants came to live in America, furthering the population growth. So, population grew because: 1. High birth rate, 2. Low death rate, 3. Abundance of food, 4. Low infant mortality, 5. Immigration.

No man's land

The far western district of Oklahoma (a.k.a. the panhandle) was known as this. It opened to homesteading in 1889, ending Indian control over the region. Thousands of white settlers, known as Sooners, rushed into the region early to claim their 160 acres of free land.

Great Chicago Fire (1871)

The fire destroyed over 60,000 buildings and killed over 300 people. Legend has it that Mrs. O'Leary's cow knocked over a lantern to start the fire. Mrs. O'Leary was a great scapegoat because she was an immigrant and a Catholic. The reporter who came up with the story admitted that he made it up about 20 years later. The Chicago MLS team is called the Chicago Fire to commemorate this event. After the fire, architect Louis Sullivan planned the reconstruction of the city. He made a new type of building - the skyscraper - made possible by the development of steel.

U.S. Steel Corporation

The first billion-dollar corporation in US history, it was created when J.P. Morgan bought out Carnegie Steel and incorporated it.

Gradual Emancipation

The freeing of slaves over a long period of time. Most people did not think that slaves were ready for freedom, so they shouldn't be freed until they were ready.

Chinese immigrants in California

The gold rush attracted many immigrants to California, mainly Chinese and Mexicans. Often, immigrants were discriminated against by white miners. They were sometimes "jumped" and their gold was stolen, they were killed, or were chased away from their land claim.

"Gospel of Prosperity"

The gospel of prosperity was a plan made by the Republicans, to improve the southern fortunes. They wanted the south like the north, with industries and large cities or towns and agriculture. Between 1868-1873, Republican-controlled Southern congresses passed hundreds of bills that were in favor railroads, for example.

Sand Creek Massacre

The governor of Colorado abolished all treaties with the Indians in Colorado Territory. He then encouraged white civilians to raid Cheyenne campgrounds. To protect themselves, 800 Cheyenne moved into a US fort. While the men were out hunting, the Cheyenne were attacked. Though Chief Black Kettle held a US flag in one hand and a flag of truce in the other, 700 drunken white men slaughtered over 100 men, women, and children, and they mutilated their corpses and took scalps.

Corrupt Bargain

The idea amongst many Jackson supporters after the 1824 election that John Quincy Adams made a deal with Henry Clay that if Adams were elected, he would choose Clay as Secretary of State. The truth is that Clay and Adams were much more close in their beliefs (both supported the American System) than Clay and Jackson, so Clay probably chose Adams because Adams believed in the same things. However, it did look pretty bad when Clay was named the Secretary of State immediately after the election was decided!

Effect of Market Revolution on Cities

The market revolution radically augmented the size of America's cities, especially seaports. The amount of America's population living in cities grew from 7% in 1820 to almost 20% in 1860. (So much for the agrarian republic!) The best example of this growth is the increase in the population of New York from 60,000 people in 1800, to over 1 million people in 1860.

Lowell Strike of 1834

The mills cut wages of the workers by 25 percent. The workforce was comprised of all women. They then banded together and began a strike to restore their previous wages. It was unsuccessful and many of them were fired and replaced by the Irish who worked for less.

Eli Hart Incident

The mob at City Hall in New York soon moved on to the warehouse of one Eli Hart, a well-to-do merchant. The mob broke in and stole barrels of flour that Hart had kept in storage. Eli would not sell the flour at a price the mob considered fair, so the mob simply took the flour. The police were incapable of stopping the mob, and a full-scale riot ensued!

Patriots

The name American supporters of the revolution against Britain gave themselves. Historians estimate that about 25-30% of colonists were this.

The Age of the Common Man

The name given to the time period when Jackson "ushered in a new era in American politics," after the election of 1828. Non-landowning white men gained political rights in the United States at this time.

Monticello

The name of Thomas Jefferson's house, designed by Jefferson. It was built upon a hill near Charlottesville, VA. The process took nearly 40 years because Jefferson was constantly changing his mind on the design.

"Factions"

The name that Washington gave to political parties, which he saw as dangerous to American democracy. Washington saw factions as a threat because they served themselves, and not necessarily the country. Today, special interest groups are similar to what Washington was talking about.

Newburgh Conspiracy

The officers from the Continental Army were restless. When they had served in the war, they were promised a lifetime of half pay, but they were not getting paid at all because the states weren't sending money to the national government (it was voluntary!). They threatened to overthrow the Congress and establish a military dictatorship. George Washington sympathized with their problems, but he refused to allow the overthrow to happen because he stood for republican values (representative democracy). So, he appealed to the officers directly by talking about the sacrifices he had made, thereby guilt-tripping the officers into backing down. Congress resolved the problem by granting the officers full pay for five years.

Liberty Tree

The original one was located in Boston. It was a rallying point for people with anti-British sentiments. On August 14, 1765, a crowd strung up effigies (straw dummies) of British officials from the branches, including Boston's stamp distributor, Andrew Oliver. Other towns soon had their own liberty tree.

The Federalist Papers

The papers were a series of 85 essays supporting the ratification (passage) of the Constitution. The authors were James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay, but the letters were published anonymously ("Publius").

"Border ruffians"

The proslavery people from Missouri who went to Kansas to vote for the territorial legislature. They established their own government at Shawnee Mission while the free-soilers set up their own at Topeka.

Universal Suffrage

The right for all people to vote. This was not the case in the early 19th century, because only white men had the right to vote, not women or minorities.

Confederate States of America

The seven states that seceded first set up a government in Montgomery, Alabama. They chose Jefferson Davis as their President and Alexander Stephens as their Vice-President. Later, after Fort Sumter, the capitol was moved to Richmond, Virginia.

Southern Republicans- goals and divisions

The southern Republican goals were to rebuild the South. They want to reconstruct "The New South" to build factories, make internal improvements, build public schools, provide debt relief to the poor, and construct railroads. These efforts mostly failed, with the exception of the railroads. They wanted to modernize the south and make it like the north. They broke it up into three major groups that had their own goals to make themselves stronger- African Americans, Carpetbaggers, and Scalawags. Really broke down into two major groups- the confiscation radicals (who wanted to take land away from rich and give it to freed men and white unionists), VS. the moderate republicans (wanted to focus more on economical development in the south).

Virginia Dynasty

The succession of Virginia presidents between 1789 and 1825. Four Virginians held the presidency for thirty-two of thirty-six years: George Washington, who served from 1789 to 1797; Thomas Jefferson, who served from 1801 to 1809; James Madison, who served from 1809 to 1817; and James Monroe, who served from 1817 to 1825. The only interruption in this came from 1797 to 1801, when John Adams, a native of Massachusetts, served a single term as president.

Temperance Movement

The temperance movement worked to reduce or eliminate consumption of alcohol. Sometimes, men drank most of their paycheck away instead of supporting their families. By practicing temperance, men saved their families from spending money on alcohol and reduced violence and crime rates.

Report on Manufactures

The third economic report by Alexander Hamilton. The plan discussed the need for a sound policy to stimulate the growth of manufacturing. He suggested moderate tariffs would raise the country's overall revenue. Hamilton believed the tariff would protect American industries, raise revenue to support manufacturing, and raise revenue to pay government expenses. Congress shot this plan down because of Southern opposition.

Revolution

The weekly magazine for the NWSA. It became a forum for feminist ideas on divorce laws, unequal pay, women's property rights, and marriage.

Five Points

The worst New York City slum in the 19th century, it was located in Lower Manhattan. Gangs of immigrants, free black people, and criminals controlled the streets. Two of the most infamous gangs from here were the Plug Uglies and the Shirt Tails. During the Civil War, draft riots in 1863 were so severe that Lincoln had to send in several regiments of the army to put them down.

Wool Act of 1699, Hat Act of 1732, Iron Act of 1750

These acts forbade the production of these goods in America because England felt American products would rival the products made by people in England. The British were trying to prevent competition from American colonists.

Electoral College

These are men or women who are elected as representatives by their state's political parties to cast their party's vote for President of the United States. The candidate's party that wins the popular vote of the state gets to cast their electoral votes for president. Whichever candidate gets one more than half of the electoral votes becomes President.

Battles of Saratoga

These two battles are considered to be the turning point in the war. The first battle began September 19, 1777, when the British general John Burgoyne tried to flank the American entrenchment. However, this attack was anticipated by Benedict Arnold and intercepted. This, like the battle of Bunker Hill, was considered a win for the British soldiers, but they suffered high casualties. The second battle was on October 7th. It became apparent that British re-enforcements would not come in time, while the Americans got reinforcements almost daily. The British were outmatched, and when Benedict Arnold disobeyed orders and stepped onto the battlefield and rallied the troops, the British were pushed back, surrounded, and forced to surrender. The battle is called the turning point of the American Revolution, as it was a big win for us that convinced the French to join us against Britain. It also convinced Benedict Arnold that his talents were going unnoticed, encouraging him to defect to Britain.

Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831) and Worcester v. Georgia (1832)

These were Supreme Court cases filed by the Cherokees after the Indian Removal Act of 1830. In both cases, the Supreme Court ruled that the removal of Indians by the Georgia government was unconstitutional since treaty making is the job of the federal government. After these rulings, Jackson said, "John Marshall has made his decision. Now, let's see him enforce it." In other words, Jackson ignored the ruling of the Supreme Court and the Native Americans were removed.

The Anti-Federalist Papers

These were also a series of essays written about the Constitution, except these were against the ratification of the Constitution. These were less organized and less effective.

Letters From a Farmer in Pennsylvania

These were articles written by John Dickinson and published in nearly every colonial newspaper. Dickinson argued that the Revenue Acts had no constitutional right to tax goods and use the money to pay royal governors in the Americas. By the way, he was a lawyer, not a farmer, and he wasn't from Pennsylvania!

Pools

These were devices used by companies to set rates, divide the market, and maximize profits. Companies would all get together to have a meeting, and decide what they would charge for each thing, such as gas for example, to keep it the same and stop any competition between themselves. This way, they could maximize profits.

Jim Crow

These were laws passed after the Civil War to segregate restaurants, theaters, schools, railroad cars, and other public accommodations. One of the people to challenge these laws was Homer Plessy, who was 1/8 Black. (see Plessy v. Ferguson).

Poll tax and literacy test

These were methods used by whites in the South to deny Black people the right to vote. A poll tax was a fee paid for the right to vote, while a literacy test was a test to see if a voter could read before he was allowed to vote. To make sure that whites weren't disenfranchised by these laws, since there are plenty of stupid white people in the South, southern states passed grandfather clauses to protect them. For example, in Oklahoma, anyone qualified to vote before 1866, or related to someone qualified to vote before 1866, was exempted ("grandfathered") from the literacy requirement; the only people who could vote before that year were white male Americans. White Americans were thereby effectively excluded from the literacy testing, whereas the law effectively targeted black Americans.

Blackface Minstrel Show

These were popular shows involving white actors blackening their faces, and acting as stereotypical free blacks or slaves. The shows were extremely racist! Unfortunately, blackface occasionally resurfaces on college campuses and by Hollywood actors. But, as Ashton Kutcher discovered in 2012, it isn't cool anymore!

Little Germanies

These were urban neighborhoods comprised mainly of German immigrants. Germans wanted to recreate life in their old German communities. They founded leisure activities such as singing societies, concert halls, theaters, and beer gardens. The cities of Milwaukee, Cincinnati, Baltimore, and St. Louis had large "Little Germanies."

Re-exports

They are goods that have been exported to one country, and then that country re-exports them to a different country. (Ex. The French people were not allowed to trade with Britain, but they had goods they wanted. So America, being a neutral country, took advantage of this and imported France's goods. America then exported them to Britain and obtained goods and money.) Foreign governments were not happy with this practice.

John Adams and Josiah Quincy

They defended the British soldiers involved in the Boston Massacre when the soldiers were tried in court. They convinced the jury that the British opened fire because the soldiers believed their lives were in jeopardy. This earned Adams and Quincy respect and a reputation of fairness. Even though they were Sons of Liberty, they believed in the rule of law, and not mob rule.

New England colonial economy

They made money from fishing, shipbuilding, commerce, and lumbering. Towns grew rapidly.

Loyalists (Tories)

They were American people who sided with the British during the American Revolution. They were often called Tories, King's Men, or Royalists. Their adversaries were the Patriots, who fought for American independence. Historians estimate that 15 to 20 percent of colonial America was Loyalist.

Hessians

They were German soldiers for hire purchased by England during the American Revolution. They are called Hessians because 13,000 of the total 30,000 came from Hesse-Kassel (in Germany).

William and Gilbert Tennent

They were Presbyterian clergymen who were leaders in the First Great Awakening along with John Edwards and George Whitefield. They created Log College, which was the precursor to Princeton University.

Paxton Boys

They were a group of Pennsylvania settlers that killed 20 innocent Native Americans, an event known as the Conestoga Massacre. The group formed due to resentment the settlers felt toward Britain for giving the natives the land west of the Appalachians after the British won it in the French and Indian Wars and Pontiac's Rebellion. It was early evidence of colonial anger toward British policies, added to the resentment about the Proclamation Line.

Anti-Federalists

They were a group of people against the Constitution, and opposed a strong central government.

Millerites

They were a group of people who believed that the second coming of Christ would come on October 22, 1843. While waiting, followers sold all their stuff and bought white robes, thinking that they'd now be ready for their assent to Heaven. When the sun came up on October 23rd, many left the group! However, a small number stayed strong with their beliefs and formed a new group, which is still active today, the Seventh Day Adventist faith.

Sons of Liberty

They were a group of people who put themselves in charge of creating moderate protests. They took action by creating pamphlets and circulating petitions, saving mobs as an extreme option. The most famous Sons were Paul Revere, John Hancock, John Adams, Sam Adams, and Patrick Henry. One of the reasons the American Revolution didn't spiral into mass violence (like the French Revolution did) is because this moderate group maintained control of the movement against royal authority.

Donner Party

They were a group of people who travelled on the wagon trail to California, but were forced to spend the winter of 1846-47 in the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Food became scarce, and as sickness and starvation took hold, some made a severe sacrifice to survive - cannibalism. The group got their name because they were trapped near Donner Lake. Some set out on foot in December for help, but help didn't arrive until February. 48 of the 87 made it to California.

Puritans

They were a group of strict Protestants who felt that the Anglican Church had way too many Catholic practices as part of its services. So, they wanted to get rid of all of the Catholic practices in the Anglican Church. This caused them to be persecuted, and many of them came to the New World to freely practice their religion. They founded the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630 and hypocritically did not tolerate religious dissent.

Overland Trails

They were a series of trails starting at the Missouri River and ending in the West. The trails were dangerous and tedious. The trip from Missouri to Oregon took about 7 months! The Oregon, California and Mormon trails all followed the Platte River into Wyoming, before splitting. The much harsher Sante Fé Trail stretched 900 miles southwest across the Great Plains. All of the trails crossed Indian Territory.

Mandan Indians

They were a tribe in northern Missouri. During the winter of 1804, they helped Lewis and Clark. The two sides formed an alliance, and during the winter the Mandan supplied the expedition with food and supplies. The two sides also did a great deal of trading.

War Hawks

They were a young generation of political leaders who were elected to Congress in 1810. They didn't like that Britain was interfering in American affairs by keeping forts in the Northwest and arming the Indians. Famous War Hawks included future leaders Henry Clay of Kentucky and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina.

"Forty-niners"

They were miners who rushed to California with high hopes of striking it rich. Most were young and unmarried. Almost all forty-niners were unsuccessful, with only a small percent of them finding significant amounts of gold. Most gold was deep in the mountains and could not be reached by these independent miners. Many were ashamed to come home with little earnings, and ended up remaining in California. As a result, California's population exploded. For example, in 1846, San Francisco had 200 residents. By 1852, it had 36,000!

Forty-Eighters

They were people who moved to the United States from Germany, Hungary, and Bohemia following revolutions in Europe in 1848. These revolutions were for human rights and more democratic governments. They are significant to American history because many of the revolutionaries, disappointed due to failure, emigrated to America, accounting for many of our German immigrants during that time period. They tended to oppose slavery and be pro-immigration, and many of them fought for the Union in the Civil War. Germans brought the Christmas tree, lager, hot dogs, hamburgers, and kindergartens (among many other cultural items) to the U.S.

Virginia and Kentucky Resolves

They were political statements written by Jefferson and Madison in 1798 and published anonymously. These statements declared that Virginia and Kentucky did not have to follow federal law because they disagreed with the Alien and Sedition Acts. The Resolves declared that a state would have the right to nullify (cancel) any federal law with which it disagreed. Later on in the 19th century, people who wanted the South to break away from the Union cited them as intellectual justification for their right to do so.

Naturalization Act

This Act lengthened the amount of time required for foreigners to become citizens of the U.S. from five years to fourteen years. Franco-Americans, for example, had to wait longer before they could become citizens and vote. This hurt the Democratic-Republicans, who had been pro-France during much of the 1790s.

Chinese Exclusion Act

This Act was a United States federal law that was passed on May 6, 1882. It followed revisions made in 1880 to the Burlingame Treaty (1868.) The Burlingame Treaty was a treaty of friendship with China, and encouraged Chinese people to emigrate to America. These revisions allowed the U.S. to suspend immigration from China. It also excluded all Chinese laborers from the United States for 10 years. Amendments made in 1884 made it more difficult for previous immigrants to leave the US and return. It also clarified that the law applied to ethnic Chinese regardless of their country of origin. In other words, even if a person was born in England, but had Chinese heritage, he was not allowed to enter the US!

Fort Necessity

This British fort was built after the English, led by George Washington, asked France to vacate the Ohio Valley. The French refused to leave, and then attacked the fort, which was little more than a pile of logs. The Battle of Fort Necessity took place on July 3, 1754. George Washington was forced to surrender the fort. It was also the only time Washington ever surrendered.

Democratic-Republican Party

This Party believed in States' rights with a weaker central government and a strict interpretation of the Constitution. They were usually Pro-French. This party was also pro-agriculture. They were led by Jefferson and Madison.

Federalist Party

This Party believed in a strong central government and a loose interpretation of the Constitution. Generally, they were Pro-British. They were also pro-manufacturing and banking. They wanted to increase tariffs to promote manufacturing. They were led by Hamilton and Adams.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

This Supreme Court case declared that segregation was fine, as long as the accommodations were equal. This standard is known as the "Separate But Equal Doctrine." Until the Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954, segregation was legal in America as a result of this infamous decision. Needless to say, the facilities of blacks and whites were not equal during this time, no matter what the Supreme Court thought.

Homestead Act (1862)

This act gave 160 acres to anyone who had never taken up arms against the US, including free blacks, who planned to live on the land for five years and improve the land by building a home on it. They also had to agree to cultivate the land. Once they had done these things, they received title to the land. The new Republican Party after 1854 demanded that the new lands opening up in the west be available to independent farmers and not be bought out by rich slave owners who would buy up the best land and work it with slaves, forcing the white farmers onto marginal lands. The South, who didn't want European immigrants and poor whites to settle in the West, had consistently defeated homestead laws in the 1850s. Once the South seceded, the law passed.

Alien Act

This act gave the President the power to order the imprisonment or deportation of anyone suspected to be an alien enemy during wartime.

Sedition Act

This act imposed heavy fines and imprisonment for anyone caught writing, publishing, or speaking anything about the government or any of the officers that was false or negative. Sadly, this was passed only 7 years after the Bill of Rights was adopted! The act targeted the newspapers of the Democratic-Republicans, and several editors went to jail for publishing articles critical of the government.

Bland-Allison Act (1878)

This act was a result of pressure by Silverites to bring back silver coinage. Though major banking interests pressured President Hayes to veto the bill, Congress overrode the veto. The act forced the U.S. Treasury to buy at least $2 million in silver per month at about double silver's market value. In addition, the value of silver would be artificially maintained at 16:1 to gold (one ounce of gold equaled the value of 16 ounces of silver). This caused inflation because so much money was now in circulation. Needless to say, creditors were not happy!

Judiciary Act of 1801

This act was passed because of an insufficient number of judges in the circuit courts. The distance the judges had to travel was very far, so President Adams signed this act on the final night of his presidency to ease the pressure on each judge. He hired more judges and created more circuits, lessening the travel of the judges. Or at least that was the excuse used by the Federalists. The other reason for hiring the judges was to guarantee that Federalists would control the judicial branch of government for a really long time, and therefore be able to guard against the power of the newly-elected Democratic-Republicans. Judges serve for life. Democratic-Republicans were angered by this act because they had just won the election, and they felt they should get to appoint the judges, not the party who had just been voted out of power.

Gold Standard Act of 1900

This act was passed during the McKinley administration. It established the gold standard and ended bimetallism. Silver coins continued to be minted, but all paper money was backed by gold alone. So, in the end, the miners and farmers lost and the rich bankers won - what a surprise!

New England Emigrant Aid Society

This antislavery group sent approximately 2,000 people to Kansas to help make Kansas a free state since it would be chosen by popular sovereignty. They also wanted to make a profit. The South was mad because they thought Kansas was to become a slave state while Nebraska was to become a free state. Therefore, slave owners took their slaves to Kansas. This led to confrontation between abolitionists and "border ruffians."

Actual Representation

This argued that Parliament couldn't impose taxes on the colonies if colonists were not allowed to elect their own representatives to sit in Parliament. So, actual representation is actually having Americans physically present in London making decisions. Colonists obviously believed that this was the correct approach to representation.

Marbury v. Madison (1803), doctrine of judicial review

This case came up because William Marbury had been made a Midnight Judge. When he tried to take his position, he was blocked by Madison, because Madison hadn't received his paperwork. The system of sending it through a courier was dysfunctional and this problem often occurred. The case gave the Supreme Court the power known as the doctrine of judicial review, which gave them final say on any case that they looked into. According to the doctrine of judicial review, the Court had the power to strike down any law as unconstitutional if it conflicted with the Constitution. It made the court as powerful as the President and Congress.

Munn v. Illinois (1877)

This case upheld the right of states to regulate commerce within the borders of their own state. The Court decided that a Granger Law that regulated grain elevator rates in Illinois was constitutional. The Court held that private property could be regulated by the government when needed for the public good. Munn claimed that his 14th Amendment due process right to property was being violated, but the Court said that the 14th Amendment did not prevent Illinois from regulating charges for use of a business' grain elevators. The decision focused on the question of whether or not a private company could be regulated in the public interest. The Court's decision was that it could, if the private company could be seen as a utility operating in the public interest. The implications of this decision are huge! This gave the government the power to tell private business owners what they can and cannot do. Needless to say, this didn't please conservatives!

Gibbons vs. Ogden (1824)

This case was a landmark decision in which the Supreme Court of the United States held that the power to regulate interstate commerce was granted to Congress by the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution. In other words, if trade took place between States, then it was the job of the federal government to regulate that trade.

Wabash v. Illinois (1886)

This case, also known as the Wabash Case, struck down the Granger Laws as unconstitutional because they affected interstate trade, which is regulated by Congress. Therefore, states no longer had the right to regulate the railroads; that power was held by the federal government. This was a big victory for conservatives, as farmers' groups were less able to exert influence over the federal government's laws. The case did lead to the Interstate Commerce Act, however.

Slave-Trade Compromise

This compromise states that after 20 years Congress could outlaw the international slave trade, which they did in 1808. Of course, slave owners were still able to get slaves through natural increase; they just couldn't buy them from other countries legally.

The First Cabinet (State, Treasury, War, Attorney General)

This consisted of Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State, Alexander Hamilton to run the Treasury, Henry Knox as Head of the War Department, and Edmund Randolph as Attorney General. Those four men made up the entire Cabinet; today, it is 15 people.

Commerce Compromise

This created tariffs (taxes on imported goods) on imported agricultural and manufactured goods. The idea was to be able to create revenue for the new government. It outlawed taxes on exports.

Election of 1800

This election was a rematch of the 1796 election - John Adams versus Thomas Jefferson. The campaign was incredibly personal. Jefferson was attacked for being an atheist (he wasn't), a French radical (he wasn't), and an adulterer (he was!). After the Federalist Party was split by the Quasi-War and Fries' Rebellion, Jefferson and Burr tied because all of the Democratic-Republican electors voted for both of them (back then, electors cast two votes each, but the ballots didn't specify one for President and one for Vice President). The election went to the House of Representatives, as required by the Constitution. While the debate raged, Alexander Hamilton spoke out in favor of Jefferson (ironically) because of his hatred for Burr. Burr eventually got his revenge!

Tejano

This is a term used to describe the Mexicans living in Texas territory (although, technically, everyone living there was Mexican!). Their communities were made up of three main parts; rich cattle farmers called rancheros, cowboys known as vaqueros and poor tenant farmers called peónes.

Plains of Abraham

This is an area in what is now Battlefields Park in Quebec City. Originally, it was land for grazing, owned by a farmer named Abraham, but became the site of the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. After a three-month siege of Quebec by British forces, an hour-long fight decided the battle in favor of Britain. Both commanding generals, Wolfe and Montcalm, were killed. The British then took control of Quebec.

Tenant Farmer

This is someone who lives on another person's farm and helps with the crops. The farmer pays a small fee to live on the land, but gets to keep a certain amount of the crop he harvests. Many freed slaves and poor white people ended up as tenant farmers.

Gunboat diplomacy

This is the use of militaristic intimidation to get the upper hand in a trade agreement. It is the threat of warfare if certain terms of an agreement are not met by the weaker civilization. Japan, for example, was threatened to open up their closed society to American trade...or else!

Vertical integration

This is when a corporation controls all aspects of production from the bottom to the top. For example, Vanderbilt owned the forests needed to make railroad ties, the iron mines for iron ore, the smelter used to turn the iron ore into steel, the rolling plants to turn the steel into rails, the rails themselves, and the locomotives. This sort of monopoly allows the corporation to produce their product more cheaply than anyone else because they do not have to pay other companies for their materials.

Horizontal integration

This is when a corporation owns all or nearly all of the same type of industry. For example, Rockefeller controlled 90% of all of the oil refining facilities in the US. Another example, until Target arrived on the scene, Walmart had successfully squeezed out nearly all other department stores, driving Kmart and Sears into near-bankruptcy. The goal of horizontal integration is to drive all competitors out of business, then raise prices and/or lower the quality of the products (to make more profit).

Creole Incident

This occurred when slaves revolted on the Creole, an American coastal slave trading ship. While on a trip to New Orleans in 1841, 19 of the slaves on board revolted and took control of the ship. They then set course for Nassau, Bahamas. When they arrived, at the request of an American consul, the British governor posted a guard on their ship, trapping the mutineers. After trial, the 19 were imprisoned (17 of whom were set free later on). However, the British government freed the rest of the slaves, ignoring the property claim by the U.S. This event caused even more tension between the British and the Americans.

Declaration and Resolves

This outlined colonial objections to the Intolerable Acts, listed a colonial bill of rights, and provided a detailed list of grievances.

Constitutional Union Party

This party developed out of the fear that the Republicans and Democrats had become sectional, not national, parties, and that the Union was in danger. They nominated John Bell of TN as their candidate. Their slogan was "The Union, the Constitution, and the enforcement of the laws." Not exactly the most catchy slogan! The party was made up of mostly former Whigs and Know-Nothings.

"Not worth a Continental"

This phrase refers to the Continental Currency issued in the colonies during the Revolutionary War. It was replaced by the US Dollar in 1785, when the Continental Congress adopted the dollar as the unit for national currency. At that time, private bank-note companies printed a variety of notes. Because America had virtually no gold to support the value of the money and because they printed too many Continentals, inflation set in, and the Continental dollar fell in value and became worth very little. Hence the expression, "Not worth a Continental!"

"These United States"

This phrase refers to the idea that Americans thought of themselves as a union of semi-independent states, instead of one nation. Under the Articles, the US was a confederation of loosely-allied states who formed a bond of friendship, but not much more. The national government was very weak, intentionally. They believed that a strong central government would take the liberties they just won from Britain away.

Rio Grande or Nueces?

This question refers to the boundary between the Republic of Texas and Mexico. Texans believed the boundary was the Rio Grande River while Mexicans said the Nueces River (north of the Rio Grande) was the boundary. This dispute eventually led to the Mexican War in 1846.

Leisler's Rebellion

This rebellion occurred in New York City from 1688-1691. Jacob Leisler and his followers forced Governor Nicholson out of power. They then set up a government based on direct popular representation. Of course, this upset the wealthy aristocrats, and Leisler was removed by the British military, hanged and beheaded.

Midnight judges

This refers to the three judges appointed, and hired at midnight, in the final minutes of Adams' presidency. They were hired as part of the Judiciary Act of 1801. As soon as he took office, Jefferson set to work to stop the judges from taking their seats, and he worked to get rid of the Judiciary Act of 1801. Congress quickly complied and repealed the act.

Middle Passage

This refers to the voyage of slaves from Africa to America. European powers, aided by locals, captured the slaves, and Caribbean traders received the slaves in exchange for goods from the Americas. During the passage, about 15% of the slaves died; about 1 million died in all. Slaves were fed one meal per day, were shackled together, and stacked like wood in very cramped confines. The Middle Passage was part of the Triangular Trade.

Great Sioux War

This resulted from the disruption of the buffalo by the whites' use of the Bozeman Trail. Red Cloud, Chief of the Oglala Sioux, fought the US Army well enough to capture their forts and destroy them.

Crop Lien System

This system developed because there was a chronic shortage of money. It allowed farmers to receive food, supplies, seeds and more on loan (credit) and pay it back after their crop was harvested and sold. This meant that there was a lien against the crop. The credit that was received was based on the value of the crop. Problems with the system were there could be mistakes in valuing the crop, a bad crop year which meant being in debt longer and merchants often could control the prices of the supplies and the debt. As a result, many Southern farmers were constantly in debt and in danger of foreclosure.

Long Lots

This system was widely used by the French colonists in Canada and along the Mississippi River. Since rivers were the main transportation routes, French settlers all wanted to have access to the shoreline. As a result, the people's lands were divided into lots, giving as many people access to the river as possible. Each long lot was a narrow strip usually about 350 to 600 ft. wide that extended ten times that far back from the shoreline. It gave French settlers access to rich farmland along the river, as well as to transportation.

"Holy experiment"

This term is used to describe the Quaker settlement of Pennsylvania. Quakers felt that they could show the world how well they could function if they lived without persecution.

The Old Planter Elite

This term refers to the 2.5% of Southerners who owned 50 or more slaves. Most of their wealth was inherited, though many added on to the bequeathed wealth. This elite group ran Southern politics from colonial times up until the 1820s, when more middle class men were elected into office thanks to the Era of the Common Man. The Old Planter Elite increasingly lost its grip on Southern politics after 1830.

Robber Barons

This term refers to the belief of some people that Carnegie, Rockefeller, Mellon, and others contributed negatively to society by using questionable practices to acquire massive wealth.

Captain of Industry

This term refers to the belief of some people that Morgan, Carnegie, Rockefeller, Swift, and others contributed positively to society via philanthropy, providing more jobs, increased productivity, or expansion of markets.

Convention of 1818

This treaty between the US and Britain established the border between Canada and the US at the 49th parallel from Minnesota to Montana.

Rush-Bagot Treaty

This treaty between the US and Britain was organized by JQ Adams to demilitarize the Great Lakes. In other words, the border between the US and Canada would not be armed.

Treaty of Paris (1763)

This treaty ended the French and Indian War, giving Britain control over all of the Trans-Appalachian Region to the Mississippi River and all of Canada. The French lost everything. Before the end of the war, the French gave their lands west of the Mississippi and Louisiana to Spain rather than allow Britain to take the land.

Treaty of San Ildefonso (1800)

This treaty was a secretive plan in which France handed over a territory, Tuscany, over to the Spanish in exchange for six battleships. Spain then gave France control of Louisiana. This turned out to be huge because it allowed Napoleon (French leader) to sell Louisiana to the US in 1803.

Treaty of Fort Wayne

This treaty, signed in 1809, gave the US control over most of Indiana. The treaty was between the US and many tribes, but not the Shawnee. The Shawnee were angry, leading to Tecumseh's War, including battles at Thames and Tippecanoe.

Seven Years' War

This war lasted for 9 years, starting in 1754 and ending in 1763, with most of the combat over by 1760. The war was the first in history to begin in the colonies and then spread to Europe. It is called the Seven Years' War because it lasted from 1756-1763 in Europe. Over here, it was a war between England and its colonies vs. France and most of the Native American tribes. The war was caused due to a dispute over the border between English colonies and New France. The French had built a chain of forts along their eastern frontier, and a French expedition had buried lead plates along the Allegheny, Ohio, and Monongahela Rivers to claim the territory. The English King, George II, granted 200,000 acres of land to the Ohio Company, with the stipulation that the company send at least 100 families into the region and build a fort. So, both countries tried to lay claim to the same piece of land. This caused a huge war, which England eventually won and drove France out of Canada for good.

Black Hawk War

This war started in 1832 after the 5 civilized tribes were moved west of the Mississippi River. Black Hawk, a Sauk leader, led his tribe onto land in the state of Illinois. The Sauk were part of a group of tribes called the "British Band" and were thought by whites to be violent. Black Hawk crushed the militia at the Battle of Stillman's Run. Black Hawk took his army to Wisconsin and attacked settlers. The US Army defeated the Sauk at the Battle of Wisconsin Heights, forcing them to retreat to west of the Mississippi River.

Ware v. Hylton (1796)

This was a Supreme Court case where a Virginian owed a debt to the British from the Revolution. It was stated in the Treaty of Paris (1783) that British creditors would find no lawful obstruction to getting their payments from Americans who owed them debts. However, under a Virginia law, Hylton did not have to pay the debts. The Supreme Court overruled the Virginia law. This case is significant because, like Chisholm, it placed the power of the federal government above that of the individual states.

Fort Duquesne

This was a fort established by the French in 1754, at the junction of the Allegheny, Ohio, and Monongahela rivers in what is now downtown Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It was important for controlling the Ohio country.

Virginia Company

This was a group of London investors who sent ships to the Chesapeake Bay region, where 104 men built a fort and founded Jamestown. The company went bankrupt fighting the Powhatan Indians.

The Standard Oil Company

This was a large, integrated, oil producing, transporting, refining, and marketing organization. Standard Oil began as an Ohio partnership formed by brothers John D. Rockefeller and William Rockefeller and several others. By either absorbing or destroying their competition in Ohio and then in the Northeast, Standard Oil became a dominant force. When States began passing laws to limit the size of companies, Rockefeller and his partners began to compile their separate companies spread across several states under a single group of trustees. "Anti-trust" laws were passed at the state and federal level to counter monopolies controlling large sections of the nation. Standard Oil was sued by the U.S. Justice Department under the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890. In 1911, the Supreme Court forced Standard Oil to separate into 34 companies, each with its own distinct board of directors. These separate companies formed the core of today's U.S. oil industry.

Staten Island Meeting

This was a meeting between British general William Howe and his brother Admiral Richard Howe and the American leaders John Adams, Ben Franklin, and Edward Rutledge. It was a meeting to try to bring an early end to the American Revolution, and it was held on Staten Island, New York. The meeting was ultimately a failure, as the Americans wanted to be acknowledged as an independent country and the British refused this.

"Father of the Constitution"

This was a nickname given to James Madison because he was the author of the Constitution.

Satanic Mills

This was a nickname given to the early mills because of the horrid working conditions found there. Many women and children were employed in these filthy and unsafe mills.

Continental Army

This was a professionally trained army, unlike the militia. Unlike romantic historical descriptions, it was the Continental Army that won the war, not the militias. They were often ill-equipped, but were generally well-trained.

Gag Rule

This was a rule to stop all talk against slavery in Congress. The gag rule made it so that a Congressman could either stay silent about his antislavery feelings, or he could leave. It was introduced in 1836, and neither major party addressed slavery for years afterwards.

Sutter's Mill

This was a sawmill owned by John Sutter. It was the location of the first gold sighting in California, in January 1848.

Hudson River School

This was a school of landscape painting founded by Thomas Cole, a British landscape painter who moved to America. George Catlin, Albert Bierstadt, and Asher Durand were all members of this school. A major focus of their work was paintings of American landscapes.

Stamp Act (1765)

This was a tax placed by the English Parliament on the colonies. Colonists were required to purchase an official stamp for all newspapers, legal documents, licenses, insurance policies, ship's papers, and even dice and playing cards. The Stamp Act didn't go over well with the colonists, many of whom wanted actual representation in Parliament before paying any taxes. The tax was seen as oppressive and affected a large proportion of society, angering virtually everyone who used paper. The colonists called a Stamp Act Congress to fight to get rid of the tax.

Greenback Labor Party

This was a third party created in 1874. It favored the continuance of paper money (started during the Civil War) to help farmers and other debtors. They also fought for women's suffrage and an 8-hour workday. They were eventually absorbed into the Populist Party of the 1890s.

Irish Potato Famine

This was a time of great starvation in Ireland's history after the potato crop was attacked by a disease called the potato blight. Occurring from 1845-1851, the Irish Potato Famine caused Ireland's population to fall by about 25%. Around 1 million people emigrated to America and about 1 million more starved. The people already in America detested the Irish immigrants, and many storefronts advertising job openings on their windows posted signs - NINA (No Irish Need Apply). The Irish and Free Blacks competed for the lowest level jobs in cities, leading to an intense rivalry between the two groups during the 1850s.

Seneca Falls Convention

This was a woman's rights convention held in the summer of 1848 at Seneca Falls, New York. Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton organized it. They developed a petition called the "Declaration of Sentiments," which was modeled after the Declaration of Independence. In the same way the Declaration of Independence listed the oppressions dealt to Americans by the British, the Declaration of Sentiments listed the oppressions dealt to women by men.

Rendezvous system

This was a yearly trade fair held in the Rocky Mountains. Trappers brought their fur to trade for goods like traps, guns, ammunition, tobacco, beads, fabric and alcohol. These trade fairs were based on traditional Native American trade gatherings. The fairs lasted many days and had trappers of many nationalities gather to trade, drink, and gamble.

Convention of 1800

This was an agreement between the United States and France, where they successfully settled the hostilities that happened during the Quasi-War. The Convention is historically important for two reasons - 1. it allowed the purchase of Louisiana from France in 1803, which would not have happened if we were still at war, and; 2. it split the Federalist Party. Federalist leader Alexander Hamilton wanted to continue the war against France, while President (and Federalist) John Adams negotiated the treaty. This split allowed Democratic-Republican leader Thomas Jefferson to win the presidential election in 1800.

Missouri Compromise

This was an agreement between the pro and anti-slavery supporters in the U.S. Missouri applied for statehood as a slave state, and this would create one more slave states than there were free states. The compromise decreed that no one could own slaves north of 36 degrees and 30 minutes North latitude - the southern border of Missouri, except Missouri). This agreement made Missouri a slave state and Maine a free state, and made it so no future state north of the Missouri Compromise Line could be a slave state.

Franco-American Alliance of 1778

This was an alliance between France and the United States that began during the American Revolution. France became convinced that Americans stood a chance at gaining their independence when Americans beat the British at the Battle of Saratoga, so they helped the US. The alliance greatly aided the American cause and lasted into the 1790s. Though the French helped the US during our revolution, Washington's Cabinet avoided aiding France in their war against the British in the 1790s because they wanted to remain neutral. As you can imagine, this felt like betrayal to the French people. But, Washington believed we were too weak to get involved in a major European war, and he was probably right.

Shays' Rebellion (1786)

This was an armed uprising in central and western Massachusetts, led by Daniel Shays, a farmer and war veteran. Economic conditions in the young United States under the Articles of Confederation were awful. County courts had been foreclosing upon farmers' property, so Shays and his men decided to take over the courts. Since the Articles of Confederation were so weak, the US Army was not sent to put the rebellion down (not enough money to pay the soldiers). Instead, the Massachusetts militia was called into action, and took nearly a year to put the revolt down. This rebellion is extremely important because it convinced many that the Articles of Confederation were too weak and needed to be fixed.

Boston Massacre

This was an incident in March 1770 where colonists mocked British soldiers. They threw snowballs and stones at the soldiers and called them names like "Bloodyback" and "Lobsterback." The soldiers opened fire! They killed 5 and wounded a few more. The first one to die was Crispus Attucks, ironically a half-Native, half-black man (ironic because the first man to die in our war for freedom was a member of an oppressed minority). Paul Revere used this incident for propaganda.

Three-Fifths Compromise

This was created because the South didn't have as many white, land-owning males as the North, but did have plenty of slaves. They wanted to count the slaves as population so they could have more say in the House of Representatives (the number of members in the House was determined by population). The North didn't want this because it would cause the South to have more power. The compromise decided that for every five slaves, the state's population increased by three. Embarrassingly, this is written in the Constitution.

Lecompton Constitution

This was created by the proslavery forces when Kansas was ready to apply for statehood. It stated that the people could not vote for or against the constitution altogether but for or against slavery. If they voted against it, the constitution would still protect the slave owners who were already in Kansas. Therefore, there would be some kind of slavery in Kansas no matter what. Free-soilers boycotted voting and the slaveryites (pro-slave people) approved slavery in Kansas in 1857. After a fight in Washington, they decided to vote on the entire constitution. The free-soilers flocked to the polls and Kansas became a free state in 1861.

Manifest Destiny

This was the American belief, in the 19th century, that the U.S. was destined to spread across the North American continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. Democrats used this idea in the 1840s to justify the war with Mexico, and Americans rationalized their mistreatment and removal of the Native Americans by saying that it was ordained by God for the white man to take all the land between the Atlantic and Pacific!

Manumission

This was the act by an owner to free his slaves, often occurring upon the death of the owner. This was rare, but could be caused by a slave who devoted years of service, or sexual encounters that would lead to feelings. It also was (rarely) caused by feelings that slavery was wrong, though this was why George Washington freed all of his slaves upon the death of his wife, Martha.

Tariff Act of 1833

This was the compromise by Henry Clay that ended the Nullification Crisis. This act pledged a return to the tariff rate of 1816 by 1842 through a series of very small annual decreases for nine years, followed by a large cut in the final year. (The cut was so large that in 1842 Congress voted to return to higher tariffs). The compromise ended the Nullification Crisis and kept South Carolina from seceding...for now!

Crittenden Compromise

This was the last-ditch attempt to prevent a civil war. Senator Crittenden of Kentucky proposed making several amendments to the Constitution in order to make peace between North and South. The compromise would have prohibited slavery north of 36/30 (except Missouri), but give federal protection to slavery in the South. Future states above or below the line would use popular sovereignty to decide whether they wanted to be slave or not. Lincoln rejected the compromise, as he opposed extension of slavery into the territories.

Willamette Valley

This was the spot where many of the former fur trappers and their Native wives and families chose to live when they moved to Oregon. The US government made a concerted effort to settle the disputed region, advertising it as a "Garden of Eden." By 1845, Oregon was home to 5,000 American settlers, most of whom lived in the Willamette Valley.

Uncle Tom's Cabin

This was written by Harriet Beecher Stowe about the cruelty of slavery and the splitting of families. She was upset about the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 and wanted to get the word across to the North. The book was a great success and sold millions. There was even a show performed about it. This gave more political force than any other book because it showed slavery almost as cruel as it really was for the slaves. It helped to start and win the Civil War for the North. The reason for this is because it influenced many to not follow the Fugitive Slave Law and also influenced those who fought in the Civil War. The book spread to the European countries of England and France. Their governments thought about helping the South in the war but did not because they felt their citizens would not support them once they read the book.

Popular sovereignty

This, proposed by Lewis Cass, was that the people living in a territory would vote on whether or not they wanted their state to be a free or slave state, rather than just drawing a line like the Missouri Compromise line. Remember, the Missouri Compromise line applied to the Louisiana Purchase, not to the Mexican Cession. The downfall of this system was that people from other states could move into that territory and cast their vote. Once it was put into place by the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854, this resulted in radical abolitionists living near radically pro-slavery supporters, leading to bloodshed.

Yeoman Farmer

Thomas Jefferson was the first to suggest that an agrarian republic made up of yeoman farmers was essential for a democracy. "Yeoman" refers to a farmer who works his own land. Most yeomen did not own slaves, and grew only enough food to provide for their families. Yeomen communities were mostly in the upper South, where the land was less fertile, and therefore less suitable for big plantations. These farmers were accustomed to being independent and were generally against industrialization and commercialism.

Jefferson's Inauguration (1801)

Thomas Jefferson's Inauguration as the third president of the United States was important because it marked the peaceful transition of two political parties. Those parties were the Federalists, and their hated rivals, the Democratic Republicans. His presidency demonstrated that national policy could be changed without dictatorship or revolt. Unlike Washington and Adams who rode in horse-drawn carriages with liverymen, Jefferson walked down Pennsylvania Avenue like a regular person.

1876 Election

Tilden, Democrat, vs. Hayes, Republican. In the election, Tilden got the most popular votes and 184 electoral votes. Hayes had 165 electoral votes. However, 20 disputed electoral votes were still out there to be decided from Florida, Louisiana, South Carolina, and Oregon. The dispute came when both sets of electors - Democrats and Republicans - tried to submit their votes.

Compromise of 1877

To resolve the crisis, the Republicans and Democrats compromised. The Republicans were given the presidency- Hayes "wins." In return, the Democrats get- Hayes had to agree to appoint at least some Democrats to his cabinet, and military reconstruction in the South ended-all US soldiers were withdrawn. This compromise is very important because it ended Reconstruction in the South, and blacks lost their rights for another 80+ years.

Triangular Trade

Trade points that included Europe, Western Africa, and America. Each place traded valuable commodities. Europe sent manufactured goods such as alcohol, cloth, metalware and household articles. Africa sent slaves. America sent raw materials such as furs, lumber, fish, grain, tobacco, rice, indigo, silver, sugar, coffee, cocoa and gold.

Money wage and share wage

Under both the money wage and share wage systems, planters contracted former slaves to work in large gangs. They would get paid in cash (money wage) or with a share of the crop that the workers divided among themselves (share wage). The people didn't like this. They wanted an alternative. They wanted to establish independent homesteads.

1873 Coinage Act

Under pressure from creditors, Congress passed this act to eliminate the use of silver for coinage (demonetization of silver). This greatly upset western silver miners and those who wanted bimetallism (the use of both gold and silver for coins). This fight between supporters of gold, called Gold Bugs, and supporters of "free silver" (bimetallism), called Silverites, was a major campaign issue in every election for the rest of the century. Pressure from the Silverites led to several acts by Congress to bring silver back. These folks referred to the 1873 Coinage Act as the "Crime of 1873," and swore to bring back the "Dollar of Our Daddies," the silver dollar. By the way, this was the act that resulted in the elimination of the Two-Cent, Three-Cent, and Half-Dime coins.

George McClellan

Union commander of the Army of the Potomac who failed to take Richmond during the Peninsular campaign. He was known as "Tardy George" because of his extreme caution. He is also known for the Battle of Antietam, where he is criticized by historians for once again failing to take initiative and crush the rebels.

New York constitution (1777)

Unlike Maryland and Pennsylvania, this state adopted a constitution requiring *substantial property ownership for voting*. More than half the men in the state were disenfranchised (denied the right to vote). It also had a very *strong executive and a weak legislature*. So, this is an example of a very limited republic.

Promontory Point

Utah. This was the point where both railroads (Union Pacific and Central Pacific) came to the same point. The president of the railroad company, Leland Stanford, went to the point and drove in the golden spike to complete the transcontinental railroad. He swung and missed the first time!

"Van Ruin" (and the government response to the Panic)

Van Buren didn't really do anything in response to the Panic. He dawdled while the economy spiraled downward. That's when people named him "Van Ruin," because they blamed him for the failing economy. The most he did was promote low tariffs, which made the South happy, but he still lost the support of the people because of his lack of any attempt to help end the Panic or aid suffering people in any way. The Democratic Party of the 1830s did not feel that it was the proper role of government to help suffering people.

Johnson's Vetoes

Vetoed 2 bills that were designed to help African-Americans. The 1st was the landmark civil rights bill, which bestowed upon blacks full citizenship. The 2nd was the Freedmen's Bureau. He criticized the idea that the government could protect the rights of Af-Am. He said that it was a strive towards centralization and the concentration of all legislative powers in the national government. He also argued that Congress lacked jurisdiction over the 11 unrepresented states. Johnson went too far attacking the Radicals and said that they were traitors unwilling to restore the Union. United Moderate and Radical Republicans succeeded in overriding his vetoes. Congressional Republicans, led by the Radicals, were now unified in challenging the President's power to direct Reconstruction and in using national authority to define and protect the rights of citizens. He felt that it was his job to run Reconstruction.

Walt Whitman

Walt Whitman was a newspaper author, and published "dime novels." He was also an activist and a poet, publishing Leaves of Grass. It was a collection of 400 poems written over 35 years and inspired by the transcendentalists.

Sod-busters

West of the Mississippi, the sod was so thick that it broke the cast iron plows used in the East. So, people were forced to break the sod with a team of oxen, which was difficult work since the sod was sometimes a foot thick. This practice faded because of the introduction of John Deere's plow.

Westward expansion, effect on suffrage

When all the new states during the 1810s and 1820s were being set up, they extended the right to vote to all white men over the age of 21. This caused the older states to follow their example, and many of the original states extended the right to vote to all white men. The amount of men who could vote tripled during the 1820s.

Limited Liability

When businesses grew too large for individual ownership, multiple people invested in corporations. These investors wanted protection from being sued. This protection is called "limited liability," which allows investors to lose only the amount of money that they've invested into the company and no more. In other words, an individual investor cannot be sued for millions when someone sues the corporation. This is important because without this reassurance of protection, the economy wouldn't have grown as quickly.

Free Soil Party

When many Northerners realized that the Liberty Party's views were extreme, and the South would secede from the Union before accepting them, the Free Soil Party was formed. They believed in allowing slavery to continue in the South; however, not because they viewed it as moral, it was because they wished to preserve the Union. Although they supported sustaining slavery in existing states, they wanted all states and territories coming into the Union to be free. Unfortunately, when many free-soilers said "anti-slavery," they really meant "anti-black." Many of them wanted no blacks at all in the new territories and states, not just slaves. They ran Martin Van Buren in the election of 1848, but lost.

Whig beliefs and support

Whigs were in favor of the American System. Their support was mostly made up of urban bankers and businessmen who liked tariffs. They had a lot of support in the North.

Middle Class

While the English colonies in North America had their very poor and their very rich, they had one thing that other European colonies didn't have, this. The __________ in the colonies was mainly comprised of landowning farmers or tradesmen such as artisans, craftsmen, and small shopkeepers.

Declaratory Act

While the colonists were celebrating the repeal of the Stamp Act, Parliament passed this act. It reaffirmed the right of the Parliament to create and enforce laws that bound the colonies. The colonists didn't pay much attention to this act because they were still partying like it was 1799 after the repeal of the Stamp Act!

Puritan Women

Women had fewer rights than men. Women's jobs were housework, milking and getting eggs. Many women had multiple children because no birth control existed, and because help was needed on the farm. Adultery was the worst crime anyone could commit, but the punishment of the women who committed adultery was much more severe because it was obviously their fault for leading the men astray.

Essay on the Principle of Population

Written by *Thomas Malthus*, this was a very pessimistic and influential essay warning about population explosion. Malthus predicted that the British population would soon deplete the country's food supply. Malthus warned that if the population wasn't checked, then it would spread throughout Europe and even America. Jefferson used the threat that Malthus discussed as a way to emphasize the importance of remaining agricultural (can't starve if everyone's farming!) and (very importantly) to stress the importance of expanding the country westward.

Declaration of the Causes and Necessities of Taking Up Arms

Written by Jefferson and Dickinson, it was approved the day after the Olive Branch Petition was sent. The Declaration describes what colonists viewed as the unconstitutional effort of the British Parliament to extend its jurisdiction into the colonies following the Seven Years' War. Objectionable policies listed in the Declaration include taxation without representation, extended use of vice-admiralty courts, the several Intolerable Acts, and the Declaratory Act.

Olive Branch Petition

Written by John Dickinson, this was sent to the King on July 5, 1775. This petition was a last-minute appeal to the King to try to avoid war, but the King refused to consider it.

Massachusetts Circular Letter

Written by Sam Adams, he argued that the Townshend Acts were unfair because Massachusetts didn't have representation in Parliament. The General Court (the Mass. legislature) sent the letter to all English colonies and received support from many of them. This upset the British so much that they sent their army to occupy Boston.

Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom

Written by Thomas Jefferson, this made it illegal for the government to charge taxes for the building and upkeep of churches. Thomas Jefferson believed that people should not be forced by the government to choose a religion, so the government should not fund religion. This document is credited for erecting a wall of separation between church and state.

Coin's Financial School

Written in 1893, this book was about the Crime of 1873 (see #52). The author argued that demonetization of silver brought about the Panic of 1873. The book sold 1 million copies, and it made free silver and populist movements quite...popular!

Tenskwatawa

a father of twenty and a husband of three, Tenskwatawa was the religious leader of his tribe. Tenskwatawa stayed home when his brother traveled across America to unite the Indian tribes. Tenskwatawa ignored his brother's warnings and was defeated in the Battle of Tippecanoe.

Jay Cooke

a financier from Philadelphia, he worked with Salmon Chase to finance the war. He helped the Treasury use patriotic appeals to sell war bonds to the people.

Panic of 1837

a five-year depression caused by the end of the Second Bank of the United States. After the Specie Circular, banks only accepted silver and gold for land payments to make sure they were getting their worth for the land, since the bank notes were of questionable value. 800 banks were unable to pay off their deposits when people tried to get their money, and went bankrupt. Unemployment was rampant. A group of New Yorkers protested the panic, wielding signs at City Hall. The mob overpowered law officials (see #57). There was no unemployment insurance and there were no bailouts. Some big cities had soup kitchens, but they were paid for by private charities, not the government.

Bureau of Indian Affairs

a government agency that oversaw the movement of Indians onto reservations with clearly defined boundaries. The intent was to "civilize the savages" by teaching them English, making them into farmers, and converting them to Christianity. The Bureau was known for its corruption, and officials routinely diverted funds for the Indians to themselves.

Annapolis Convention

a meeting in 1786 at Annapolis, Maryland. It had 12 delegates from five different states that wanted a constitutional convention. Its only real success was agreeing to another meeting in Philadelphia the following year.

Chesapeake

a sailing frigate belonging to the US Navy, it was one of the six original frigates to be constructed under the Naval Act of 1794. Chesapeake fought in the Quasi-War and a little bit of the First Barbary War. In 1807, the British ship HMS Leopard hailed and requested to search the Chesapeake to look for deserters. The Chesapeake refused and the Leopard opened fire, killing 3 and wounding 18. The Chesapeake was then boarded and 4 sailors were taken off the ship. This action created quite a stir in America, but Jefferson turned to diplomacy instead of war (at first). The event is considered to be one of the major causes of the War of 1812.

Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God

a sermon written by Jonathan Edwards. It was preached in 1741 in Connecticut. It was very emotional, and basically scared people into being religious. It was full of imagery of torture and burning in Hell for non-believers. Effective in the short term in getting people back into the church, but people drifted away again after a few years.

Whiskey Rebellion

a tax protest in Pennsylvania in the 1790s. It began because of the excise (sales) tax on whiskey, which was part of Alexander Hamilton's plan to pay the national debt. It was unpopular because farmers needed to distill their corn to make it to market, otherwise it would go bad. The US Army smashed the rebellion! The crushing of the Whiskey Rebellion by federal soldiers showed that the new government was powerful, and willing to end violent resistance to the laws. This was in stark contrast to the way the Articles of Confederation had dealt with Shays' Rebellion. Some people criticized George Washington for sending 13,000 soldiers to stop a rebellion of farmers, saying he "killed a flea with a sledgehammer."

Carpetbaggers

a term of derision applied to Northerners who went South during Reconstruction, motivated by either profit or idealism (to help the freed slaves). The name referred to the cloth bags many of them used for transporting their possessions. Despite the negative connotation of the name, many carpetbaggers were sincerely interested in aiding the freedom and education of the former slaves.

Cotton is King

a term used by Southern politicians to show the importance of cotton to the economy of the South. They thought of cotton as the most important crop. They felt that the North would be paralyzed without Southern cotton. It really made the South cocky that they could blackmail the North because they felt the North could never do without Southern cotton.

Carib

a tribe of cannibals living on the islands of the eastern Caribbean Sea. The name of the sea comes from the tribe.

National Reclamation Act of 1902 (Newlands Reclamation Act)

added 1 million acres of irrigated land. Though very expensive to taxpayers, the Act helped agribusiness. The Act was devastating for the environment, as millions of gallons of water were diverted from rivers and lakes.

U.S. v. Knight Co. (1895)

also known as U.S. v. E.C. Knight and the "Sugar Trust Case." The E.C. Knight Company had been acquired by the American Sugar Refining Company (ASRC), which now gained control of 98% of the American sugar refining industry. President Grover Cleveland actually used the Sherman Antitrust Act to prevent the acquisition of E.C. Knight by American Sugar. The Court decided that even though the result of the transaction was the creation of a monopoly, it could not be regulated by the act because the ASRC was engaged in manufacturing sugar, not interstate commerce! Therefore, the federal government could not regulate the merger. This case shows the lengths that the courts went to in order to protect industry.

Constitutional Convention

also known as the Philadelphia Convention. It took place from May- September 1787. This meeting was called to fix the Articles of Confederation, but ended up writing an entirely different document, the Constitution. It was called in response to fears that the government under the Articles was too weak to govern the country in the wake of the government's inability to deal with Shays' Rebellion.

Thomas Edison

an American inventor and businessman who developed many devices at his industrial research laboratory at Menlo Park, NJ. He didn't invent the first light bulb, but did invent the first commercially practical incandescent light. Edison had numerous other inventions, including the electric chair, phonograph, and motion pictures.

Syphilis

an STD, it was transmitted by Native Americans to Europeans. It was part of the Great Biological Exchange (Columbian Exchange).

Proclamation of Neutrality

an announcement by George Washington that the United States would be neutral in the wars between France and England (and thereby not honor the Franco-American Alliance).

Emancipation Proclamation

announced to the world on Jan. 1, 1863, it freed all of the slaves! Or, that's what you were taught in elementary school. In fact, it only freed the slaves in the part of the Confederacy that the US did not control at that point of the war, and it freed none of the slaves in the Border States. Of course, it did lead to freeing all of the slaves eventually. The EP is still very important, as it provided a moral reason to fight. "I'm fighting to free the slaves" is a lot better reason to fight than, "I'm fighting for the preservation of the Union!" It also guaranteed that Britain and France, who were thinking of fighting on the side of the Confederacy, would stay out of the fighting, since their people opposed slavery.

The Civil Rights Act of 1875

banished racial discrimination in theaters, hotels, railroads and other public places. It was the last act passed by Congress to try to help the freed slaves. The next civil rights act didn't pass until 1957. This one wasn't very effective because it required that African Americans take their cases to court, which was a lengthy and expensive process that few people could afford. The Supreme Court in the 1883 Civil Rights cases struck down the act.

CSS Alabama

built by Britain for the Confederate States of America, the Alabama destroyed 65 Union vessels and captured millions of dollars of supplies. After the war, the US pursued the "Alabama Claims" against Britain and won heavy damages of over $15 million.

Geronimo

chief of the Apaches after Cochise's death, he led numerous raids against white settlers in Arizona. When he surrendered in 1886, it marked the end of Indian warfare in the Southwest.

Edmunds-Tucker Act

confiscated Mormon Church property and established a federal commission to supervise all elections in Utah Territory. This act led to Mormon leaders agreeing to renounce polygamy, allowing Utah to become a state in 1896.

Hatch Act of 1887

created a series of stations that conducted agricultural experiments, and it spread information about its findings, including the areas of soil minerals and plant growth. These stations were usually connected to a land-grant college.

Wyatt Earp and "Wild Bill" Hickok

famous law enforcement figures of the Wild West.

Joseph Smith

founder of the Mormon religion (Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints). He and his followers were forced to leave New York, then Illinois, then Missouri. Smith was lynched in Missouri.

Homestead Act of 1862

granted a quarter section (160 acres) of land to white settlers for free if they lived on the land and improved it (built a home, for example) for at least five years. Settlers also had the option of buying the land for $1.25 per acre after they had lived on it for only 6 months. The act caused the greatest migration of people in American history, but much of the land went to land speculators, not family farmers.

Joseph Brant

he was a political and military leader of the Mohawks. He had connections with British officials and led Mohawk and colonial Loyalists against the American militia on the New York frontier. After the war, he relocated his people to the safety of Canada.

William Cody

his company, the Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show, reenacted battles of cowboys vs. Indians. He employed Annie Oakley (famous sharpshooter who shot dimes out of midair and cigarettes out of her husband's mouth), Sioux Indians, and cowboys. Cody was a former Pony Express rider, army scout, and buffalo hunter.

Nullification

if a state didn't agree with a law passed by the federal government, then they didn't have to follow it (or so supporters of this believed). This power of a State government had been argued by Madison and Jefferson in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolves. South Carolina attempted to nullify the Tariff of 1832, but soon discovered that Jackson did not agree that a State had the right to nullify a federal law.

Fisk and Gould

in 1869, these two men tried to corner (take control of) the gold market by buying up all of the privately held supply of gold. As they bought more and more gold, the price of gold rose. The two men used their influence with President Grant, through Grant's brother-in-law, to keep the Treasury from selling its gold. Grant's brother-in-law then convinced Grant to hire General Dan Butterfield to be the Assistant Secretary of the Treasury, and Butterfield agreed to tip Fisk and Gould off if the government planned to sell its gold. As long as the Treasury didn't sell, Fisk and Gould could continue to drive up the price of gold. Once the price was high enough, they planned to sell. Once the price had risen 30%, Grant finally figured out what was going on and ordered the Treasury to sell $4 million of its gold supply. This huge amount of gold dumped on the market caused the price of gold to drop dramatically on Sept. 24, 1869 ("Black Friday"). Fisk and Gould had been alerted, so they escaped financial harm, but many investors were ruined. Henry Adams, grandson of JQ Adams, wrote an exposé claiming that Grant had tolerated, encouraged, and perhaps even participated in corruption and swindles.

Cyrus McCormick

invented the reaper, which cut stalks of wheat mechanically. This replaced the old method of cutting the wheat with a scythe (a hand-knife).

Common Sense

is a pamphlet written by Thomas Paine. It was first published anonymously on January 10, 1776, during the American Revolution. Common Sense, signed "Written by an Englishman," became the #1 best selling book other than the Bible of the 18th century. Common Sense gave colonists an argument for independence from British power at a time when support for independence was still uncertain.

Morrill Act of 1862

it is also known as the Morrill Land Grant College Act. The act provided for states to receive 30,000 acres of federal land to support the development of agricultural and mechanical schools. MIT, Cornell, and Texas A&M are all examples of colleges founded because of this act.

Impressment

it is the act of forcing an English-speaking man into the British navy. As many as half of America's sailors in the early 1800s were defectors from the British navy. The American government gave the sailors papers stating that they were American, but the British ignored the papers. Sometimes the British even impressed sailors who were actually American. The British practice of impressment greatly angered Americans and led to the War of 1812.

Rocky Mountain School

landscape painters of the 19th century, they presented the beauty of the West through sketches, paintings, and photographs. The most famous of these artists was Albert Bierstadt.

Chief Joseph

leader of the Nez Perce tribe in Idaho, he attempted to flee from US Army Generals Howard and Sherman to Canada, but was caught near the border after three months of cleverly fighting off the Army. He supposedly said, "Hear me, my chiefs! I am tired, my heart is sick and sad. From where the sun now stands, I will fight no more forever."

National Parks

millions of acres were saved from commercial development and industrial destruction. The first was Yellowstone National Park (1872) in Wyoming. Millions of tourists flocked to the West beginning in the late 19th century.

"Salad Bowl"

or "melting pot" describes how different cultures combined together, especially in the Middle Atlantic colonies (NY, NJ, PA). New York was a salad bowl because it was filled with different religious groups including Baptists, Puritans, Quakers, Catholics, and Jewish peoples who all held on to their distinctions, and different ethnic groups from across Europe. It is a better term than melting pot, because melting pot means that all immigrants assimilate and become indistinguishable from other inhabitants.

Dawes Severalty Act of 1887

passed due to the efforts of the WNIA and the Indian Rights Association, this gave the President the power to give 160 acres of land to Indians who had severed all ties with their tribes. Those Indians could then petition to become a citizen. The act successfully took land away from the tribes, but mostly failed in the larger goal of wiping out Indian culture, language, and customs.

Bonanza kings

people who owned large mining operations in California during the gold rush.

Dime novels

popular Western novels of the 1860s and later that romanticized the lives of the cowboys.

Congregationalists

self-governing Puritans. The Puritan church was changed to the C________________ church.

Helldorados

short-lived boomtowns characterized by the lack of law and order and the saloon. These were romanticized in later periods as the model of the "Wild West." They were called "Helldorados" because of the dangerous conditions in the mines, where 1 in 80 men died and 1 in 30 disabled, but the survivors lived well.

Tyranny of the majority

some of the wealthy founders were very concerned that the ignorant masses of people (i.e. us!), if they gained power, would take their property away. These people opposed allowing regular people the right to vote, and they ended up getting their way, since the only people who were allowed to vote in national elections at the beginning of the country were white males who owned property. Some individual states did allow more freedom, however.

Virginia Dare

the 1st English baby born in America, she was born at Roanoke.

Vasco Nunez de Balboa

the 1st European to discover the Pacific Ocean, which he called the "South Sea." He crossed the Isthmus of Panama to discover it.

Francisco Coronado

the 2nd attempt to find the 7 Cities of Cibola, Coronado's expedition began in 1540. He explored much of the American Southwest, discovered the Pueblo Indians, but returned without gold. Due to this failure, Spain lost all interest in the Southwest for the next 50 years.

Copperheads

the Democratic Party in the North split into two groups - the War Democrats and the Peace Democrats. Peace Democrats opposed the war and the most radical of them, who actively worked against Lincoln, were nicknamed "Copperheads."

Union Pacific and Central Pacific Railroads

the UP and CP, established during the Civil War, completed the first transcontinental railroad in 1869. The UP laid track west from Omaha and the CP laid track east from California. The tracks met at Promontory Point, Utah.

Caminetti Act

the first act that gave a state (California) the power to regulate the mining industry. It was passed in the wake of massive environmental damage done by mining companies.

First Continental Congress (1774)

the first meeting of 12 of the 13 colonies was held in Philadelphia on September 5, 1774. It was Ben Franklin's idea to call it. Franklin didn't get much support until after the Intolerable Acts closed the port of Boston. The FCC had a few accomplishments, including calling for a boycott of British goods, called the Continental Association, and publishing a list of complaints to be addressed to King George III.

Ohio Idea

the idea supported by farmers and other debtors that supported paying back war bonds in greenbacks. They wanted this for two reasons: 1. It would keep a lot of money in circulation, thereby keeping interest rates low (they borrowed a lot of money), 2. They opposed the eastern bankers and other rich people who wanted the bonds paid back in gold. Rich people had purchased the war bonds during the Civil War with inflated paper money, but now wanted to get paid back in gold. Democrats initially supported the Ohio Idea in 1868, especially in the Midwest, but their leaders gave up on it. The fight between hard money and soft money lasted for the rest of the century, with the hard money people consistently winning.

Klondike

the name given to the gold rush in Alaska in the late 1890s.

Gettysburg

the second, and last, battle to take place in the North. It occurred at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania in July 1863 over three days. This battle is called the "High Tide of the Confederacy" because a victory here would have potentially resulted in Lee's capture of Washington D.C. Instead, the South made a huge mistake by attempting a full-frontal assault across a wide-open field on a fortified ridge. This assault is known as Pickett's Charge, and ended in slaughter.

Conscription Act of 1863

the year after the Confederacy instituted the draft, the Union did the same. All men between 20 and 45 had to sign up for the draft. Rich people could get out of the draft by hiring substitutes to fight in their place or buy outright exemption for $300. The draft was very unpopular, especially in NY City, where riots broke out. The draft office was burned, railroad ties ripped out of the ground, and telegraph lines destroyed. Mobs attacked anyone who appeared rich, calling them "$300 men." Over 100 people died before the riots were finally put down by 5 regiments of the Union Army!

Committees of Observation and Safety

these committees were established throughout colonial America at the start of the American Revolution. They were a way to discuss the concerns of the time, and often included all the male adults in the community.

Morrill Act of 1862

this act established "land-grant" colleges (colleges which received a grant of free land for their school in return for them agreeing to teach courses in agriculture).

Indian Reorganization Act (1934)

this act reversed the Dawes Act. It stated that Indian culture would be preserved and returned some lands to tribal ownership.

The "big house"

this is a term referring to the huge home in which a plantation owner lived. Because plantations were huge, the South built few towns, and therefore fell behind the North in commerce and education.

USS Bonhomme Richard

this is the name of a warship used by the Continental Navy, built in France. It was then placed under command of the American John Paul Jones. It was involved in a battle against (a British ship) the HMS Serapis. During this battle, it was heavily damaged, yet gained victory over the British. However, it sank 36 hours after the battle! Jones uttered the famous phrase, "I have not yet begun to fight!" during the battle. It was one of the very few naval victories by America during the Revolution.

Backcountry

this refers to the western frontier of the colonies. Until the US won its independence in 1783, the frontier was the Appalachian Mountains.

Valley Forge

this was the camp for the Patriots during the winter of 1777-1778. The soldiers didn't have enough clothing or food, and hundreds of horses starved to death. The soldiers also lived in crowded, hastily-built huts that provided little protection from cold. Conditions were damp, and disease spread. This was the low point of the Revolution for the Americans.

Edmunds Act

those who practiced polygamy or believed in polygamy were stripped of their right to vote and threatened with fines and imprisonment.

Crazy Horse

war leader of the Oglala Sioux during the 1860s and 1870s. He became famous as a result of the Fetterman Massacre in Wyoming in 1866, where 80 US infantry and cavalry were lured into a trap and massacred - the worst Army defeat on the Great Plains to that time. He was also a major participant in the Battle of Little Bighorn. He died in 1877 after being bayoneted by a guard.

Tecumseh

was a leader of the Indian tribe called the Shawnees. He grew up in Ohio and constantly saw war. His brother was Tenskwatawa. Tecumseh is known for confronting General William Henry Harrison about repealing land purchase treaties. He is also known for traveling across America to unite the tribes against fighting. Before he left, he warned his brother to avoid violence. This warning was ignored. The Battle of Tippecanoe was the cause of his brother's death and mass destruction for the Shawnees. It made Harrison famous, and he ended up becoming President in 1841.

William Henry Harrison

was a military official, politician, and the first president to die in office (in 1841). Before his presidency, Harrison fought in the Battle of Thames and the Battle of Tippecanoe. So, like Andrew Jackson who also became President later on, Harrison gained fame for slaughtering Indians.

Pierre L'Enfant

was an French officer during the Revolution. The French architect was put in charge of designing Washington D.C.

Segregation

was the norm in the south despite Republican efforts to pass laws for the better of blacks in the south. Public and private facilities were divided between places allowed for whites and places allowed for "coloreds." Southern Republicans didn't mind the idea of segregated schools, because simply having schools was an achievement. Railroad cars, steamboats, theaters, and other public services were all segregated despite blacks efforts. Republicans feared such laws prohibiting segregation would lose support from their white supporters. As Black influence grew, laws guaranteeing equal access to transportations and public accommodations were passed in many states. However, some civil rights laws were difficult to enforce in local communities.

Minutemen

were a small, handpicked group of elite militia forces created to be movable and to assemble quickly (in a minute!). The men were were chosen by their commanding officers as the best militiamen to serve as Minutemen. Men chosen for this group were usually about 25 years old or younger. They were chosen for their enthusiasm, reliability, and physical strength.

Embargo Act (1807)

when Britain and France were both trying to gain control over Europe, each country tried to use America to their advantage. Thomas Jefferson signed this bill to help the US remain neutral. It stopped American trade with all foreign countries. The idea was that we would not get drawn into a war if we didn't trade with anyone. It worked, but it destroyed the American economy, as ships rotten at the wharves and industry and agriculture lost almost all of their markets. It was repealed in 1809 and replaced with the Non-Intercourse Act of 1809.

Alabama Fever

when cotton became such a profitable crop and so easy to process, the lands in places like Georgia and Tennessee weren't very fertile. People began a mad rush to get to Alabama and claim land before the government surveyed the land to sell it at high value. This was part of southern expansion.

Agribusiness

whether it was wheat, oats, oranges, or grapes, the American farming industry became dominated by huge corporate farms known as agribusinesses. By 1900, for example, 2/3 of California's farms were over 1000 acres. The dominance by agribusiness shows that the small family farmer is primarily a myth in America.

Alien and Sedition Acts (1798)... why passed

why passed: The Acts were bills passed in 1798 by the Federalists during the Quasi-War. They were supposedly designed to protect the U.S. from foreigners ("aliens") of enemy countries. However, they were really an excuse for the Federalists to go after their political enemies, the Democratic-Republicans, who drew a lot of support from recent immigrants. The Acts included the Alien Act, Sedition Act, and Naturalization Act.

Helen Hunt Jackson

wrote A Century of Dishonor, which detailed the mistreatment of Indians at the hands of whites. She was part of the Indian Rights Association, an offshoot of the Women's National Indian Association (WNIA). These organizations worked to eliminate tribal customs and make the Indians good Christians. Their goal was the complete assimilation of the Indians.

Effects of the Erie Canal

1. Easy transportation on the Erie Canal attracted settlers from the East and even overseas to the West. 2. People had an expanded market to sell their goods, stimulating the economy. Now, the city of New York's merchants traded less with Europe and more with interior America. 3. It also convinced other states to build their own canals. 4. It eventually led to the invention of the steamboat. (See Robert Fulton # 24)

Republican Platform of 1860

1. They were against the extension of slavery to the territories. 2. They wanted higher tariffs to protect northern manufacturers. 3. They wanted an open immigration policy. 4. They wanted a transcontinental railroad through the North and West. 5. They would use federal money to make internal improvements, including roads to the West. 6. They wanted free homesteads to be given to settlers in the West. Their slogans were "Vote Yourselves a Farm" and "Land for the Landless."

Spanish Armada

1588. One of the greatest turning points in history was the attack of the Spanish Armada in 1588. Philip II sent 130 ships and 30,000 men to invade England. Drake, Hawkins, Frobisher, and other English privateers commanded smaller, more maneuverable ships. The English filled boats called fire-boats with explosives, and the massive Spanish galleons could not move out of the way in time. The Spanish fled and were further humbled when a storm destroyed much of the rest of their fleet. Half of the Armada was destroyed, and the Spanish monopoly of the New World was broken. England went on to become the #1 naval power in the world, and the way was opened for permanent colonies in the New World.

Glorious Revolution

1688. King James II was overthrown and replaced with William and Mary. The GR was important to the colonies because it distracted England enough to allow the colonies to eliminate the Dominion of New England.

Bank Veto

4 years prior to the expiration of the bank's charter, Nicholas Biddle applied for an extension of the charter, hoping Andrew Jackson wouldn't interfere because he had to worry about re-election. Andrew Jackson vetoed the charter, shattering any hope of a renewal of the bank's charter if he won re-election (which he did, as it turned out).

Migration

5-10% of American households moved each year. A third of the houses on the Atlantic seaboard had moved westward starting in 1790. By 1800, 500,000 people had found fertile land among the Ohio, Cumberland, and Tennessee Rivers. Those rivers drained into the Mississippi River, which was the boundary of the western U.S. Soon, there was a large enough population in the territories for statehood. Kentucky and Tennessee were the first trans-Appalachian states admitted to the Union.

Salutary neglect

A British policy of not strictly enforcing laws, to keep the colonies loyal. For example, the Navigation Acts were supposed to stop all colonial trade with the French and Dutch, but this wasn't rigidly enforced until after the French and Indian War. So, the colonists were allowed to break the law while British authorities looked the other way. Guess how the colonists are going to react when the British crack down and start enforcing the law...

James Tallmadge

A Democratic-Republican lawyer who was elected to the House of Representatives. He helped write the Missouri State Constitution. He tried to amend the Missouri Compromise so that it would guarantee gradual emancipation to all slaves in Louisiana Territory (Tallmadge Amendment), but the amendment failed. It did succeed, though, in causing trouble between the North and South, since they argued about it in Congress.

Credit Mobilier Scandal

A Grant Administration scandal. Union Pacific stockholders created a dummy company designed to hold money from the Union Pacific Railroad. They bribed Republican lawmakers with company shares to keep it quiet. In return for the shares, the Congressmen looked the other way and supported the railroads. The Vice President for Grant, Schuyler Colfax, was caught and was forced to resign. Many people suspected that Grant must have either been involved or known about it.

James Otis

A Massachusetts lawyer who thought like John Locke. He said, "no taxation without representation." He criticized "virtual representation," saying that the colonists should not pay taxes if they didn't have a physical representative sitting in the Parliament. He spoke out against the vice-admiralty courts, saying they violated colonists' rights as Englishmen.

Comanches

A Native tribe that lived on the Sante Fé trail. They, along with the Apaches, did not tolerate trespassers. Congress voted to protect the trail in order to make settlers safer. They were nomads that followed buffalo. Sometimes, they even went as far as Mexico, ending up on the Yucatan Peninsula at one point. Angered by the settlers moving over their land, they often raided settlements in Texas. They had absolutely no interest in being converted, or in having a friendly relationship with the American settlers.

Cotton Mather

A New England Puritan Minister. He was known for his part in the Salem Witch Trials, although he was never on the jury. Many historians feel that he laid the groundwork for the Salem Witch Trials, and blame him for the allowance of spectral evidence into the court proceedings, allowing the afflicted girls to claim that some invisible ghost of the defendant was tormenting them, and for this to be considered evidence of witchcraft by the defendant, even if the defendant denied it and professed their own strongly held Christian beliefs.

John C. Calhoun

A Senator from South Carolina, he was a War Hawk and nationalist during the War of 1812, but gradually became an advocate for states' rights, nullification, and slavery. He served as Secretary of State, Secretary of War, Vice-President, and was a member of both the House and Senate during his long career. He was one of the "Immortal Trio," including Clay and Webster, who were named among the five greatest senators in US history in 1957. Unfortunately, his passionate defense of slavery had a lot to do with convincing South Carolinians to secede from the Union ten years after his death. He also wrote (anonymously), while he was Jackson's VP, The South Carolina Exposition and Protest, which argued in favor of nullification (the right of a state to cancel a federal law it doesn't like).

Wage Slaves versus Southern Slaves

A Southern Slave was considered property. He could not quit or leave. He was only given food so that he would be able to do his work the next day. A Northern wage worker was free to come and go as he pleased. He could quit his job whenever he chose. If he quit a job or was fired, though, he would have to find another job or he would have no money with which to buy food to eat and pay for shelter.

Battle of Monongahela (Battle of the Wilderness)

A battle that took place in July 1755 in present day Braddock, Pennsylvania, during the French and Indian War. A force of French troops and their Native American allies defeated a British force led by General Edward Braddock and accompanied by Colonel George Washington, who were moving to take Fort Duquesne. Out of the approximately 1,300 British troops entering the battle, nearly 900 were killed or wounded. When the French and Indians leaped out of the woods to ambush the British, the British huddled in the road like sheep!

Committees of Correspondence

A committee formed for intercolonial communication. After Samuel Adams formed the first group at a Boston town meeting, 80 others were formed. These committees were important for sharing information, developing public opinion, and led to the First Continental Congress in 1774.

Election of 1808

A contest between James Madison (Democratic-Republican) and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney (Federalist), it was the second attempt- and failure- at becoming President by Pinckney. Madison replaced Jefferson and became the 4th President.

Injunction

A court order by which an individual is required to perform, or is restrained from performing, a particular act. Historically, it refers to the stopping of strikes. In the 1890s, employers discovered that they could get federal court injunctions to stop strikes and also to stop workers from organizing. The injunction was used to break the Pullman Strike in 1894, and was finally prohibited by the Norris-Laguardia Act in 1932. So, basically, during this time, the government helped big business by breaking up strikes through the use of the injunction.

Journeymen

A craftsman who finished his apprenticeship. A journeyman earns money and trades his product. Before a journeyman becomes a master, he must submit a masterpiece to the guild (a union of masters). If they approve it, the man is then a master.

Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge (1837)

A decision by Chief Justice Roger Taney (Marshall died in 1835) that favored competition for the sake of commerce instead of granting a monopoly. It was similar to the Gibbons v. Ogden case because it was a federal reversal of a state decision. This case showed that contract rights did not guarantee control over an entire industry. So, contract rights (like those guaranteed by Dartmouth College v. Woodward) are vital, but protecting competition is more important.

Ralph Waldo Emerson

A famous writer and lecturer. He popularized transcendentalism. He taught that the best way to understand the spiritual side of life and to gain insight into the Universal Being (God) was to observe nature. He gave a series of lectures on culture as part of the lyceum circuit (a speaking tour of intellectuals). He is very well known for Nature, which began the transcendentalist movement, and for The American Scholar, which has been called the "Intellectual Declaration of Independence."

Report on a National Bank

A financial plan written in 1790 by Alexander Hamilton that advocated a national bank called the Bank of the United States. His hopes were to strengthen the relationship between the government and business classes. The bank would also provide financial order, credit for the country, and resolve the inflation issue after the Revolution from the overprinting of Continental dollars. The Southern members of Congress didn't particularly like the bank because they believed it mainly supported the manufacturing interests in the North. The Bank was very controversial because nothing in the Constitution expressly granted the federal government the power to create one.

Constitutional Monarchy

A form of government in which a monarch is the head of State, but limited in power by a written constitution. Britain had a constitutional monarchy; Americans didn't want this form because it was too much like Britain's government. Alexander Hamilton famously proposed a monarch during the Constitutional Convention, but obviously did not represent the views of the majority.

Mingo Creek Democratic Society

A group in Pennsylvania modeled after the Sons of Liberty who supported France. They used the French Revolution as an excuse to resist the Washington administration. They were especially unhappy with the Washington administration's tax on distilled spirits, including whiskey, which was a major part of their economic activity.

King William's War

A huge war between France and England (among many other countries), it was fought from 1689-1697. The war started when Sir Edmund Andros ordered an attack on French settlements in Penobscot Bay, Maine. It was the first of four major French/English Wars in the colonies. The Abenakis and the Pennacooks raided Dover, New Hampshire, killing 20 and capturing 29. They also attacked York, Maine, killing 100 colonists. The war ended as a draw, but peace only lasted five years until the outbreak of the next big French/English war, Queen Anne's War.

Bicameral Legislature

A legislature consisting of two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. It was created because Virginia wanted representation by population and New Jersey wanted equal representation. Then Roger Sherman created the Great Compromise, in which both states partially got their way.

Mt. Vernon Conference

A meeting of delegates, in 1785, from Virginia and Maryland at George Washington's house, located at Mount Vernon. It was the first meeting leading to the drafting of the U.S. Constitution. They dealt with issues like commerce, fishing, and navigation around Chesapeake Bay.

Grand Tory Ride

A method colonists used to persecute Loyalists, it was called this because the colonists had the poor Loyalist sit between two rails with one leg on each side and two men carried him through town. Another form of the ride was to have the Loyalist ride on a horse with his face on the tail (butt) of the horse with his coat inside out. This form of public humiliation was used to discourage people from being Loyalist.

Nabobs

A name for the rich planters of the Natchez community.

City of Brotherly Love

A nickname for Philadelphia.

John James Audubon

A painter of American birds. His greatest work was Birds of America.

Squatters

A person who occupies a space that he does not own or rent from anyone. In this case, it refers to people who moved to Ohio and lived on land that they didn't own. The government, at the request of the landowners, sent in the military to remove squatters. Of course, as soon as the soldiers left, the squatters returned!

Republicanism

A political system in which citizens can vote, and elected officials represent the people. According to this theory, corruption was only avoided by the "exercise of public virtue," which was people sacrificing self-interest for the good of all. In other words, political leaders put the people ahead of themselves. This political philosophy rose out of the ideas of Enlightenment thinkers like Locke, and had a major influence on colonists like Jefferson, Adams, and Washington. Do not confuse this with democracy; most of the Founding Fathers thought that the uneducated masses should not have a say in politics.

Election of 1828

A rematch between Jackson and the Democrats vs. Adams and the new, but very short-lived, National Republican Party. Andrew Jackson won in a landslide. This campaign was characterized by personal attacks, and didn't focus much on the issues. Jackson's victory was called a "revolution" because it seemed to represent the victory of the common man (Jackson) over the rich aristocrats (Adams).

Second Continental Congress (1775)

A second this was founded on May 10, 1775 in Philadelphia. This represented 12 of the British colonies. This group decided to declare independence from Britain, raise an army, and declare George Washington Commander in Chief.

Mission System

A series of religious outposts that were founded by the Spanish Catholics of the Franciscan order between 1769-1823; it was formed to spread Catholic faith to the local Native Americans.

Stono Rebellion

A slave rebellion in 1739, South Carolina. Led by a slave named Jemmy, about 60 slaves killed about 40 whites before being suppressed. This caused South Carolina to form the Negro Act of 1740, keeping slaves from being educated or meeting together.

Ku Klux Klan

A social club in TN. It was a secret organization that terrorized blacks and white Republicans. The KKK was founded in 1866, and they wore white sheets and went around murdering blacks, using guns and whips and making nighttime raids on horseback in Arkansas, GA, and SC. The murdered them so they couldn't vote. The KKK was used by planters to make former slaves not want to leave the plantations or to organize for higher wages. The terror enabled the Democrats to carry Georgia and Louisiana, but cost the Democrats votes in the North.

Patriarchy

A society ruled by men, it was characteristic of American society in the antebellum (pre-Civil War) period. At Lowell, for example, the men governed over the women, taking care to look after their moral behavior.

Underground Railroad

A system of checkpoints or "stations," it consisted of homes where slaves would go to hide from capture by slaveholders. Slaves would ride the railroad all the way to Canada, where they would get their freedom. People who helped the slaves by hiding them were known as "conductors." Though impossible to know exactly how many slaves escaped to freedom, historians estimate the number to be around 60,000. Southerners were angry - the U.R. was an obvious violation of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1793. Slaveholders pushed for a tougher law to help protect their property, which they received in the Compromise of 1850.

American System

A system unlike TJ's plan for a country of self sufficient farmers, it was based on Hamilton's financial plans. It included: 1. national bank 2. protective tariffs to encourage manufacturing 3. national system of roads and canals. The main supporters of the A.S. were Henry Clay and JQ Adams. People in the South were eventually opposed to the AS, while the North and West generally supported it.

Oregon Fever

A term that refers to the mass migration of people during the 1830s and 1840s to Oregon through the Overland Trails. By 1845, 5,000 people lived in Oregon. Most people came to find fortune and a better life after the Panic of 1837. People were also brought by promises of fertile land and potential riches. The American government advertised Oregon as a fertile, lush place. The US wanted people to populate this land so America could beat Britain to it, and take the land.

Free-Soil Party

A third party in 1848 that ran on the issue of slavery. Their slogan was "free soil, free labor, and free men." The party nominated Martin Van Buren as their candidate for the Presidency, and he won just enough votes in New York that would otherwise have gone to Cass to give Taylor the election, just as the Liberty Party had done to Clay in 1844. The new Republican Party of the 1850s eventually supported the main ideas of the Free-Soil Party.

Lexington

A town in Massachusetts at the halfway point to the British destination, Concord. About 70 armed Minutemen assembled in the center of town. Disorganized and confused, a skirmish broke out between the British and the Americans, while no order to fire was issued. This left 8 Americans dead and 10 wounded. No one knows who fired first, but the "battle" is known as the "shot heard 'round the world" because it was the start of the American Revolution.

Red River War

A war between the Apaches, Kiowas, and Comanches and the US, it was won by the US Army when the Army succeeded in starving the Indians.

Dunmore's War

A war that started in 1773 between the Virginia colony and the native Shawnee and Mingo nations. It started when the Governor of Virginia asked the House of Burgesses to declare war on the "hostile" natives. The war was caused by Native attacks on settlers in the Ohio Valley (English version of the cause) or the war was due to violence when British colonists were settling on land south of the Ohio River that had been agreed upon to be Native land (the real reason). Fighting continued throughout the Revolution.

10% Plan

A way to bring the seceded states back into the Union. Lincoln proposed a plan when the number of Confederate state voters who had taken the oath of allegiance reached ten percent of the number who voted in the election of 1860, they could then make a state government. It was designed to make the war shorter and gain white support, not to reconstruct the South. The Radicals were angry about this, so when Arkansas and LA applied to make a state government and re-enter the Union, Congress would not let them.

Spot Resolutions

Abe Lincoln demanded to know the spot where Americans were attacked by Mexican soldiers because he did not believe Polk's explanation for how the war started. He introduced the Spot Resolutions to the House, but they were never acted upon.

Burning of Wells, Maine

Abenakis and their French allies assaulted Wells in a 2-3 day siege in 1692 during King William's War. The church and a number of buildings were burned. During Queen Anne's War, in 1703, Wells was again attacked. Houses and barns were burned, and 39 people were killed or abducted. Wells survived despite these setbacks.

Loose Constructionist

According to this view, the federal government could do anything unless it was expressly forbidden to do so by the Constitution. This, obviously, gave the national government greatly expanded power. Federalists like Alexander Hamilton favored this view. They supported the Bank.

Strict Constructionist

According to this view, the federal government was allowed to do only the things specifically written in the Constitution, nothing more. This would guarantee more power for the states and less for the federal government. Democratic-Republicans like Jefferson and Madison favored this view. Strict constructionists opposed the Bank.

Virtual Representation

According to virtual representation, members of the British Parliament were representatives of the entire empire and not just England, even though the colonists had no say in the election of members of Parliament. So, the British claimed that they were looking out for what was best for the colonists, even though the colonists had no say.

Tenure of Office Act

Act passed over Johnson's veto. It stipulated that any office holder appointed by the President with the Senate's advice and consent could not be removed until the Senate had approved his successor. This way, Congressional leaders could protect Republicans like the Sec of War Edwin M. Stanton. In Aug. 1867, Johnson suspended Stanton and appointed Grant to the Sec. of War. By firing Stanton without the approval of the Senate, Johnson violated the Tenure of Office Act.

King Mob

Adams' supporters sneered at the events at the Inauguration, saying that Jackson was the leader of drunken rabble. They gave him the nickname "King Mob" to symbolize their disgust with the "common man."

11th Amendment

Added to the Constitution in 1795, this amendment was proposed in response to Chisholm v. Georgia in order to overrule Chisholm. It states that the US judicial system has limited power to hear suits against state governments by citizens of another state or country. Basically, states cannot be sued by private individuals in most cases.

Growth of Slavery... why?

Africans were needed to run the wealthy sugar plantations. Also, rebellions of indentured servants (such as Bacon's Rebellion) caused people to fear new rebellions and to obtain slaves as the indentured servant system declined.

Brigham Young

After Smith's death, Brigham Young led the Mormons. They migrated to the Great Basin (today Utah) and formed a nation called Deseret. After Utah became a US territory in 1850, US troops occupied the territory. The Mormons were persecuted because of their belief in polygamy, and Utah was denied statehood because of the practice.

Sherman's March

After U.S. Grant captured Vicksburg, MS, he turned inland and defeated the Confederates in Tennessee. After Grant took Chattanooga, General William Tecumseh Sherman marched to Atlanta and captured it in Sept. 1864, just in time to guarantee Lincoln's victory over McClellan in the Election of 1864. Sherman then conducted his famous March to the Sea, the destruction of a 60-mile wide swath of land all the way from Atlanta to Savannah. He then moved north towards North Carolina, while Grant surrounded Lee. Sherman's March broke the will of the South to continue fighting. It was an early example of "total war," a tactic of demoralizing civilians so they wouldn't continue to support the war.

John Quincy Adams and the gag rule

After serving as president, JQA entered Congress. He spoke out against the gag rule often and strongly. In 1844, just 8 years after it was passed, the gag rule was repealed because of northern opposition headed by JQA.

Sam Houston

After the Battle at the Alamo, Santa Anna continued to try to destroy the remaining American armies. Texan General Sam Houston led an attack against a divided Mexican army and obliterated them. This victory gave the Republic of Texas independence.

Internal Slave Trade

After the International Slave Trade was abolished in 1808, the internal slave trade flourished. Masters sold their slaves to masters of other plantations in the South as punishment to the slaves, or to make more profit. It was typical that slaves of the Upper South would be "sold down the river" to the Lower South.

Starving Time

After the colonists at Jamestown stole food from the Powhatan Confederacy, Powhatan cut off all aid to the colonists and laid siege to the settlement. As a result, the winter of 1609-10 was pretty rough - all but 60 of the settlement's people died. One guy even salted and ate his wife!

The Grange

Also known as the Patrons of Husbandry, the Grange was founded by Oliver H. Kelley in 1867. The major issue they dealt with was supporting government regulation of the railroads, grain warehouses, and grain elevators. At that time, most communities had one railroad line, for example, running through them. This allowed the railroad to charge ridiculous rates, and the communities had no choice but to pay them. The Grangers were initially successful, and passed many Granger Laws (state-level laws designed to regulate grain elevator rates, railroad rates and rebates, and long-haul/short-haul railroad rate discrimination (railroads would charge higher rates for goods shipped over shorter distances)). Granger Laws were tested in the Supreme Court in 1877.

Quakers

Also known as the Society of Friends, the Quakers settled primarily in Pennsylvania. Quakers tended to be pacifists and friendly with the Indians. They were persecuted, especially in New England. One Quaker named Mary Dyer was famously hanged on Boston Common in 1660 for the crime of being a Quaker, again demonstrating the intolerance of the Puritans.

Barbary Wars

Also known as the Tripolitan Wars, they were two wars the US fought against pirates (arrr!) in North Africa from 1801-1805 and 1815. Under Washington and Adams, the US paid tribute (protection money) to the pirates (arrr!) to keep them from attacking our ships and ransoming the crews. Jefferson ended the practice, believing that paying tribute encouraged pirates (arrr!). So, he sent the best ships in the Navy, including the USS Enterprise, USS Constitution, USS Chesapeake and USS Constellation to Tripoli. Though the war has been forgotten by almost everyone, 35 Americans died and Stephen Decatur became a national hero for his bravery after sneaking onto a pirate-controlled ship and setting fire to it. The victory enhanced the reputation of the US military, which had not been tested before on foreign soil.

Putting-Out System

Also known as the Workshop System, a system where goods were made in the private homes of subcontractors, under the eye of a merchant who "put out" the materials needed. The merchant also gave a certain sum for the finished piece, and then they would sell the completed item to a distant market. So, basically, a merchant would come to your house with raw materials, you and your family made them into finished products, then the merchant would come back to collect the goods and pay you. Factories replaced the putting-out system.

Patrick Henry "smelt a rat"

Although many people lump Henry in with the other supporters of the Constitution, he actually wasn't present at the meeting, and became one of the biggest critics of the Constitution. He rejected his invitation to the meeting, later saying "I smelt a rat." In other words, he didn't trust the meeting because he feared that the meeting would lead to the creation of a powerful central government. It turned out that he was right to be afraid!

Molasses Act of 1733

American colonial distillers in New England made rum. The French islands in the Indies offered sugar for a cheaper price than the British Islands, so the colonists were buying French sugar. Wanting to keep all money within the empire, the English passed this act to make the French sugar more expensive than sugar from English islands by adding six cents per gallon to the price of French molasses imported into the colonies. This caused a lot of smuggling.

Nationalism... why?

American nationalism (desire of a people to have their own country) grew during the mid-1700s. The Seven Years' War began to separate the British and Americans. 1. During the Seven Years' War, people began to see how cruel the British officers were to their soldiers and how different the British soldiers were. 2. Also, the British thought American troops to be "riff-raff" and treated them like inferiors. 3. Inter-colonial commerce (trading amongst the colonies) quadrupled from 1735 to 1775. 4. Finally, people started criticizing the government in American newspapers, which about a quarter of the colonists regularly read.

American System of Manufactures

Americans were described as "mechanics by nature." People everywhere invented tools and machines. The biggest aspect of the American system of manufactures was the development of standardized, interchangeable parts. A faulty gun could be easily disassembled and the broken part could be replaced with the interchangeable part. Before this development, if one little piece of the gun broke, then the entire gun would have to be replaced.

Amos T. Akerman

Amos T. Akerman prosecuted hundreds of Klansmen from North Carolina and Mississippi. He was the Attorney General for Grant.

Robert Fulton

An American inventor and engineer who invented the steamboat. The steamboat was a major engineering advance, allowing people to travel on rivers and newly built canals much faster. Fulton's first commercially successful steamboat, the Clermont, connected New York City and Albany. The steamboat brought more commerce to the interior of the United States. It also stimulated urban growth because Eastern cities benefitted by being able to trade with the interior.

John Locke (ideas about religion)

An Enlightenment thinker, Locke wrote a book called Letters Concerning Toleration. He gave reasons for religious tolerance. His main reasons were: 1.) Human beings cannot dependably evaluate the truth-claims of competing religious standpoints; 2.) Even if they could, enforcing a single "true religion" would not have the desired effect, because belief cannot be compelled by violence; 3.) Coercing religious uniformity would lead to more social disorder than allowing diversity. His influence on the US is huge - the 1st Amendment freedom of religion is based directly on his thought.

Indian Removal Act of 1830

An act passed in 1830 under President Andrew Jackson that allowed the removal of Indians by treaty or by force if necessary. This act moved the Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Seminole) to west of the Mississippi River. The removal of the Cherokee was especially infamous and is known as the Trail of Tears (see #44). The vote was very sectional, since the South and West wanted it, but the North did not.

Sugar Act

An act placing stricter regulations on imported sugar to the colonies. It was meant to stop the smuggling of sugar into the colonies. To do so, it established vice-admiralty courts to enforce the law.

Articles of Confederation

An agreement among the 13 founding states that legally established the United States of America as a confederation (a government in which the central government is very weak and the state governments are strong). The Articles served as the United States' first constitution. The Articles had structural weaknesses, and in 1789, it was replaced with the U.S. Constitution. The U.S. Constitution allowed a much stronger national government, with a president, courts, and taxing powers. The Articles had been intentionally weak, as the colonists were determined not to have a powerful central government, like the one they revolted against in the Revolution. The Articles of Confederation could not tax, meaning that the government had very limited revenue with which to do anything. The government also lacked an executive; all decisions were made by a committee in Congress. In order to make a law, 9 of 13 states were needed, a very high fraction. Therefore, it was very difficult to make laws.

Poor Richard's Almanac

An annual almanac written by Benjamin Franklin, who called himself Poor Richard. These were published from 1732-1758, and were very popular. Almanacs contained weather forecasts, household hints, and puzzles.

Edgar Allan Poe

An author whose horror stories, like Murders in the Rue Morgue, The Raven and The Mystery of Marie Roget, make him one of the most famous American literary figures.

Mercantilism

An economic theory, stating that how prosperous a nation is depends on its capital, or wealth, and that the volume of global trade is unchangeable. The theory says that a nation should export more than it imports, and it should accumulate gold. With the gold, the nation raises armies to gain more colonies. The colonies existed to benefit the mother country. If a nation is successful, it can gain a larger piece of the total volume of global trade, and thereby be more powerful. The theory was the prevailing economic theory until the late 18th century.

Redemptioner

An emigrant to the New World who paid for his passage by working for wages upon his arrival in the New World. He differed from the indentured servant because he didn't work for free - he earned wages and paid off the cost off his voyage in money.

Deerfield Raid

An example of one of many French and Native American raids on an English colonial settlement, the raid in Massachusetts occurred during Queen Anne's War in 1704. Over 50 people were killed and over 100 captured.

Belknap Scandal

Another Grant Scandal!!! Involving William Belknap, the Secretary of War. In 1876, Belknap was impeached, and he resigned before he could be convicted. He was impeached because he accepted bribes for the sale of trading posts in Indian Territory.

Militia

Armed men from local communities, they were vital to the protection of their areas. They had homes and their reputations to protect, so they would do anything that they needed to in order to protect their communities. Unfortunately, they were often poorly trained and frequently deserted in the middle of battles when things got rough!

Beaver Wars

Armed with Dutch weapons, members of the Iroquois nation, including the Mohawk, attacked the French-supported Huron tribe. The motive was to gain control of the fur trade, and the Iroquois were successful. The wars lasted from the late 1630s to the 1690s, and the Iroquois became allies with the English after the departure of the Dutch in 1664.

Sacagawea

As a young girl, she was captured and married French a fur trader, Toussaint Charbonneau. Lewis and Clark hired both of them as interpreters. She famously helped them get horses for their voyage across the Rockies. Many times, she prevented Indian attacks by being a woman with a child - when the expedition entered a new territory, unfamiliar Indians did not attack on sight because of the presence of a woman and her child (obviously not hostile people).

Apprentice

At an early age, typically 14 or younger, a boy was sent to live in a master tradesman's house. He learned the trade of his master and planned to become a master someday. The apprentice usually learned his trade for seven years before opening his own workshop, or becoming a journeyman.

Jefferson Day Dinner, 1830

At this dinner, Jackson made a toast saying, "Our federal Union, it must be preserved." In response, Calhoun made his own toast saying, "The Union--next to our liberty most dear. May we always remember that it can only be preserved by distributing equally the benefits and burdens of the Union." This showed that the President and Vice President openly disagreed on a matter of crucial national importance. Calhoun believed that freedom was more important than the Union, while Jackson believed that a Union was necessary for freedom. Calhoun lost all influence with Jackson after this (the relationship was already strained after the Peggy Eaton Affair) and soon afterward became the first VP to resign. Martin Van Buren replaced him in Jackson's second term.

Albany Conference of 1754

At this meeting held in the New York town of Albany, leaders of the British Board of Trade discussed defensive tactics against the French with representatives from seven colonies. To make it work, the British also needed to negotiate a settlement with the leaders of the Iroquois Confederacy (a very powerful Native American nation). However, the Iroquois were angry with the British because of their land grabbing. While the negotiations were taking place, real estate agents attempted to get Iroquois chiefs to sign a deed for a big chunk of land in Pennsylvania. This backfired, however, making the Iroquois even more angry, and they refused all British requests for alliance. In addition, the colonists failed to agree to the Albany Plan of Union, leaving them disunited.

Noah Webster

Author of American Spelling Book. The speller was composed of British and American writings. It also was the first to timeline the history of America, beginning with Columbus. He suggested spelling words as they sounded, "Ther iz no alternitiv." He eventually gave up on that, but did get people to drop the "u" out of British-English words such as "colour."

Great Railroad Strike of 1877

Began on July 17, 1877 in Martinsburg, West Virginia. Baltimore & Ohio Railroad workers went on strike because the company had lowered the workers' wages twice in one year. The strikers refused to let the trains run until the most recent pay cut was returned. When the governor of WV sent in the militia, they disobeyed orders and joined the strikers. The gov. requested help from the president-Hayes. The army fired upon the workers all through the country, killing hundreds of workers. The strikers retaliated by burning and destroying railroad property. All across the country, Hayes sent soldiers to break up railroad strikes. All of the monopoly railroads were involved in this strike. The president was successful in stopping this. The attitude of railroad owners was really what caused the strike to be so bad. The strike led to the creation of labor unions and caused even more xenophobia (fear of foreigners) because the railroads brought in cheap immigrant labor to replace striking workers.

Morrill Tariff, McKinley Tariff, Wilson-Gorman Tariff, and Dingley Tariff

Beginning in 1861, after the South left the Union, and lasting into the 20th century, Republican politicians dominated national politics and passed high protective tariffs. All you need to be able to do is recognize these names and know that every one of them raised tariffs!

Albany Plan of Union

Benjamin Franklin's Plan of Union called for representatives from twelve colonies (all except Georgia) and one president appointed by the King to form a council. The plan said that this council would have control over Indian affairs, western settlements, and other items of mutual interest. So, basically, it would have formed a limited colonial government. However, the colonists did not like this idea of a more centralized government (they believed that each individual colony should make all of their own decisions), so they said no. The cartoon, "Join or Die" was Franklin's effort to unify the colonies to fight France.

Non-importation (why successful)

Boston was the center of resistance to imports from Britain. The colonists refused to import or consume British goods, especially luxury items, until the British dropped the taxes. Boycotting products was the main weapon used to resist the British. Colonial craftsmen were very enthusiastic supporters of non-importation because they wanted less competition. If people didn't buy British products, they were forced to buy from these craftsmen! However, merchants had a very divided view. Some were really hurt because they made their trade by importing British products. Non-importation appealed greatly to rural towns because it helped support local industries. Boycotting British goods was an act in which everyone could participate, even women helped by forming the Daughters of Liberty. Women spun and wove their own material so that they didn't have to buy British textiles. All of the colonies except for New Hampshire participated in the boycott. Non-importation proved to be a highly effective means of protest. Imports from England declined by 41%. This caused British merchants to apply pressure on Parliament to get them to repeal the Stamp Act. Since the Parliament included many members who represented commercial (trading) interests, they ended the Stamp Act.

Election of 1860

Breckinridge, Douglas, Bell, and Lincoln. Lincoln, the Republican, won even though he had a minority of votes because the other candidates split the vote. 60% of voters did not vote for him. Interestingly, the Democrats combined (Douglas and Breckinridge) received more votes than Lincoln. This election was the direct cause of South Carolina seceding from the Union, along with 6 other states. Lincoln had not even appeared on the ballot in the South!

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty

Britain became concerned that the US was preparing to grab Central America, which would have hurt British trade in the region. Britain responded by seizing control of the eastern end of the proposed Nicaraguan Canal, thereby violating the Monroe Doctrine. America was angered, and it looked like war was imminent, but the C-B Treaty was reached instead. It stipulated that "neither country would fortify or secure exclusive control over any future isthmian waterway," which meant that neither country would take over a canal zone without the consent of the other country. This became a major pain in the future for the US when we became interested in a canal route through Panama, so we were forced to later rescind the C-B Treaty.

Treaty of Ghent

Britain decided to end the War of 1812 with America. The treaty was signed on Christmas Eve 1814 in Ghent, Belgium. It is important in the sense that it changed Britain's view of America. Britain now took America seriously as an independent nation, which is why many historians refer to the War of 1812 as the Second War of Independence.

Tariff of 1816

British manufacturers had been excluded from the American marketplace with the Embargo Act of 1807. When it was lifted, British companies flooded America with inexpensive products that hurt American manufacturing. Congress sought to protect American manufacturing with the Tariff of 1816. It placed a tax on imported woolens and cottons, iron, leather, hats, paper, and sugar. The change was welcomed both by southerners and northerners.

Townshend Acts (Revenue Acts) (1769-1770)

By passing the Revenue Acts, Townshend forced the American colonists to pay duties (taxes) on imports of lead, glass, paint, paper and tea. Colonists were determined not to pay taxes on any of these products and began a boycott.

Mary Rowlandson

Captured by Indians during King Philip's War, when she was released, she wrote the story, The Sovereignty and Goodness of God: Being a Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson. (Don't memorize this title!) She created the captivity narrative literary style.

Dred Scott v. Sandford

Case decided on March 6, 1857. Dred Scott was a slave in Missouri who was brought to free state, Illinois, by his master; he lived there from 1830 - 1843. He then went to Minnesota, where he had a child and married a free black woman. His master then returned with Dred to Missouri. Dred tried to sue his owner for freedom. He was unsuccessful in the Missouri court, so he appealed and eventually made it to the Supreme Court. His owner argued that blacks could not be citizens and he wasn't able to become a citizen of America according to the 3rd and 4th article of the Constitution. It was ruled that he could not become a citizen & so he remained a slave. According to the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Roger B. Taney, Scott was property and property could not exercise the right of a citizen and sue in court. The Court's ruling meant that slavery would be allowed anywhere in the US, despite state laws that forbade it, because the federal government protected property rights. This case upset people in the North because it basically said that there was no such thing as a free state and all blacks should be slaves.

Catharine Beecher (Treatise on Domestic Economy)

Catharine Beecher's book was all about the woman's role in the home. It focused on everything she thought a woman should know about organization, cleaning, cooking, medical advice, even rearing children. It was the ultimate guide to house and home for women of that time. Her book, along with the Bible, was the only one pioneering women took west with them.

King Philip's War - causes, events, results

Causes - The English at Plymouth kept taking land away from the Wampanoag tribe. Finally, in 1675, fighting broke out. Events - The war was a war of attrition. While the Natives did well at first, the colonists slowly wore them down. The war was very destructive. 16 of New England's 90 towns were completely destroyed and 1.5% of the colonists were killed. This percentage would be like the loss of 4.5 million Americans today in a war lasting less than two years. Results - The Wampanoag were destroyed, and most of the survivors were sold into slavery.

Charles Townshend

Charles Townshend took over William Pitt's position as the head of the cabinet after Pitt resigned in 1763. His first big problem to tackle was the British national debt after the Seven Years' War. Unemployment rates were high, riots began over prices, and folks protested taxes. In an effort to subdue the possibility of a rebellion in England, Townshend tried to place some of the tax burden of maintaining the Empire on the colonies, but failed like his predecessor, George Grenville, did.

Five Civilized Tribes

Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Seminole (know these five!) - these were five Indian nations that were "civilized," according to Americans. These tribes were able and willing to incorporate their lifestyles with those of the Europeans. Despite their being "civilized," they were still relocated from their homes to an area west of the Mississippi River. They were promised land forever free of settlers, yet settlers intruded almost immediately.

Hero of the Monongahela

Colonel Washington, although he had no official position in the chain of command when Braddock was shot off his horse during the Battle of Monongahela, was able to impose and maintain some order and formed a rear guard, which allowed the remnants of the force to disengage and retreat. This earned him the sobriquet Hero of the Monongahela and established his fame.

Freedmen's Bureau

Congress created the FB in March 1865. Congress voted the Bureau the power to create schools and pay teachers. Established courts to prosecute those charged with depriving African-Americans of their rights. Bureau also helped build the foundation for Southern public education. Bureau's courts allowed freed people to bring suits against white people in disputes involving violence, non-payment of wages, or unfair division of crops. The FB, Johnson said, that Congress lacked jurisdiction over 11 unrepresented Southern states. FB helped provide food, clothing, and fuel for former slaves. It was charged with supervising and managing all of the abandoned lands in the South and controlled all the subjects relating to refugees and freedmen.

Bozeman Trail

Connecting the Oregon Trail to Montana's mining fields, this route crossed the Sioux's buffalo range.

Material Effects on the South of defeat

Cotton was destroyed by fleeing rebels to keep the North from taking it at the end of the war. It took the South about a generation to recover. Wealth from slavery disappeared. They didn't accept the blacks into their society, which made them recover more slowly. The war itself destroyed the South's fertile land and its cities.

Vice-Admiralty Court

Courts in which the accused were presumed guilty and had no right to a trial by jury. Established by the Sugar Act, the courts were designed to prosecute smugglers. The courts were greatly resented, as smugglers were tried in Halifax, Nova Scotia, instead of in front of a jury of their peers. In addition, the judges were paid based on how many people they found guilty!

Cyrus McCormick

Cyrus McCormick invented the mechanical reaper. This invention harvested wheat four times faster than using a traditional hand scythe.

Wilmot Proviso

David Wilmot, a Democratic congressman from Pennsylvania, proposed that no slaves would be permitted in all of the land won in the Mexican-American War. This caused a rift between Southerners and Northerners, with sectionalism overwhelming party loyalty. People from the South voted for slavery and people from the North voted for freedom. This debate re-opened the issue of slavery, and its future in America. People were so passionate about the topic that fist fights broke out on the floor of the House of Representatives! It passed the House twice, but failed both times in the Senate (because the South had more power in the Senate than in the House). Even though the Wilmot Proviso failed, it is important because it divided the country and led to the Civil War.

Cherokee Nation v. Georgia

Decision of the John Marshall Court that declared the Indian Removal Act of 1830 unconstitutional. President Jackson ignored the Court's decision, and the Indians were removed, leading to the Trail of Tears.

Alexis de Tocqueville

Democracy in America - Alexis de Tocqueville was a French political thinker and historian. In his book, Democracy in America, representative democracy in the United States is the main topic. De Tocqueville warned against "tyranny of the majority," which means that sometimes a majority of the people can take rights away from the minority. He also wrote about separation of church and state, concluding that the government and religion were both stronger in the US because they were separate.

Samuel J. Tilden

Democrats hammered away at Grant's low standard of honesty in government. They nominated Governor Samuel J. Tilden of New York for president. In 1871, he had helped expose and prosecute the "Tweed Ring" in New York City. As governor, he had toppled the "Canal Ring," a graft-ridden scheme involving inflated contracts for repairs on the Erie Canal. He ran in the 1876 election against Rutherford B. Hayes for the Republicans and Peter Cooper for the Greenbacks.

Monroe Doctrine

Devised by JQA, it was a U.S policy that said that any European attempt to colonize land or "interfere with states (other countries)" in the Americas would be seen as an act of aggression, which the U.S would respond to. It told the Europeans that they were not allowed to come back over here and retake their former colonies (nearly all of Central and South America had become free while Europe was distracted by the Napoleonic Wars). The Doctrine was set in place to make sure the U.S would be dominant in the Americas by preserving the independence of the other former European colonies. In return, the US agreed not to interfere with European affairs.

Election of 1844

Due to his betrayal to the Whig party, John Tyler was not named the presidential candidate for the Whigs in 1844. Instead, they nominated Henry Clay. The Democrats nominated James K. Polk of Tennessee. He was an avid supporter of expansion, which included adding Texas and Oregon to the Union. His famous slogan was "54 40 or fight!" Another candidate was James G. Birney of the Liberty Party. James K. Polk barely won the popular vote but dominated the Electoral College.

XYZ Affair

During the 1790s, the French and the British went to war again. The US declared its neutrality, which angered France. France began seizing American ships on the high seas. To try to solve the problem without going to war, John Adams sent three American diplomats to France to meet with their foreign minister, Talleyrand. Instead, three French agents nicknamed X, Y, and Z demanded a bribe before the American diplomats would be allowed to speak to Talleyrand. They wanted a $250,000 bribe, and millions in loans. The diplomats told the French that, "We will not give you even a sixpence!" This greatly angered Americans, and this was the beginning of the Quasi-war, an undeclared war with France lasting from 1798-1800. Instead of fighting a full-blown war against France, as Hamilton wanted, Adams chose to seek peace in 1800. This disagreement split the Federalist Party, allowing Jefferson to win the election of 1800.

Lincoln's feelings on race

During the debates, Lincoln stated that he was in favor of the race to which he belonged, saying that whites were superior to blacks. He said, however, that there is no reason why blacks would not be allowed the same natural rights guaranteed in the Declaration of Independence, the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Blacks, he said, are not as smart or as moral as whites, but they are equal in deserving the chance to earn their own money and eat their own bread.

French Crescent

During the eighteenth century, the French used their trade network and alliances with the Native Americans to establish a crescent-shaped chain of military posts and settlements that went from the mouth of the St. Lawrence River, southwest through the Great Lakes, and then down the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico.

Waving the bloody shirt

During the elections after the Civil War, the Republicans reminded everyone that Johnson and the Democrats were disloyal and were the ones who started the Civil War, which gave the Rep. the advantage of receiving the most votes in the elections. It reminded Northern voters of the hundreds of thousands of Yankee soldiers killed and hurt in the Civil War. In the 1866 elections, Republicans increased their majority in both houses of Congress and gained control of northern states.

New Imperial Policies (The Grenville Program)

Enacted by the Chancellor of the Exchequer (Treasury), George Grenville, it was a series of acts designed to raise revenue to help Britain pay for the costs of the French and Indian War and to pay for the expense of maintaining 10,000 British soldiers in America. The soldiers were stationed to defend against Native Americans, and to make sure that Britain's new French (in Quebec) and Spanish (in Florida) subjects behaved. The New Imperial Policies included the Sugar Act and Stamp Act. To say the least, the colonists were not excited to pay these taxes - we acted like spoiled brats! We wanted British protection, but we didn't want to pay for it. Of course, on the flip side, Britain refused to give us elected members in Parliament, so we were justifiably mad about that.

Hudson's Bay Company

Established in 1670 to break the French monopoly on the fur trade, HBC is one of the oldest corporations in the world. It established fur trading posts around Hudson Bay and James Bay, and spread south and west from there. Needless to say, the establishment of HBC did not help French-English relations!

Evictions of blacks

Even after the slaves were set free, they were not allowed to hold jobs as artisans, mechanics, shopkeepers, or any other trade or business besides husbandry or contracted services. Johnson ordered General Howard of the Freedmen's Bureau to evict tens of thousands of freed people settled on confiscated and abandoned land. The land was in SE Virginia, southern LA, and the Low Country of GA and SC. These evictions created a deep sense of betrayal among blacks.

Interstate Commerce Act of 1887

Farmers and westerners believed that the railroads held tremendous power and needed regulation. They were upset about rate discrimination in particular. In addition, they were concerned about railroad influence and corruption of local and state officials. They also didn't like it when the railroads gave free annual passes to elected officials, newspapermen, and ministers. So, they passed Granger laws (see above). After Wabash, the federal government responded to public pressure by passing this act, which - 1. banned discrimination in rates between long and short hauls; 2. required that railroads publish their rate schedules and file them with the government; 3. declared that all interstate railroad rates be "fair and just;" 4. created the Interstate Commerce Commission to administer the act. For almost 20 years after its passage, the act, like the Sherman Antitrust Act, was narrowly interpreted by the courts and had little practical effect.

Battle of Buena Vista

Feb. 1847. It was a battle between Mexican forces, led by Antonio López de Santa Anna, and American forces, led by General Zachary Taylor in northern Mexico. The Mexican forces outnumbered the Americans by more than 3 to 1. However, the Americans won convincingly, with the Mexicans losing 5 times as many men. This victory was Taylor's greatest, and it forced Santa Anna to retreat to Mexico City.

Hartford Convention

Federalists from five New England states sent representatives to meet at Hartford to talk about their grievances. New England had been especially hurt by the Embargo Act, and some representatives threatened to get their states to leave the Union. The Convention's final document contained all their grievances but no threat to leave the Union. Still, the simple fact that Federalists talked about breaking away from the Union just as the US was winning the war made them look like traitors. The Federalists died as a major party after this.

Spoils System

First used by Jackson, the spoils system is when a government official awards jobs to friends and supporters, instead of basing job selection on ability. As a result, many unqualified people were (and still are) filling important governing positions. Jackson named some of his best buddies and loyal supporters to fill high government positions using the spoils system.

Zebulon Pike

Following the Lewis and Clark expedition, Lieutenant Zebulon Pike led an expedition of the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains in Colorado in 1806 and 1807. Pike's Peak in Colorado is named for him.

Ratification

For the Constitution to pass, it needed 9 states to agree to it, but to avoid having a divided country, they really needed all thirteen. By agreeing to have a Bill of Rights added to the Constitution, the supporters of the document earned its passage by all the states.

New England Female Labor Reform Association

Formed in 1845, they were a union of women that looked to protect the women in the workforce. They demanded a 10-hour workday at the Lowell Mill, but it was denied. After other states agreed to shorten the work day to 10 hours, the company finally agreed. This was the first time women gathered together and fought for their rights.

Fort Sumter

Fort Sumter, off the coast of Charleston, South Carolina, was a US military installation. South Carolina had demanded that it be turned over to the Confederacy, even before SC had seceded. The supplies of the fort were running low by March 1861, so Lincoln had to make a decision on whether or not to abandon the fort. Having more guts than Buchanan would have, Lincoln decided not to abandon it. Lincoln notified SC's governor that he would send food and supplies to the fort, but he would not reinforce it. To the South, resupplying the fort was the same as reinforcing it! So, on April 12, 1861, as the US Navy sailed to Fort Sumter to resupply it, the fort came under southern attack. It was bombarded for 34 straight hours by Confederate artillery. Not one Union soldier died during the battle! Still, the fort was surrendered to the southern traitors. "Remember Fort Sumter" became a battle cry in the North. 4 more southern states seceded following Fort Sumter, including Virginia. Interestingly, Mary Boykin Chesnut's diary tells us today that the Confederate traitors drank toasts to the start of hostilities. They wouldn't be so happy for long, as the Union kicked their traitor butts!

The American Equal Rights Association

Founded in 1866 by Elizabeth Stanton, Susan Anthony, Frederick Douglass, and Lucy Stone. The 15th Amendment split the AERA. They thought that if the word "male" was included in the 15th Amendment, then it would take at least a century to get it out. The group had a series of campaigns to remove the racial and sexual restrictions on voting in the state constitutions. Opposed 15th Amendment saying it would enfranchise all men but leave women without political privileges.

Secession - What happened?

Four days after the election of 1860, a special convention was called in Charleston, SC. It met in December. South Carolina decided unanimously to secede. During the next six weeks, 6 other states of the lower South (Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas) followed SC. Later on, after Fort Sumter, four more states joined them (NC, Arkansas, Virginia, and Tennessee), making 11 states that left the Union. Those states together became known as the Confederate States of America.

13th Amendment

Freed the slaves. Made by RR. Passed by Congress in 1865.

Huguenots

French Calvinists.

Railroad Failure

From 1868 to 1873, the railroad system was rebuilt and 3,000 or more miles of track were added. There was a 40% increase in railroads. It seemed impossible to get the amount that was needed. This took money from education and other things. The Republican governments became in debt and many of the railroads failed because they built too many railroads. The gospel of prosperity plan failed and did not help out the South at all. The overextension of credit to railroad speculators helped cause the Panic of 1873, and it resulted in bank failures. This led to the loss of confidence in the Republican Party in the South. As a result, the Democratic Party "redeemed" (regained control of) the South by 1877.

National Mineral Act of 1866

Gave millions of acres of free land to mining companies. This led to a huge expansion of oil refining, iron and coal. This led to greater expansion in industries depending upon oil, iron, and coal. It also led to environmental devastation, which would finally begin to be addressed at the end of the century.

Germ Warfare

General Amherst suggested getting revenge on the Natives because they had killed 2,000 English settlers. The English distributed blankets infected with smallpox. The disease spread, causing an epidemic amongst the Delaware, the Shawnee, the Southern Creek, Choctaws and Chickasaws, killing hundreds of people.

Santa Anna

General Antonio López de Santa Anna brought 5,000 Mexican troops to siege the fortress known as the Alamo. An estimated 187 Texans held the fort, and López, President of Mexico at the time, came to put down the rebellious settlers living on Mexican land. He and his army took the fort on March 6, 1836, losing around 1,000-1,500 of his men in the attack. All 187 Texans were killed.

John Cabot

Genoese explorer sailing with an English crew, he discovered Newfoundland.

"Mr. President"

George Washington wanted to be addressed as "Mr. President" because he felt like "Your Highness" was too close to a title used for a King. It is still used today.

Election of 1796

George Washington was worn out by criticism and didn't even think about running for a third term. Adams won with 71 votes, but was followed by Thomas Jefferson, with 68 votes. Back then, until the passage of the 12th Amendment in 1803, the person with the most votes became President and the person with the second-most votes became Vice-President. The President was a Federalist, but the vice president was the leader of the Democratic-Republicans. This was controversial because the two parties were fighting for two totally different ideas of government.

Martha Washington

George Washington's wife. She was the first 'first lady,' and had stayed by her husband's side during the war, even in camp.

Enumerated goods

Goods that could only be traded to England, they included sugar and rice. Basically, crops that could not be grown in England were on the list of enumerated goods.

Cross of Gold Speech

Greatest speech of Bryan's career and maybe the greatest speech of all time. "Having behind us the producing masses of this nation and the world, supported by the commercial interests, the laboring interests and the toilers everywhere, we will answer their demand for a gold standard by saying to them: You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns, you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold." Don't memorize this: just recognize it! Basically, Bryan was supporting the monetization of silver and advocating an inflationary monetary policy. At the end of his speech, Bryan extended his arms in a Christ-like pose for about 5 seconds, while the crowd was completely silent. Then, the crowd went nuts and rushed the stage - some of them apparently thought he was Jesus!

Hamilton v. Jefferson

Hamilton was a Federalist, and Jefferson was an Anti-Federalist. Hamilton wanted a centralized government focused on commerce and industry and allied with the British, while Jefferson supported a decentralized agrarian republic focused on strong foreign relations with France. Their conflict helped develop political parties. People who supported Jefferson were mostly artisans, shopkeepers, frontier settlers, or small farm owners. People who supported Hamilton were mostly merchants, bankers, manufacturers, and wealthy farmers. Hamilton believed that the nation had to industrialize in order to compete with other nations, while Jefferson was convinced that an agrarian republic was absolutely necessary to keep Americans free.

Wade-Davis Bill

Happened in July 1864. War still going on. Senator Benjamin F. Wade of Ohio and Congressman Henry Davis of Maryland proposed a tougher bill in response to the 10% Plan. Provisional military governors were to be set in seceded southern states. Required 50% of the seceding state's white males to take a loyalty oath before elections could be held for a state convention to rewrite the state constitution. The states had to say they were sorry about seceding, and it disqualified Confederate officials from voting or holding public office. Also, this bill guaranteed equality for the former slaves, which was a huge hit to the South. Lincoln wanted to win support in the South, and this bill threatened his beliefs, so he refused to sign the bill. Radicals saw this opportunity as a chance to reconstruct the South.

First three colleges

Harvard, William and Mary (in Williamsburg, VA), and Yale (New Haven, CN), were what?

John Winthrop

He acquired a royal charter from King Charles I for the "Massachusetts Bay Company" and then led a group of English Puritans to the New World in 1630. He was the first governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony, and wanted to settle in America to build a "city upon a hill."

John Wilkes Booth

He assassinated Lincoln, while Lincoln attended a performance at Ford's Theater in Washington D.C. This happened just 5 days after Lee's surrender. Fun fact: Lincoln had a nightmare on April 11 that he was going to be assassinated!

Andrew Mellon

He became very wealthy in the aluminum industry, but controlled interests in many different industries. He became Secretary of the Treasury for all three Republican presidents in the 1920s, and is controversial because of the huge tax breaks he gave the rich (the top tax rate fell from 77% to 24%). He donated his art collection, plus $10 million to fund construction, to the National Gallery of Art in 1937.

John Rolfe

He brought tobacco seeds from the Caribbean and planted them in Jamestown. The resultant hybrid soon became very popular in Britain.

Andrew Carnegie

He controlled the steel industry until the creation of US Steel in 1901. His company was the Carnegie Steel Company. He is known as one of the greatest philanthropists in US history - about 2,500 libraries across the world were funded with his money.

Joseph Smith

He created the Mormon religion. He wrote the Book of Mormon, which he claimed to have translated from golden plates of ancient Americans shown to him by an angel. Mormons were persecuted because they believed in polygamy (men could have multiple wives). Because of persecution, the Mormons were forced to move west. They first went to Ohio, then Missouri, where they were attacked by a mob, then moved to Illinois, where Smith was eventually arrested and killed by a mob while awaiting trial.

Nicholas Trist

He delivered the message from President Polk to Mexican officials about peace terms. Although he was supposed to return to Polk after the capture of Mexico City, he did not. As a result of his message, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed. Polk, who was considering taking all of Mexico, was not pleased, but agreed to the treaty.

Death of Harrison

He developed a cold after delivering his 8,000-word, two-hour Inaugural Address in a snowstorm without a coat or hat! This soon turned into pneumonia, and he died only 31 days into his presidency. As a result, Tyler became president, which was a huge setback for the Whigs, because he reversed the progress of Whig bills that supported the American System (since he was really a Democrat).

Buchanan's weakness

He did not feel that it was legal for the South to break away from the Union, but he could not find anywhere in the Constitution where it gave him the power to do anything to stop it. He refused to use force because the US Army only had about 15,000 soldiers and they were needed to control the Indians in the West. He also sympathized with the view held by many to just let the South go in peace. And, he was surrounded by Southerners in his Cabinet, and they had a great deal of influence on him to not use force.

Benedict Arnold

He fought for the Patriots in the beginning of the war, but then was commissioned to the British side after his plans to forfeit the fort at West Point, New York to the British were discovered. Some of his major victories while a Patriot were at Ticonderoga and the Battle of Saratoga. He showed great leadership and was promoted to general, but was passed over for promotion by the Continental Congress when others took credit for his actions. In 1775, he led an ill-fated expedition through the wilderness of Maine to Quebec, with 500 of his 1100 men dying along the route. The route is on the National Register of Historic Places. He is considered the biggest traitor in American history after defecting to the British.

Eli Whitney

He invented the cotton gin. The cotton gin combs seeds out of the cotton boll 50 times faster than one person can do it by hand. The cotton gin shaped the economy of the South and made the South more dependent than ever on slavery, though this was not intended, because now more slaves were "needed" to plant and harvest the cotton.

Washington Irving

He is credited with publishing The Sketch Book and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow and making the characters Rip Van Winkle and the Headless Horseman famous.

John C. Frémont

He is known as "The Great Pathfinder." As an explorer and military commander, he mapped the overland trails to Oregon and California in 1843-44. Frémont also helped secure California in 1846. He and his troops assisted in the Bear Flag Revolt, where a handful of American settlers announced California's independence from Mexico. In 1856, he became the first candidate for President from the new Republican Party, but lost when the Democrats warned that his election would lead to civil war and also because the Know Nothings, a third party, took some of his votes.

Frederick Jackson Turner

He is one of America's most famous historians. In 1893, he released an essay known as The Significance of the Frontier in American History at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. He said that the "repeated experience of settling new frontiers across the continent had shaped Americans into a uniquely adventurous, optimistic, and democratic people." In other words, he believed that the spirit and success of the U.S. was directly tied to the country's westward expansion. His argument is called the Turner Thesis.

Stephen Kearny

He led soldiers to Santa Fé at the beginning of the Mexican War and captured it with ease. He then led soldiers to the capture of southern California.

Brigham Young

He led the Mormons away from harm to the Salt Lake City region in present-day Utah. Though they struggled to survive in arid Utah, they were left alone to practice their faith.

Benjamin Franklin

He made inventions from bifocal lenses to musical instruments. He also found that lightning bolts were electrical. He signed the Declaration of Independence. He was also very important at the Constitutional Convention, as he was the peacekeeper who kept delegates from getting out of control. He was the most famous American during this time period, even more famous than George Washington.

George Whitefield

He made the local revivals intercolonial by going on tours. He was an evangelical Anglican minister from England whose preaching had a very powerful effect.

Stephen Long

He mapped out the Great Plains in 1819-1820. It was part of a plan to scare the British trappers out of the West. He is also known for his part in developing the steam locomotive. He led a military excursion up the Missouri River, and later he led several expeditions of the U.S. border with Canada. His 5 expeditions travelled 26,000 miles!

James Duke

He owned the American Tobacco Company, another example of vertical integration. The ATC was a complete monopoly, and was broken up under anti-trust laws in 1911. He gave millions to the university now known as Duke University.

Gustavus Swift

He owned the largest meat company in the US until his death in 1903. He developed the refrigerated railroad car to allow meat to be transported around the world, helping to make Chicago one of the most prosperous cities in the world. He is a great example of vertical integration, controlling everything from the ranch to the local butcher shop. Also, his plants used every part of the animal - "everything but the squeal," said Swift. Lack of government regulation allowed sausages to include rat droppings, sawdust, spoiled meat, rodents, and other yummy bits. This, of course, inspired Upton Sinclair to write The Jungle.

William Jennings Bryan

He ran as the nominee for both the Populist Party (explained later) and the Democratic Party for President in 1896. From Nebraska, he sympathized with the farmer and the common man, supported the fight to regulate railroads and banks, and was a Silverite. He was the Democratic nominee for President three times (1896, 1900, and 1908), but lost all three times. The big issue in 1896 was silver, and he toured the country, giving over 500 speeches supporting monetization of silver. He became the Secretary of State for Woodrow Wilson, but resigned during WWI because he felt that Wilson was unreasonable toward Germany. Finally, he was the prosecuting attorney in the Scopes "monkey" Trial in 1925, defending religion against the ideas of Charles Darwin.

Horace Greeley

He ran for the Republican nomination for President in 1872. He was a Liberal Republican. "Root, hog, or die," was his advice to the blacks in the South. Grant also ran (for reelection) for the Republicans. After Grant won the Republican Party nomination, the Democrats nominated Greeley as their candidate. This shows how weak the Democrats were at this point. Greeley lost in the election.

Jonathan Edwards

He sparked a religious revival movement in the 1730s in western Massachusetts known as the Great Awakening. His sermons were full of emotion as opposed to those of others that "read like rational dissertations."

General William Hull

He tried to invade Canada during the War of 1812, but faced superior forces and retreated to Detroit. He became infamous for surrendering Fort Detroit in 1812 and was court-martialed for it.

Thomas Hutchinson

He was Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts. He ordered the sheriff to break up a crowd outside of Andrew Oliver's house. Citizens greeted him by pelting him with paving stones and bricks. Soon after, a crowd developed outside of Hutchinson's own house. While he and his family fled the scene, the mob ransacked his home. Yeah!

William Walker

He was a "filibusterer" who led an army made up of mostly Southerners. They failed to take over Baja California, but did succeed at making Walker the President of Nicaragua in 1856. He promptly legalized slavery in Nicaragua, showing that the South was desperate to expand slavery. Walker was soon overthrown by other Latin American nations, and was killed by firing squad in the early 1860s.

James Oglethorpe

He was a British general who founded the colony of Georgia in 1732. He set up the colony as a home for debtors and petty criminals, and to provide a buffer zone between Spanish Florida and English South Carolina. He banned slavery and alcohol, and kept landholdings small. He felt that sturdy farmers would defend the border capably from the Spanish. Unfortunately, slavery was legalized less than 20 years later.

Robert Morris

He was a British-born American merchant elected to the Pennsylvania Assembly. Robert was also a delegate to the Second Continental Congress. He signed the Declaration of Independence, Articles of Confederation, and the Constitution, and he controlled the Continental Navy. He was the founder of the Bank of North America and was known as "Financier of the American Revolution."

Sequoyah

He was a Cherokee scholar who developed the Cherokee alphabet. This made reading and writing in Cherokee possible. The Cherokee officially adopted his alphabet in 1825, and their literacy rate became higher than the American settlers.

John Marshall

He was a Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. He ruled in favor of Madison, in Marbury v. Madison and gave the Supreme Court the power of a doctrine of judicial review. He is considered the most important Supreme Court Chief Justice in history because every one of his decisions increased the power of the federal government at the expense of the states. Any time a state and the federal government went to court against each other, he ruled in favor of the federal government.

James G. Blaine

He was a Congressman and US Senator from Maine, and Secretary of State for three presidents. The governor's mansion in Augusta is named for him. Even though he was a Half-Breed, he had a reputation for corruption. When he ran for President, his opponents chanted, "Blaine, Blaine, James G. Blaine, the continental liar from the State of Maine!"

Andrew Jackson

He was a Congressman from Tennessee who strongly supported the War of 1812. During the war, Jackson served as a general of the US Army, and won the most famous battle of the war, the Battle of New Orleans. At New Orleans in 1815, Jackson defeated a much larger British force, marking the last major battle of the war. In fact, the Battle of New Orleans, America's greatest victory in the entire war, took place one month after the war was over (the combatants hadn't heard that it was over)! This win gave the United States a stronger bargaining position at the peace settlement. Jackson was also famous during this time period for killing Indians, including defeating the Creeks at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814, and invading Florida to attack the Seminoles in 1817.

Andrew Johnson's background and views

He was a Democrat and previously a slaveholder from TN. He had served as a state legislator, governor, and US Senator. Was only Southern member of US Senate to remain loyal to the Union. 1862 - Lincoln appointed Johnson to become the military governor of TN. He began wartime reconstruction there. In 1864, the Republicans, in an appeal to the Northern and border state War Democrats, nominated Johnson for VP, but many Rad Rep distrusted him. After Lincoln's death, Johnson appeared to side with the Rad Rep, who wanted to treat the South as a "conquered province." The support for Johnson quickly faded as his policies unfolded.

John Tyler

He was a Democrat turned Whig through disagreements with Andrew Jackson's presidential style. He was chosen for the vice presidency because he had sectional appeal (he could get votes from the South). The Whigs never looked into his political viewpoints, assuming that Harrison would live through his entire presidency. Unfortunately for the Whigs, Tyler was anti-Jackson and anti-Whig. As president, Tyler vetoed multitudes of bills for everything from tariffs to a new US Bank. As a result, the Whigs removed Tyler from their party and stepped out of his Cabinet. His entire Cabinet resigned! Tyler replaced them with former Democrats. The Whig party's rise to power flopped because they chose the wrong man for a vice presidential candidate. Tyler successfully tore down the Whigs and even divided the Democrats while he was in office. He was known as "A Man Without a Party" and was not nominated for President in the 1844 race.

Squanto

He was a Native American who interpreted for the Pilgrims and Massasoit. He was Massasoit's advisor. He also taught the colonists how to catch eel and plant corn. He taught them how to use fish to fertilize crops.

John Peter Zenger

He was a New York City editor who printed anti-government articles. He attacked Governor William Cosby, and was charged with seditious libel. Seditious libel was a criminal offense in England; it was printing material that the government deemed to tend toward insurrection against the established order. In other words, Zenger was accused of writing something that was trying to convince people to revolt. However, though he was indicted, the colonial court refused to convict him. This court case paved the way for freedom of the press. After his case, many more editors started writing anti-government articles.

Hinton Helper

He was a Southerner who published an attack on slavery, The Impending Crisis of the South, making the growing arguments between "haves and not-haves" of the South publicly known. He argued that slavery had a negative effect on white people. Because of his views, he was forced to flee from the South!

Nicholas Biddle

He was a banker who ran the Second Bank of the US. Andrew Jackson held a personal grudge against the bank because he disliked the fact that the bank had foreign investors, it seemed to benefit rich people at the expense of poor farmers, and it wasn't mentioned in the Constitution. He called the Second Bank a "monster," and he was determined to slay it! The grudge against the bank turned into a personal grudge against Nicholas Biddle; when Biddle applied early to recharter the bank (the charter of the Bank expired in 1836), Jackson vetoed it.

Samuel Adams

He was a brewer and patriot! He helped organize anti-British feelings in Massachusetts. He argued that if the British could tax trade in the colonies, they would someday tax colonists' land and everything they owned. He was a member of a social club called the Loyal Nine, which was instrumental in organizing a protest against the Stamp Act. He was also one of the founding members of the Sons of Liberty and was a major pain for Lieutenant Governor Thomas Hutchinson.

Frederick Douglass

He was a free African American abolitionist. Garrison was once a mentor to Douglass, but Garrison thought the Constitution was evil because it was proslavery, while Douglass concluded that it was antislavery. He wrote Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an autobiography. It was a story of his life as a slave and greatly impacted the abolitionist movement.

David Walker

He was a free African American who wrote Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World. This pamphlet, along with others written by free African Americans in northern states, wanted slaves in the South to revolt. These authors were blamed for the actions of revolting slaves. Walker wrote, "it is no more harm for you to kill the man who is trying to kill you than it is for you to take a drink of water." This bold attack was widely read, and widely banned in the South. It was published the year before Nat Turner's Rebellion.

Henry David Thoreau

He was a friend of Emerson who emphasized individualism. He spent two years of solitude in a cabin at Walden Pond, near Concord, MA. In 1840, based on his experience at Walden Pond, he wrote Walden. He criticized materialism, believing that men needed to live simple lifestyles that left time for spiritual thought.

Benedict Arnold

He was a general during the American Revolutionary War. He began the war as a member of the Continental Army, and led a march through the wilderness of Maine to attack Quebec in 1775. While he was still a general on the American side, he obtained command of the fort at West Point, New York and plotted unsuccessfully to surrender it to the British. After the plot was exposed in September 1780, he entered the British Army as a brigadier general. The main reason he defected was because the Continental Army passed him over for promotion; they did not give him the credit he deserved, particularly after his heroics at Saratoga in 1777. His name is synonymous with "traitor."

James B. Weaver

He was a leader of the Farmers' Alliance during the 1880s, a group that joined the Populists in 1890. Weaver ran for President in 1892 as the Populist Party nominee, and received over 1 million votes and 22 electoral votes (pretty good for a 3rd party)!

James Bowie

He was a legendary fighter and frontiersman; the bowie knife is named after him. Bowie came into his fortune when he married the daughter of the Mexican vice governor of Texas, Ursula Veramendi. He became an honored, wealthy, Mexican citizen after that. After his wife and children died from a cholera epidemic in 1833, Bowie supported Anglo-Texan independence. He died at the Battle of the Alamo, but not from fighting - he contracted Typhoid Fever.

William Travis

He was a lieutenant colonel in the Texan Army. Legend says that three days before the Battle of the Alamo, Travis announced that reinforcements would not be arriving. He then drew a line in the sand in front of the fort and said, "Those who are willing to stay and die, cross the line; those who are not can leave without shame." Travis was killed along with James Bowie and Davy Crockett.

William Lloyd Garrison

He was a militant abolitionist who began publishing the Liberator, which became the leading antislavery newspaper. He was one of the founders of the American Anti-Slavery Society, favoring the immediate abolition of slavery. He also was one of the leading advocates for women's rights. His effectiveness was limited because his radicalism scared some people - he even burned a copy of the Constitution in public to protest slavery!

Captain Oliver Perry

He was a naval captain who beat a British navy squadron on Lake Erie. He sent out the famous message, "We have met the enemy and they are ours." Without the lake, the British could no longer keep control over Detroit. He also assisted General William Henry Harrison in the Battle of Thames.

Daniel Webster

He was a politician from Massachusetts. He was very similar to Alexander Hamilton in that he wanted a strong national government, high protective tariffs for manufacturing, internal improvements paid by the federal government, and a national bank. In other words, he supported the American System! He is most famous for the Webster-Hayne debate in 1830, which was where he vigorously defended the federal government against states' rights. That speech is still known as the greatest speech in American history. He also served twice as Secretary of State and served in both the House and Senate.

Davy Crockett

He was a politician turned soldier in the Texas Revolution. He is best remember for being a frontiersman and for his "heroic" death at the Alamo historians disagree about whether he surrendered or if he fought to the last man, surrounded by piles of Mexican corpses).

Charles G. Finney

He was a preacher during the Second Great Awakening. He preached to people of all social classes.

John Hancock

He was a protégé of Sam Adams and first governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts after we won our independence. Before the war, customs officials seized his sloop (boat), the Liberty, and Hancock was charged with smuggling in 1768. After this, he used his considerable wealth to support the cause for independence. He was also the president of the Second Continental Congress, and signed his name extra large on the Declaration of Independence.

Patrick Henry

He was a radical lawyer in the colonies. He helped the Virginia Stamp Act Resolutions, protesting the Stamp Act, get approved by the Virginia assembly. He argued that King George III had become a tyrant and therefore his subjects no longer had to obey him. He is best known for delivering a speech in 1775 to convince Virginia to support raising a Continental Army to fight Britain. He said, "Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty or give me death!"

Thaddeus Stevens

He was a representative for the RRs from PA. He wanted to take 400 million acres of land from the wealthiest 10% of Southerners. He would give that land to blacks, white yeomen farmers, and northern land buyers. The whole fabric Southern society should be changed. He was RR leader.

Metacomet

He was a son of Massasoit and chief of the Wampanoag tribe in southern New England. He tried to get along with the English, adopting an English name (King Philip) and dressing in English clothing. At the end of King Philip's War, he was shot and killed by hunters, and his wife and son were sold into slavery. His head was displayed at Plymouth for 20 years.

Sitting Bull

He was a spiritual leader of the Hunkpapa Lakota Sioux and leader of the Ghost Dance religious movement in the 1880s. He prophesized the end of white expansion if the Sioux stopped drinking and lived a clean life. Some Ghost Dancers claimed that the Ghost Shirts would repel bullets through spiritual power. Alas, they were wrong! When the US government broke a Lakota treaty by giving some Lakota land to white settlers and labeled the Sioux "lazy Indians," the Sioux responded by intensifying their religious dances and rituals. This frightened the whites, and the US Army arrested Sitting Bull. Sitting Bull was then killed when a fight erupted after his arrest. The Wounded Knee Massacre, the last major armed conflict between the Lakota and the US, took place on Dec. 29, 1890, right after Sitting Bull's death.

William Lloyd Garrison

He was a very influential and opinionated abolitionist. He publicly denounced slavery. While others hoped for a gradual disappearance, he said it should disappear immediately. He began publishing his own paper The Liberator in Boston. It had a small circulation but occasionally aroused violent public reaction. In 1832 Garrison formed the first society for the immediate abolition of slavery. He thought the North should separate from the South and the Union. He refused to vote & didn't support the U.S. Government because it allowed slavery. He was so radical that he burned a copy of the Constitution during an anti-slavery rally in Mass. During the Civil War, he supported Abraham Lincoln and the Union Army, even though he was critical of Lincoln for making his main objective preserving the Union instead of abolition of slavery. After the 13th Amendment, which ended slavery, Garrison discontinued his newspaper and focused his time on women suffrage (the right to vote), pacifism (against war), and temperance (cut back on drinking). Before the war, he had started the New England Emigrant Aid Society, which sent abolitionists to Kansas so it would become a free state.

Edmond Genet

He was also known as Citizen Genet. A French diplomat, he was sent to America to promote France's wars with Britain and Spain, and to ask America to honor the Franco-American Alliance. He was welcomed with parties when he arrived in Charleston, SC; he was very popular with the people. He recruited privateers to steal from the British. George Washington sent Genet an 8,000-word letter asking Genet to stop, since he did not want the US to be dragged into a war against Britain and Spain.

Simeon North

He was an American manufacturer. He manufactured scythes before moving to guns. He supplied pistols and rifles to the U.S. government from 1799 and he also developed the use of interchangeable parts in manufacturing and the first-known milling machine.

Samuel Chase

He was an Associate Justice on the US Supreme Court from 1796-1811. He was a Federalist. Unlike today, when judges at least pretend to be politically unbiased, he was openly hostile toward Democratic-Republicans. After Jefferson became President, he spoke out against the Democratic-Republican repeal of the Judiciary Act of 1801. This prompted Jefferson to write a letter to a Congressman asking for his punishment! he was then formally charged (impeached) by the House of Representatives on the charge that he was biased against defendants who were Democratic-Republicans. However, when the trial took place in the Senate, he was acquitted. The impeachment trial is really important for two reasons - 1. By acquitting him, the Senate reinforced the independence of the judiciary. In other words, the other branches of government can't just remove judges they don't like. 2. Judges became more careful about avoiding the appearance of being politically biased.

John Slidell

He was an envoy sent by President Polk to Mexico in an effort to purchase California, New Mexico and an expanded Texan border. The price was set at 30 million dollars. The Mexican government turned him away. This was one step that led to the Mexican-American War.

George Fitzhugh

He was another Southern spokesperson who, in 1854, asserted that "the negro slaves of the South are the happiest, and, in some sense, the freest people in the world" because they didn't have to worry about housing, clothing, or feeding themselves. He argued that unlike the Northern "wage slaves" working in the factories, at least the plantation slaves were taken care of by their masters, while the "wage slaves" employers didn't take any care of them. He argued that "Southern masters and their slaves were bound together by a community of interests."

George Washington-Man of the People?

He was anything but a man of the people. By nature reserved and solemn, he preferred to ride around town in a horse drawn carriage, escorted by uniformed liverymen. Like the British royal tradition, he delivered his addresses personally to Congress, and received from both houses an official reply.

William Marcy Tweed

He was called Boss Tweed. He was the boss of the Democratic Party in New York City. His organization was called Tammany Hall. He was a really corrupt politician who stole millions of taxpayers' dollars from NYC. Tweed got wealthy from kickbacks (he'd award a city contract to a company, and the company would then kick some of the money from the contract back to him). He was taken down by a prosecutor named Samuel Tilden, who became the Democratic Party nominee for President in 1876 because of the fame he gained.

Samuel Slater

He was known as the "Father of the American Industrial Revolution," since he started the industrial revolution when he brought British textile technology to America. The revolution started in a mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island with the construction of the first successful textile mill in America in the 1810s.

James Henry Hammond

He was one of the first to develop proslavery arguments, as opposed to just being defensive on the matter. He was elected South Carolina Congressman in 1834. In 1836, he delivered a major address to Congress denying that slavery was evil. He said that it had produced "the highest toned, the purest, best organization or society that has ever existed on the face of the earth." In other words, slavery is wonderful because it created an awesome society in the South!

Theodore Weld

He was one of the leading abolitionists from 1830-1844. He wrote a book called American Slavery as it is - Testimony of a Thousand Witnesses. This book had a huge effect on abolition; it is considered the 2nd most influential book on the antislavery movement, behind only Uncle Tom's Cabin.

Paul Revere's Ride - What really happened? (Revere, Dawes, Prescott):

He was remembered for his midnight ride, warning colonists of the impending British Army attack. What really happened, though, is that two other men also rode to Lexington to warn the colonists that the British were coming. These men were William Dawes and Samuel Prescott. Prescott is the one who should get the credit historically. All three men were caught and detained by British officials, but Prescott escaped and warned Sam Adams and John Hancock that the British were moving toward Lexington and Concord. Revere does deserve credit, though, for setting up the warning system at the Old North Church. Light one lamp if the British came by land, and two lamps if the British came by water. "One if by land, two if by sea."

John Jay

He was the 1st Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, serving from 1789 - 1795. The Supreme Court had relatively few cases during its first decade, but it still managed to raise considerable political controversy.

Henry Clay

He was the 8th, 10th, and 13th Speaker of the House of Representatives, and the Secretary of State from 1825 to 1829. He wanted to go to war with England ("War Hawk"), and largely contributed to America fighting in the War of 1812. He also supported the American System to try to help business. He was known as the "Great Compromiser" for his ability to work out difficult issues, and he worked on the Missouri Compromise. In 1957, he was voted one of the five greatest Senators of all time.

William Howe

He was the British general who replaced General Gage in command of all British forces in North America after the Battle of Bunker Hill, decided to withdraw the British from Boston, and relocated British command to New York (even then, a home for losers!).

William Pitt

He was the British prime minister who changed British policy during the Seven Years' War to focus on winning in America (instead of the sole focus being on winning in Europe). His strategy worked - Britain had been losing in North America, but soon took Fort Duquesne, Fort Louisbourg, Quebec, and, finally, Montreal.

William Penn

He was the English Quaker who founded the Pennsylvania colony. King Charles II owed Penn's father a debt, so he granted him the huge colony.

Mark Hanna

He was the Republican Party boss from Ohio during the 1890s. He supported McKinley for the Republican nomination for President in 1896, and opposed Reed.

Horace Mann

He was the Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education and he pioneered the new public education. Schooling in Massachusetts evolved from being only welcoming to those whose parents could afford it, to being almost mandatory for white kids from ages 5-19. He also said that kids needed to be taught in a pleasant and friendly atmosphere. The best way to do that was to separate kids by grade rather than have them all in one classroom together, and to pay special attention to the younger kids. He also focused on the importance of training teachers and on having a curriculum. Many women became teachers. Thanks to Mann, women got jobs, and for the first time, real careers. Of course, they were paid less than men, but it was a start.

John C. Breckinridge

He was the Southern Democratic candidate in the election of 1860 from Kentucky. He favored the extension of slavery to the territories and the taking of Cuba to increase the number of slave states, but did not support secession.

Juan Cabrillo

He was the Spanish explorer who was the first European to sail into San Diego Harbor.

Treaty of Tordesillas

(1494) - an agreement between Spain and Portugal that separated the lands on the Portuguese from those of the Spanish in the New World. Pope Alexander VI had drawn a papal line of demarcation to separate the lands, and this treaty set the line to give Brazil, discovered by Portugal, to Portugal. The rest of the New World lands would go to Spain, and Portugal obtained lands in Asia.

Pequot War

(1634-1638). The Narragansett tribe of Rhode Island, the Mohegan tribe of Connecticut, and the English teamed up to fight the Pequot tribe of Connecticut and Long Island. The Pequots traded furs with the Dutch, who were England's main rivals. The English, Narragansetts, and Mohegans nearly completely wiped out the Pequots. During the war, the English horrified their Native American allies with their brutality at Mystic, Connecticut, where the English killed 700 Pequots by burning them alive (Mystic Massacre). Interestingly, the Pequots now own Foxwoods and compete with Mohegan Sun for gamblers!

Pilgrims

(a.k.a. "Separatists"). They were a group of Protestants who wanted to completely separate from the Anglican Church. Think of them as extreme Puritans. Instead of decided to fix the church by removing the Catholic beliefs, they just broke with it. In 1620, they sailed on the Mayflower and planted a colony at Plymouth (in southern Massachusetts today).

General Court

A Massachusetts governing body that held cases of judicial appeals (when people lose in a lower court, they can appeal to the General Court). It also functioned as a bicameral (two house - Senate and House of Representatives) legislature to make the laws. And, each town sent two elected delegates to serve in the General Court, so it was an early example of a representative democracy.

Acoma

A Pueblo village sitting high atop a great outcropping of rock. The Spanish attacked here under the command of Juan de Onate. Though the Pueblos resisted, the Spanish succeeded in destroying the town and killing or enslaving its inhabitants. Surviving warriors had one of their feet chopped off.

Proprietary colony

A colony where one person or a small group of people own the land and have rights to it. Examples are Maryland and Pennsylvania.

Joint-stock company

A company where Englishmen could invest their money in return for a portion of the profits from trade to the New World. The Virginia Company that founded Jamestown was one.

"A city upon a hill"

A quote from Jesus' Sermon on the Mount that Winthrop used in a sermon to inspire the colonists. "We shall be as a city upon a hill, the eyes of all people are upon us." It meant that Massachusetts Bay Colony was going to be a model of a proper Christian city.

Matriarchy

A system where women fill the leading roles in society. Some historians consider Virginia to be an example of matriarchy because so many men died from disease. When the husband died, the wife inherited the property, and married again. When the new hubby died, she inherited his land too! This allowed some women to become quite powerful. And how did the males react? They eventually passed laws preventing the inheritance of property by females!

Restoration Colonies

After the end of the English Civil War (1642-1660), the kings came back to rule England. The word "restoration" refers to when they came back, and the "Restoration Period" was a time between 1660 and 1685 when King Charles II ruled. Charles rewarded his supporters with lands in the New World. Any colony established during that time was known as a "Restoration Colony." Restoration colonies included Carolina, New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania.

Renaissance

As a result of contact with Muslims during the Crusades and through contact through the increased trade of the late Middle Ages, Western scholars obtained access to ancient Greek and Roman texts that had been preserved in Muslim libraries. This revived interest in classical Greece and Rome, which led to a "period of intellectual and artistic flowering" during the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries known as the Renaissance. The Renaissance is incredibly important for a number of reasons, including two for the purposes of this unit: 1. It made people think of life here on earth as a life worth living to its fullest, instead of a single-minded focus on the afterlife. 2. It led to developments in navigational technology that allowed exploration.

Sea Dogs

English privateers. Drake and Hawkins were these.

Montreal

Founded in 1642, it was a missionary center for Catholicism.

Jean Ribault

He and 150 Huguenots established a French colony at Parris Island, (in present-day South Carolina). The colony failed, though, when it ran out of supplies. The second colony, at Fort Caroline, was successfully established in 1564, but was conquered by the Spanish in 1565 and all 500 of its inhabitants, including Ribault, were slaughtered.

Thomas Hooker

He was a Puritan minister who founded the colony of Connecticut after dissenting with Puritan leaders in Massachusetts. He believed that all female church members should have the right of suffrage (the right to vote). This radical idea resulted in him being kicked out of Massachusetts! He founded Hartford, Connecticut and helped create the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut.

Juan de Onate

He was a Spaniard who led 130 mostly Native American and mestizo families to New Mexico and founded Santa Fe in 1598. He brought 20 missionaries with him to convert all of the Pueblo (Native American tribe) in the area. He ended up slaughtering a lot of Pueblos at Acoma.

Sieur de la Salle

He was a fur trade commandant. From 1681-82, he navigated the Mississippi River from the upper reaches to its mouth on the Gulf of Mexico. He claimed its entire watershed for France.

James I

He was the King of England who issued royal charters for the colonization of the mid-Atlantic region (then known as Virginia) to joint-stock companies.

John Smith

He was the commander of the Jamestown settlement often given credit for the success of the settlement because he forced the settlers to work ("if you don't work, you don't eat").

William Bradford

He was the governor of the Plymouth colony, elected 30 times! His journal, Of Plymouth Plantation, tells us much of what we know about the Plymouth colony. He also wrote the Mayflower Compact.

Massasoit

He was the leader of the Wampanoag tribe in what is today Massachusetts. He negotiated a peace treaty with the Pilgrims and prevented the starvation of the colonists by giving them food. He supposedly celebrated the first Thanksgiving, in 1621, with the Pilgrims, according to records left by Governor William Bradford.

Powhatan

He was the powerful leader of a confederacy of Algonquian tribes (known as the Powhatan Confederacy) surrounding Jamestown. He at first saw the colonists as allies and trade partners, but after the English stole food from his tribe, he nearly wiped out Jamestown. He captured John Smith, the leader of the Jamestown settlement.

Croatoan

In 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh hired navigators to lead an expedition to the New World. The original intention was that a settlement would be made in the Chesapeake Bay area since it had milder weather than the northern regions, while still being away from the Spanish in Florida. They were primarily interested in locating mineral riches, and a favorable report was brought back to Raleigh. The navigators endorsed a three-mile strip of land off the coast of present-day North Carolina and south of Albemarle Sound as a likely site for a colony. Raleigh then received a royal land grant from Queen Elizabeth I. Raleigh sent a second expedition to the New World in 1585. The new colony was named Virginia, in honor of the Virgin Queen, Elizabeth. A small settlement was created, known as Roanoke, but the colonists returned to England the following year. Raleigh's last attempt was made in 1587. John White was the leader and hoped to establish a self-sufficient colony, instead of being the center of locating gold and silver. The settlers planted crops, made shelters, and in August, the first English child was born in the New World (Virginia Dare). White returned to England for additional supplies, but because of warfare with Spain, he was unable to return to Roanoke for 3 years. When White came back, no settlers were left. The entire colony of 117 men, women, and children were gone. The only clues to their disappearance were the letters CRO carved on a tree near the fort and the word "Croatoan" on a post. Croatoan is the name of an island near Roanoke, off the coast of North Carolina, and it is speculated that the colonists went there, but White never checked it out because of a hurricane that blew his ships off the coast.

Samuel de Champlain

In 1605, he helped establish the French outpost of Port Royal on what is now Nova Scotia. It was the first permanent French settlement in the New World. Three years later in 1608, he founded the town of Quebec. He sent other agents to live amongst the Indians who helped direct the lucrative furs to Quebec. He also forged an alliance with the Huron Indians, who controlled access to the rich fur territories of the Great Lakes, and were the traditional enemies of the Iroquois (who were allied with the Dutch).

Indentured Servants

In exchange for the cost of their trip to the New World, these people were contracted to work off the price of the journey for a period of four to seven years. Masters had to feed, clothe, and house their servants.

Salem Witch Trials

In several towns in Massachusetts in 1692, nineteen people were hanged for the crime of being a witch, and one man who refused to testify was crushed to death by heavy stones. People accused tended to be those who were widows and women who couldn't have children. The episode has been used in popular literature as a vivid cautionary tale about the dangers of religious extremism, false accusations and lack of due process.

Fundamental Orders of Connecticut

It was a constitution that set up the government structure of Connecticut. It was the first written constitution in the American colonies.

Mayflower Compact

It was an agreement by the Plymouth settlers to rule the colony by the will of the majority of male church members. William Bradford wrote it, and it is known as the first document of self-government in North America. It was not a constitution - it was just an agreement to rule by the majority.

Coureur des bois

It was typical for young men in Canada to take to the woods and become agents of the fur companies or independent traders. Men like these were known as "runners of the woods." Most returned home and took up farming. But others chose to stay in Indian villages, where they married Native American women and raised families. The work of the coureur des bois led to French exploration of much of the North American interior.

Henry VIII

King of England from 1509-47, he is known for his many wives and for breaking England away from the Catholic Church. When the pope refused to grant Henry an annulment of his first marriage, Henry broke England from the Catholic Church. He had broken from the Church for personal and financial reasons (he sold the Church lands and the monasteries), and his new Church, the Anglican Church, was pretty much the same as the Catholic Church except he was the head of the Church. However, some of the English people really were Protestants, and those who wanted to eliminate Catholicism from the Anglican Church were called Puritans. They were persecuted, and many emigrated to the New World.

Massachusetts Education Act of 1647 (Ye Old Deluder Satan Law)

Laws that created public education in the colonies. Towns with 50 or more families were required to have a public school. Towns with more than 100 families were required to have a grammar school that taught Latin to prepare them to go to Harvard College. As you can tell from the title, education was considered important in New England because the Puritans felt that everyone needed to be able to read the Bible or else be tricked by Satan!

Roger Williams

Like Hooker, he was a Puritan minister in Massachusetts. He spoke out about how church and state should be separate, he argued that Puritans should be tolerant of other religions, and he thought that the colonists should be required to bargain fairly for Native American land. The Puritans disagreed with him and saw him as a threat! So, Williams was banished from Massachusetts Bay, and he founded Providence, Rhode Island. Rhode Island went on to be the most tolerant colony of all.

Pocahontas

Powhatan's daughter, she rescued John Smith from her father, married John Rolfe, and died of disease while visiting England in 1617.

Anne Hutchinson

She was an unauthorized minister of a dissident Puritan discussion group in Massachusetts Bay. She held Bible meetings for both women and men. Her interpretations of the Bible expressed in her sermons offended the colonial leadership and she was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony. She was kicked out for two reasons - she claimed that she had a direct revelation from God (this opposed Calvinist ideas that were the foundation of Puritan belief) and she publicly criticized the male leadership of the church. She moved to Rhode Island and was eventually killed by Indians in New York.

Reconquista

the Christian reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslims (see #13).

Hernan de Soto

Spanish conquistador who led 700 men into Florida on a mission to find the Seven Cities of Cibola. He and his men marched across the South, including Georgia, the Carolinas, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, and Arkansas. The Chickasaw Indians destroyed half his army, and de Soto died of a fever in 1542. The expedition had lasted 3 years, found little gold, and only 311 members of the expedition survived. De Soto is usually given credit for being the first European to view the Mississippi River.

New Netherland

The Dutch established two trading posts in 1614: one on Manhattan Island, known as New Amsterdam, and one to the north on Hudson River at Albany's present location, known as Fort Orange. Administered by the Dutch West India Company, the colony's administration was corrupt and did not hold the people's loyalty. When the English appeared with warships off the coast of New Amsterdam in 1664, the Dutch colonists surrendered without a shot. The colony had been quite wealthy through the fur trade with the Iroquois.

Tenochtitlan

The capitol of the Aztec Empire. Public rituals included human sacrifice. When Cortes arrived in 1519, the city had a population of 300,000. 5 times as large as the largest Spanish city. Mexico City is built on the ruins of this.

Chesapeake Settlements

The colonies surrounding Chesapeake Bay (Virginia and Maryland) had economies based upon tobacco. Since tobacco quickly exhausted the soil and people frequently moved, the settlements were temporary in nature. Few permanent structures, like schools, for example, were constructed. The settlements that did exist, like Jamestown and Williamsburg, for example, maintained close relations with England and tended to be Anglican (the official English religion). The Chesapeake was quite the contrast with New England, which was characterized by permanent settlements and Puritanism.

Puritan ideal

The family was structured very rigidly. The father was in command, the wife did as her husband commanded (ah, the good old days!), and the kids did whatever the parents ordered. If the kids stepped out of line, they were beaten. They lived by the credo, "spare the rod, spoil the child."

Harvard College

The first institute of higher education in the English colonies, it was created in 1636 in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Jamestown

The first permanent English colony in the New World, it almost failed because the men on the expedition searched for gold instead of planting crops and because they built the settlement in a swamp laden with malaria-infested mosquitoes. It was founded in 1607 during the reign of King James I.

Christopher Columbus

a Genoan who sailed for Spain and "discovered" America in 1492 when he landed at Hispaniola. He sailed west to get to the East, and believed that he had landed off the coast of Asia (which is why he called the natives "Indians"). He made 4 voyages to the New World.

Maryland Toleration Act of 1649

This act was passed to guarantee religious freedom for Catholics, Protestants, and Anglicans. As Catholics were becoming a minority in Maryland, it was really passed to keep them from becoming persecuted.

John Calvin

a Protestant reformer in Geneva, Switzerland. He argued that God had already decided who was saved for Heaven and who was doomed to burn eternally in Hell. His beliefs encouraged thrift, hard work, personal responsibility, and prosperity. People who exhibited those traits were seen as possible members of the "elect" - those chosen for Heaven. His followers in France were known as Huguenots, and they were persecuted by the majority Catholics. His followers in England were known as Separatists. Many of them left to settle the New World.

Giovanni da Verrazano

Tuscan (Italian) explorer sailing for France, he explored the American coast from Cape Fear, North Carolina to the Penobscot River in Maine. He discovered New York Harbor, as well.

Bartolome de las Casas

a Spanish Catholic priest who denounced the conquest of the Native Americans, Casas said that the Europeans should convert the Indians instead of stealing from them, enslaving them, or killing them! He felt that they deserved to be treated as humans; even arguing "the entire human race is one." He wrote The Destruction of the Indies, blaming the Spanish for the genocide of millions of natives.

Encomienda

a Spanish colonial system where colonial lords were given the right to the labor of the Indians. It was supposed to be like feudalism; the lord was supposed to protect the Indians while they worked for him. Instead, it was a form of slavery. Native Americans proved to be poor slaves, though, as many committed suicide or died of disease.

Hernan Cortes

a Spanish conquistador, he conquered the Aztecs in only 2 years, aided by superior weaponry, horses, and disease. His conquest led to the export to Spain of tremendous quantities of gold and silver, making Spain the most powerful country in the world in the 16th century.

Predestination

a religious notion developed by John Calvin, about the relationship between God and humans. The Puritans believed in predestination. This doctrine holds that God is all-powerful and all-knowing; therefore, the fate of each individual soul is known to God at birth. Nothing an individual can do or say could change their ultimate fate. Puritans believed that those chosen by God to be saved — the elect — would experience "conversion." In this process, God would reveal to the individual His grace, and the person would know he was saved. Only the elect could serve as Church members. If a person were truly saved, he would only be capable of behavior endorsed by God. These "living saints" would serve as an example to the rest of the world.

Feudalism

a social system usually associated with medieval Europe. Land was divided up among lords, and the lords allowed peasants to live on their land in exchange for certain services. Typically, lords gave their peasants, called serfs, protection. In return, serfs worked the lord's land, giving the lord a portion of their crops. Also, serfs served in the lord's military and worked for free building roads or doing menial jobs for the lord. The only way to escape the system was to flee to a town, and this encouraged the growth of towns.

Humphrey Gilbert

along with Sir Walter Raleigh, his half-brother ruthlessly crushed Irish resistance to English settlement there in the second half of the 16th century. He and Raleigh considered the Irish to be savages and inferior beings. The English treatment of the Irish and their attitude that civilized people like the English could not live with savages like the Irish carried over when the English came to the New World. The English treatment of the Native Americans was strikingly similar to their relations with the Irish.

Sir Martin Frobisher

an English explorer who conducted 3 voyages in the late 1570s in the North Atlantic attempting to find a Northwest Passage to Asia. Instead, he found some Eskimos and fool's gold! He was a great hero during the attack of the Spanish in 1588 (see #48), and was knighted by Elizabeth.

Sir Francis Drake

an English pirate who made a fortune attacking Spanish ships. He was the 1st Englishman to sail around the world, leading the 2nd voyage around the world (Magellan's voyage had been 1st). Drake attacked Spanish vessels along the way, claimed the Pacific Northwest for England, and returned with gold and spices so valuable that it was worth more than the entire amount of revenue in England in a year! Elizabeth knighted Drake for this voyage, further enraging the Spanish toward England. Drake is a villain in Irish history, as he killed at least 600 people on an island off Ireland.

Black Death

an epidemic of bubonic plague in Europe from 1347-1353. It wiped out at least a third of the population of Europe. The B.D. is also significant because it changed the feudal structure of Western Europe - the labor of peasants became much more valuable because there were fewer of them. Many peasants were able to obtain their own land, and life generally improved. Since each person now had more land, more food was available, and that led to a population explosion! People also had more money to spend on products offered in towns.

Amerigo Vespucci

an explorer from Florence, he traveled to the Caribbean in 1499. He was the 1st European to describe the lands discovered by Columbus to be a New World.

St. Augustine

founded by the Spanish in 1565, it is the oldest European city in North America. It is located on the Atlantic coast of Florida. It was built as a fort to provide a staging area to attack and destroy Fort Caroline.

Richard Hakluyt

he argued that England should start colonies to rid England of undesirables like beggars and debtors. He also argued that colonies would provide bases from which the English could raid Spanish ships, provide markets for English products, and grow tropical crops for England so it wouldn't have to rely on trade with Asia for those products.

Martin Luther

he began the Protestant Reformation when he posted the 95 Theses on a church door in Wittenburg, Germany on Oct. 31, 1517. He encouraged people to discover religious truth by reading the Bible themselves instead of being told by priests. His Reformation soon inspired other reformers to split from the Catholic Church. His followers were persecuted by the Catholic Church, and many of them in England and France eventually emigrated to the New World.

Jacques Cartier

he discovered the St. Lawrence River in 1534, and claimed Canada for France by planting a 30-foot cross!

Prince Henry the Navigator

he established a school of navigation on Sagres Point, Portugal. He brought in instrument makers, shipbuilders, geographers, and sailors. They developed a new ship called a caravel (see #9), and knew that the world was round by 1450. His school directly led to the voyages of exploration.

Cabeza de Vaca

he was a crewman aboard an expedition to Florida led by Panfilo de Narvaez that ended in a shipwreck. He and several other men wandered the lands of the Gulf Coast for 8 years before being rescued. He wrote a book about his adventures, telling of the Seven Cities of Cibola. (see #25)

John Hawkins

he was an English privateer and Sea Dog. Hawkins was the 1st Englishman to engage in the slave trade; this angered Spain because Spain had a monopoly on the slave trade to the New World. The Spanish attacked Hawkins in 1567, bringing England and Spain to the brink of war. Hawkins was the 1st to bring the potato and tobacco to England.

Isabella and Ferdinand

leaders of Castile and Aragon, respectively. When they married in 1492, bringing the two lands together, Spain was created. They conquered the entire Iberian Peninsula, and held the Spanish Inquisition to remove all Muslims and Jews from the land. They wanted to expand their wealth and get in on the trade that was enriching the Italian city-states and Portugal, so they sponsored Columbus' voyages to open new trade routes and to conquer more land.

Seven Cities of Cibola

legendary cities made of gold, they inspired Spanish exploration of North America by de Soto and Coronado.

Mestizos

people living in New Spain (the Spanish colonies) of mixed Native American and European descent. They were above the mulattos, Native Americans, and slaves on the social ladder.

Mulattos

people living in New Spain who were of mixed African and European descent. They were near the bottom of the social hierarchy, above only Native Americans and slaves.

Philip II

the King of Spain during the 2nd half of the 1500s, Philip saw himself as the defender of the Catholic faith. He attacked England because of: 1. religion - England was Protestant and Spain was Catholic. 2. piracy - Queen Elizabeth had encouraged the sea dogs to attack Spanish vessels and take their treasure. She had even knighted Drake for doing so. 3. trespassing - England tried to establish the colony of Roanoke, and the Spanish considered all of North America to be their land. 4. personal - Queen Elizabeth rejected Philip when he asked for her hand in marriage!

Caravel

the experts at Sagres Point combined Muslim, Asian, and European technologies to develop a ship that could travel faster and farther than any other existing ship. The Portuguese used the ship to sail the Atlantic coast of Africa, finally rounding the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa in 1488.

Ponce de Leon

the first Spanish conquistador to land in North America. He named Florida. He was killed by Indians in Florida in 1521.

Pope

the leader of the Pueblo. He led a Pueblo rebellion against the Spanish in 1680. He was one of many Pueblo priests whipped publicly for practicing his religion in secret. After the whipping and the execution of Pueblo priests, he vowed to overthrow the Spanish regime. He organized a conspiracy involving more than twenty Pueblo towns. He captured Santa Fe, but was later deposed (removed from power) in 1690.

Society of inclusion

this term refers to New France and New Spain, where whites and Native Americans intermarried. It does not apply to the English colonies because they tended to immigrate as families.

Manteo and Wanchese

two Native-American emissaries at Roanoke who show the differences in views among Indians toward the colonists. Manteo argued that English weapons and technology could help his tribe in conflicts with other tribes. Wanchese, on the other hand, argued that the English society, with its very rich and its very poor, showed that they didn't care about the welfare of the less fortunate and such people cannot be trusted.

Elizabeth I

youngest daughter of Henry VIII, she ruled England from 1558-1603. She is generally regarded as the greatest ruler in English history. Elizabeth took a moderate approach to religion, and became enormously popular with most of her subjects. English colonization began during her reign, though not successfully.