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Components of a Behavioral Contract

Cooper et al. (2007) listed three components that should be included in every behavioral contract: (a) a description of the task, (b) a description of the reward, and (c) a task record. It may be helpful to refer to the sample contract shown in Figure 9.4 while reading the description of these components. Of course, not all contracts require a format as elaborate as the one appearing in Figure 9.4, and teachers can develop their own contract formats.

Guidelines for Successful Contracting

DeRisi and Butz (1975) offered the following guidelines for successful contracting: Select one or two behaviors that you want to work on first. Describe those behaviors so that they may be observed and counted. Identify rewards that will help provide motivation to do well. Locate people who can help you keep track of the behaviors being performed and who can perhaps give out the rewards. Write the contract so that everyone can understand it. Collect data. Troubleshoot the system if the data do not show improvement. Rewrite the contract (whether or not the data show improvement). Continue to monitor, troubleshoot, and rewrite until there is improvement in the behaviors that were troublesome. Select another behavior to work on. (p. 7) Cooper et al. (2007) suggested three additional rules that deserve elaboration.

Post the Rules and Review Them Frequently

For elementary school students, rules should be posted on either the chalkboard/whiteboard or a bulletin board, or on the class webpage or portal. For secondary students, rules can be stapled to the inside of a folder each receives or online. These folders can also include a tally card for keeping track of the number of tokens earned as well as a menu of back-up reinforcers. Just like classroom rules that were described in the previous chapter, rules for a token economy should be frequently reviewed with students. Table 9.2 provides rules for operating a token economy (Cooper et al., 2007).

Novel Applications of Positive Reinforcement

It is a simple process to combine various novel approaches for using positive reinforcement to make a behavior management program even more desirable to students. Students sometimes satiate on traditional reinforcement programs. For example, students may initially find participating in a token economy to be a novel and enjoyable experience. However, the novelty may quickly wear off even when the back-up activities and privileges are still reinforcing. The same problem can occur when teachers use behavioral contracts, group-oriented contingencies, or any other technique for delivering reinforcement. Therefore, the more novelty of the method for delivering positive reinforcement, the less likely students are to experience satiation. Six of the techniques Rhode, Jenson, and Reavis (2010) developed are presented here, along with some additional modifications.

The Amount of Reinforcement Is Immediately Obvious to Students

Tokens provide students with visible and tangible proof that they are working toward obtaining back-up reinforcers. Students also can see the progress they are making as they accumulate tokens. For example, a student may place stickers on a bar graph such as the one appearing in Figure 9.2 in order to keep track of how many tokens he has earned. Or, we can place marbles in a jar every time a student engages in target behaviors.

Chart Moves

A chart move is a modification of a token economy, but instead of students earning and accumulating tokens after performing target behaviors, they move around a chart. For example, if a student earned five tokens in a token economy, she would be able to move five spaces on a chart move. Figure 9.9 shows the simplest form of a chart move—a dot-to-dot. The most important consideration when creating a chart move is that the picture is something the student likes or finds interesting. For example, Figure 9.9 shows a picture of a dinosaur. A dinosaur was chosen because this particular student loves reading about dinosaurs, visiting museums with dinosaur bones, and watching movies about dinosaurs.There are a variety of ways to administer reinforcement using a chart move. First, we can have students select one from several available dot-to-dot pictures, based on identified student interests, and then earn chances to connect the dots by performing the target behavior. Second, we can have students select reinforcers—either trinkets or slips of paper with privileges written on them—from a bag once the dot-to-dot picture is completed. The dots provide students with a visual representation of how close they are getting to earning the reinforcer. Third, special dots can be created by circling them. Interspersing these "special dots" throughout the picture provides more frequent access to reinforcement. When students connect to one of the "special dots," they receive small reinforcers. At the end, they receive a bigger one. Mystery motivators are easily incorporated into this type of chart move. For example, when a student reaches a circled dot, he can open the mystery motivator envelope and earn whatever reinforcer is written on the index card. Or, the student earns small reinforcers when reaching the circles dots and gets to open the mystery motivator envelope when completing the dot-to-dot. Still another modification would be for the student to open the mystery motivator envelope after completing the dot-to-dot and earning the reinforcer for the entire class—thereby incorporating aspects of a dependent group-oriented contingency into a chart move. Middle and high school students may find dot-to-dot pictures too "babyish." We can have these students create temperature gages like those appearing in Figure 9.10. Students shade in one increment each time they engage in the requested behavior. When they reach a designated level, they earn the specified reinforcer. This approach can also be modified two ways. First, we can require students to perform a specified amount of some behavior before shading in one increment. This modification makes use of a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement. Second, we can let students select a reinforcer from a menu or grab bag when they reach a designated level, or open the mystery motivator envelope. Chart moves permit teachers to be as creative as possible in terms of creating both a visually appearing and student-relevant chart move. Chart moves can be created for students at any age or grade level (Maag, 2012). Table 9.10 shows chart moves that can be used for students at the preschool, elementary, and middle/high school grades. Chart moves truly permit teachers to be as creative when creating behavior management interventions as they are when creating week-long lessons on various social studies or science themes.

Rule 3: Contracts Must Be Honest

A contract is honest if the reward is delivered at the specified time and in the specified amount after the student completes the task or behavior. Cooper et al. (2007) suggested that the honesty rule is broken more often than the fairness or clarity rules. In many instances, it is broken by adults that fail to anticipate unexpected circumstances. For example, a reward on a contract might involve having the student eat lunch with her favorite teacher. However, if the teacher is out ill, the contract is dishonest. This problem can be avoided by having the contract list a second teacher with whom the student wants to have lunch if the primary teacher is sick.

Rule 1: Contracts Must Be Fair

A fair contract is one in which the type and amount of reward equal the type and amount of behavior the student is required to perform. For example, a contract that required a student to turn in his math assignments every day to get a piece of bubble gum at the end of the week would be unfair, because the task is much greater than the potential reward. A contract may be equally unfair if a student is required to turn in his math assignments every day to go to Disney World. In this instance, the reward is too large and impractical. Fairness can be promoted by having the student list his five favorite things and then rate them on a scale of 1 to 10, with 10 being the most favorite. A list of five tasks or behaviors can be generated by all involved parties and rated tasks according to their difficulty or importance using the same scale. In this way, tasks and rewards can be selected that are perceived to have equal value.

Harmful Peer Pressure on Students Who Fail to Improve

A major advantage of a group-oriented contingency over individual interventions is that peers can provide students with positive reinforcement for performing a desired behavior. However, if we are not careful, some students may become victims of scapegoating by peers. Scapegoating occurs when unpopular students are unfairly blamed by peers for all types of negative classroom outcomes and behaviors. Table 9.9 provides some strategies for reducing scapegoating. In addition to implementing these strategies, we should directly observe and monitor students to identify those whose performance may be below the standard and who therefore are potential targets of scapegoating.

The Issue of Anonymity

A second ethical concern is whether to announce a student's name publicly, as with the hero procedure. Peers may engage in scapegoating if the target student's behavior does not improve and the reinforcer is not earned. A strategy appearing in Table 9.9 that addresses this concern is to have students remain anonymous. For example, a hero procedure can be used in which the performance of a student whose name is pulled from a bag determines whether the entire group obtained the reinforcer. All students would have to try to obtain a score at the designated criterion level because there is an equal chance that their names would be drawn. If the student whose name is drawn does not perform up to the criterion, then he or she remains anonymous. We simply announce that the class did not earn the reinforcer today. However, if the student's performance meets the criterion, we can state his or her name so that peers provide him or her with positive attention. Sometimes we may want to keep the student's name anonymous either way if he or she might be embarrassed by peer attention, even if it is positive.

Mystery Motivators

A staple of any novel application to deliver reinforcement are mystery motivators. At their simplest, mystery motivators are envelopes containing reinforcers written on any size index card. They can be used as an isolated method for delivering positive reinforcement or combined with any of the other novel approaches described here. The first step in using mystery motivators is to generate a list of positive reinforcers using the four steps described at the beginning of this chapter. Each reinforcer is written down on an index card and stored. Next, a large (e.g., 5 × 7 or 8 × 10) and brightly decorated envelope is created. The envelope should be large enough for students in the back of a classroom to see when it is posted in the front of the room. The envelope should be decorated as festively as the Valentine's Day envelopes grade-school children often make out of red construction paper and craft supplies. Cut-out letters that spell "Mystery Motivator" should be attached to the front of the envelope at a diagonal, as shown in Figure 9.8. Each day, an index card with a reinforcer written on it is placed in the envelope. The envelope is posted in the front of the room, such as in the upper left or right corner of the blackboard/whiteboard. When students reach a prespecified criterion on a target behavior, he or she gets to open the envelope and earns whatever reinforcer is printed on the index card. That index card is stored and another one with a different reinforcer is placed in the envelope for the next administration. There are various ways how mystery motivators can be modified. For example, a teacher can obtain a calendar (or print one off from a computer) with each page displaying an entire month. Then 10 to 15 "Xs" are randomly drawn over different days of the week for all four weeks. Small post-it notes cut to the size of each calendar day squares are placed over each day of the month so that every square is covered. When a student performs the target behavior according to the CAP he gets to uncover a post-it note. If the square uncovered has an "X" then he earns the reinforcer listed on the index card in the envelope. Mystery motivators can also be incorporated with the other novel applications described below.

Reasons Why Behavioral Contracts Work

Behavioral contracts are very time consuming to develop, and we might wonder whether they are worth the effort to develop. They are, simply because they work, and well-behaved students make for academically engaged students and pleasant classrooms. There are several reasons why contracts work (Cooper et al., 2007). First, behavioral contracts focus on rule-governed behavior. During the process of developing a contract, all involved parties—including students—verbalize rules in which specified behaviors result specified consequences (i.e., positive reinforcement). These statements help students develop self-management skills. In essence their behavior comes to be under their own control. As a result, contracts can specify reinforcers that are administered several days or even a week later. Second, the effectiveness of behavioral contracts may not be due to the reinforcers themselves, but rather because they are made public. Contracts are typically displayed in a prominent place. Therefore, students and teachers may adhere to contracts to merely avoid feeling guilty at performing poorly. Another beneficial byproduct of making contracts public documents is that something students did not originally find reinforcing may take on reinforcing properties. For example, a student may not have initially found it reinforcing to earn 10 minutes of listening to music at the end of class. But when this same privilege is incorporated into a public document it attains reinforcing value. Third, contracts work because students are equal participants in the process. They are involved in generating and negotiating target behaviors, criteria for acceptable performance on the target behavior, and reinforcers earned for meeting the stipulations in the contract. Students are more likely to assume ownership of contracts when they are active participants in the process. Fourth, contracts work because the behaviors of everyone—not just the students but also the teachers—are specified. For example, if the student's behavior is to walk in the classroom before the bell rings, the teacher's behavior may be to let him leave five minutes early to get a can of soda. In this sense, both students and teachers are equal participants in the process. Students are more likely to perform the target behavior when they believe that a teacher also has to engage in certain behavior.

Select a Target Behavior

Cooper et al. (2007) made several recommendations regarding the selection of target behaviors for a token economy. First, target behaviors should be operationally defined so they pass the stranger test. An operational definition ensures that both teachers and students are fully aware of the behaviors that will earn tokens so that misunderstandings are less likely to occur. Second, the criterion for acceptable performance (CAP), or task standard, should be clearly specified. It helps us determine whether the task, or behavior, was performed at a satisfactory level. Third, it is important to begin with a small number of behaviors—no more than three or four—so that both students and teachers are less likely to become confused. Fourth, one or two easy behaviors should be included to set up students for success so they are more likely to "buy in" to the token economy. We can gradually include more difficult behaviors and administer tokens on a more intermittent basis after everyone has bought into the system. Fifth, students possess the prerequisite skills for performing the targeted behaviors. This determination can be made by conducting a thorough task analysis before implementing the token economy.

Reasons for the Effectiveness of Token Economies

Cooper, Heron, and Heward (2007) provided several reasons why token economies are an effective method of dispensing reinforcement.: - The Time Gap Is Bridged Between Behaviors and Back-Up Reinforcers - The Amount of Reinforcement Is Immediately Obvious to Students - Tokens Are Unaffected by the Mood of the Praiser - Tokens Make Use of Generalized Conditioned Reinforcers - Tokens Provide Stimuli That Control Teacher Behavior

Dependent Group-Oriented Contingencies

Dependent group-oriented contingencies are those under which consequences for a group of students depend on the performance of one member, or perhaps a small subsection, of the group (Vidoni & Ward, 2006). This approach is often called the hero procedure because it is hoped that peers will view the student who earned the class reinforcement as the hero. To implement a dependent group-oriented contingency, we would first select an individual, or small subgroup. Next, we specify the target behavior and criterion for acceptable performance (CAP), or task standard. If the selected student's or subgroup's performance reaches the specified criterion, the entire class earns a reinforcer. For example, we may have a student who makes animal noises in class. We could tell the class that if the target student makes fewer than five animal noises during the next 30 minutes then everyone will earn an additional 10 minutes of recess. Our goal is for peers to give the student positive attention and encouragement to earn the reinforcer for everyone. Gresham (1983) developed an effective dependent group-oriented contingency for an 8-year-old boy who was setting fires and destroying furniture at home. When the boy refrained from engaging in destructive behavior, his parents wrote a note that was delivered to his teacher. Whenever his teacher received five notes from home, the boy got to host a party for the entire class. The major advantage of a dependent group-oriented contingency is that it encourages classmates to "root for" or provide the target student with positive attention for either refraining from performing inappropriate behavior or engaging in appropriate behavior. The major disadvantage is that it can easily be mismanaged by teachers who neither monitor individual students' performance nor conduct functional assessment on the student whose performance determines whether the group earns reinforcement. When this unfortunate situation occurs, peers are more likely to threaten, criticize, or harass the target student or subgroup for not performing adequately (Kauffman et al., 1986).

Independent Group-Oriented Contingencies

Independent group-oriented contingencies are those in effect with individual students regardless of the performance of the group. They are group oriented only in the sense that the same reinforcer is presented to the entire class or group. However, only students whose behavior reaches the CAP receive the reinforcer. Elementary school teachers often use this type of arrangement to teach spelling. A test on the weekly spelling words is given every day. Students who spell every word correctly on Monday have free time during the spelling period for the rest of the week. Students who miss any words have time to practice them on Tuesday. Before the spelling period ended on Tuesday, they take another test. Students who then spell all the words correctly would have free time for the rest of the week, and so on for Wednesday through Friday. Some teachers prefer to have the contingency apply only through Thursday and to give everyone a final spelling test on Friday. In either case, it is an independent group-oriented contingency because opportunity for reinforcement (free time during spelling period) is presented to the entire class, but only students who meet the CAP (100 percent correct on the spelling test) have access to it. An advantage of an independent group-oriented contingency is that no student is penalized for the poor performance or behavior of other students. Each student is reinforced depending on whether his or her performance reaches the CAP—all students have access to the reinforcer under exactly the same terms. Therefore, reinforcement is under students' own control instead of being contingent on peers' performances. A disadvantage is that it does not make use of peer pressure to influence the behavior of individual students. Therefore, peers have less incentive to ignore the inappropriate behavior of students or provide them with attention for appropriate behavior.

Interdependent Group-Oriented Contingencies

Interdependent group-oriented contingencies are those in which the performance of all group members must meet the CAP before any group member can receive reinforcement. Group members must work together to earn a reinforcer that they will share equally (Pappas, Skinner, & Skinner, 2010). The good behavior game, developed by Barrish, Saunders, and Wolf (1969), is an example of an interdependent group-oriented contingency. It has a large evidence base demonstrating its effectiveness (e.g., Donaldson, Voomer, Krous, Downs, & Berard, 2011; Kleinman & Saigh, 2011; Ruiz-Olivares, Pino, & Herruzo, 2010; Wehby, Maggin, Moore Partin, & Robertson, 2012). The good behavior game originally involved a teacher dividing a class into two groups. The teacher made a tally mark on the chalkboard for each group every time all members of a group were performing an appropriate behavior. The group with the most tally marks won free time and privileges at the end of the day. The advantage of this arrangement was that group members cooperated among themselves to outperform the other team. Implementation Steps The good behavior game provides teachers with a valuable technique for managing a group's behavior. The following information provides teachers with the steps for implementing this technique, considerations, and possible modifications: Write three appropriate behaviors (e.g., eyes on teacher, feet on floor, talk only after raising hand) on the board. Above the appropriate behaviors, write the words "3 points." Figure 9.7 shows how this arrangement would appear. Obtain a large glass jar (like the ones used to make sun tea), a good supply of marbles, and a device that makes random sounds (e.g., Table 5.3 in Chapter 5). Set the device to make random sounds ranging from 20 seconds to 180 seconds (3 minutes). Tell the students that whenever they hear the sound, if everyone is performing one of the three appropriate behaviors, three marbles will be placed in the jar. Inform the students that, if the jar becomes completely filled with marbles, everyone gets to select one of several free-time privileges in which to engage during the last 10 minutes of class. There are several computer programs or smartphone/tablet apps that can be used to generate random tones. However, sometimes there is a need for teachers to have unusual tone lengths depending on the activity for which the good behavior game will be used. In these instances, it is possible to make your own tone file with the free audio editing and recording program Audacity (www.audacityteam.org) using the following steps: Go to www.random.org (or some other online random number generator website) and type in the minimum and maximum numbers (either 10-90 for 15 minute use or 20-180 for longer periods of time); each time the "Generate" feature is clicked a random number appears, and those numbers are written on a piece of paper. Obtain any device for making tones, make a new file in Audacity, and have on the desktop a digital stopwatch program running. Begin recording and when the number of seconds passes from the first number, activate the tone. Repeat this process for each random number and save the file as an mp3. The mp3 file can be played on any computer with speakers loud enough to be heard by everyone in the classroom or transferred to devices such as an iPod or iPad if external speakers are available. Considerations For the good behavior game to be effective, it is essential that we initially set up students for success so that they will buy in to the process. We want to ensure that the jar is full of marbles by the end of the first day, so that students are able to obtain the reinforcer. Here is an approach for setting an attainable initial criterion. If there are 30 tones during the time in which the good behavior game is in effect, the most marbles the class can earn is . We can set the initial criterion at 70 percent of 90, or 63 marbles . (This criterion may be raised once students have experienced success.) We then place the 63 marbles into the jar, wrap a piece of black electrical tape around the jar even with the top level of the marbles, and remove the marbles from the jar. We let students know that if they can accumulate enough marbles to reach the black line by the end of the day, they earn a reinforcer. Modifications We can undertake a variety of modifications when implementing the good behavior game, some of which are listed below. Instead of marbles, use candy. Therefore, at then end of the class, if the jar is filled, distribute the candy equally to everyone in class. As an added incentive, designate the last 5 minutes of class as time when students can trade candy with each other. Instead of using a jar and marbles (or candy), we keep track of the number of points the class earns on the chalkboard/whiteboard by making tally marks (see Figure 9.7). As with marbles or candy in a jar, establish a predetermined number of points the class must accumulate to earn reinforcement. Create two to four groups of students, each with their own jar. When the tone sounds, place the marbles (or candy) in the jars of the groups whose members are all engaging in one of the appropriate behaviors. Groups that fill their jar, or have the most marbles, by the last 10 minutes of class earn reinforcement. Write each student's name on a slip of paper and place the slips in a bag. Pull one name out of the bag (without telling the students whose name was drawn). When the tone sounds, place three marbles (or pieces of candy) in the jar if the student whose name was pulled is performing one of the appropriate behaviors. Either announce the student's name after each tone or keep the name anonymous. List three inappropriate behaviors on the chalkboard/whiteboard with a -1 over them. If any student is performing one of the inappropriate behaviors when the tone sounds, remove one point, marble, or piece of candy. However, use this adaptation cautiously, because if students lose more points than they earned, they have no motivation to behavior appropriately. There are two common methods for setting the CAP for a group to receive reinforcement using interdependent group-oriented contingencies. First, every member of the group must reach the stated CAP. For example, the class receives 10 minutes of free time if each student gets 90 percent correct on a math quiz. Second, the average performance of the entire class reaches a set CAP. For example, an entire class can earn 10 extra minutes of recess if their average score on the math quiz is 90 percent. The major advantage of interdependent group-oriented contingencies is that we can plan the use of positive peer pressure and competition to promote individual students' appropriate behaviors. However, unless skillfully applied, the potential exists for peers to threaten others whom they perceive are not performing adequately. Another problem is that high-achieving students may resent peers who do not meet the CAP for the class to receive reinforcement. These disadvantages can be minimized by carefully implementing the contingency and monitoring students' progress.

Task Record

It is important to include a place on the contract where a student's progress can be recorded. Cooper et al. (2007) stated that a task record serves two purposes. First, making a mark when a task is completed and reward delivered prompts all people involved in the contract to look at regularly. Second, making a mark on the contract, such as a sticker, every time a student performs the task (e.g., completing each social studies assignment five consecutive days) can help him stay on task until the criterion is reached and the reward is earned. A task record functions as a kind of token because it can bridge the gap between performing a behavior and obtaining reinforcement. The stars appearing on the task record in Figure 9.4 indicate to the student how close she is to receiving the end-of-the-week reward. The stars also indicate that the student received the end-of-the-day reward. In this case, the student received a star every day except for 2 days out of the 20 that the contract was in effect. - Contracts are front-end heavy—that is, they require a lot of work to get written. However, the work done up front is paid back in multiples because an effective contract can maintain students' appropriate behavior for long periods of time.

The Time Gap Is Bridged Between Behaviors and Back-Up Reinforcers

It is not always possible for us to stop in the middle of a lesson to reinforce a student. The problems with a procedure in which a student gets 5 minutes of free time for every 10 math problems she completes correctly on a sheet of paper containing 30 problems should be obvious: the student would be going back and forth between the task and reinforcement. This situation is disruptive to other students and wastes time. However, we can circulate around the room while teaching a lesson and unobtrusively dispense tokens, which students can later exchange for back-up reinforcers.

Select Tokens

Items frequently used as tokens include washers, checkers, coupons, poker chips, tally marks, teacher initials, or holes punched in a card. Almost any object can be used as a token as long as it cannot be easily counterfeited. Younger students often like physical objects such as stickers or poker chips because their accumulation provides them with a visual representation of their progress. Older students may find physical objects "babyish" and prefer a form similar to a check register on which token earnings can be recorded. Cooper et al. (2007) described several criteria for selecting tokens that are summarized in Table 9.3.

The Home-School Contract

One of the major advantages of behavior contracts is that they give students access to reinforcers not readily available at school, such as having a friend spend the night or using their parent's car. Offering these types of reinforcers requires developing a home-school contract. Home-school contracts also are an effective tool for increasing parental involvement by including their behavior in a contract for the student. This contract can be used for students who have difficulty bringing home, completing, and returning homework assignments. A relatively simple home-school contract that addresses this problem can be developed by the student and his or her teachers and parents. The contract in Figure 9.5 includes blanks to write in the responsibilities of students, parents, and teachers, and to specify the reward and any bonus reward the student can earn. An assignment sheet can be attached to the contract, like the one shown in Figure 9.6. This sheet has a place for a teacher to place his or her initials in any of four categories. The responsibilities of each involved party must also be specified as shown in Table 9.8.

Tokens Provide Stimuli That Control Teacher Behavior

One of the most important reasons why token economies work is because they serve as a tangible cue to remind us to reinforce students. For example, carrying around a special paper-punch in our hand serves as a discriminative stimulus—leading to dispense tokens by punching a student's token card. Marbles provide another example even though they typically are not good tokens because students can play with them—even when provided with a storage container. Nevertheless, this problem may be temporarily worth the hassle for teachers who have difficulty catching students being good and performing the target behaviors. The weight of the marbles in a teacher's pocket not only serves as a discriminative stimuli to catch students being good but also negatively reinforces the teacher because the unpleasant weight and bulk of the tokens would be terminated by dispensing them. - Tokens also control teacher behavior (i.e., dispensing tokens) through the principle of negative reinforcement. The weight of the marbles represents an aversive stimulus that can be terminated by dispensing marbles for appropriate behavior.

Rule 2: Contracts Must Be Clear

One of the most time-consuming aspects of developing behavioral contracts is clearly specifying individuals' behaviors and expectations. Clear contracts include behaviors of students and participating adults that pass the stranger test and have task standards. Rewards should be stated in equally specific terms. The payoff is that this specificity automatically improves everyone's performance—both students' and adults' (Cooper et al., 2007). In many instances, students are more willing to be specific than adults, who perhaps enjoy the privilege of being able to change their minds (Cooper et al., 2007).

Misleading Improvement of the Group

One of the strategies for reducing scapegoating listed in Table 9.9 involves averaging the performance of the class as the criterion for reinforcement. However, this can become a liability because it may mask the performance of individual students. Therefore, we should monitor individual students' performance to determine who is and is not learning the skills. In this case, two criteria can be used: (a) the group average must be 85 percent and (b) an individual student's performance, randomly be selected, must reach 80 percent. Regardless of the modification, a group-oriented contingency should not be used if we are unable to monitor individual students' performance.

Establish Back-Up Reinforcers

Recall that back-up reinforcers are items, activities, and privileges that students can purchase with the tokens they acquired for engaging in the target behaviors. Tokens can be used to buy time playing a popular game, listening to music, having lunch with a favorite teacher or peer, or writing and delivering a note to a friend. However, it is also helpful to have some candy, gum, and trinkets as back-up reinforcers. These items typically do not cost much money. Furthermore, teachers can ask parents, or parent-teacher organizations, to contribute a small amount of money to a token economy fund that can be used to purchase back-up reinforcers.Back-up reinforcers can be identified by asking students what they would like to purchase with their tokens, interviewing adults as to what students may like, and observing students. Reinforcement menus and surveys such as those described in Chapter 4 can also be used to determine back-up reinforcers. Students would then rank order the combined list in order to help us determine the cost of back-up reinforcers. Students should not be permitted to debate the cost (number of tokens) of the various back-up reinforcers after we have established prices. However, they can participate in revising the back-up reinforcers on the menu frequently in order to avoid boredom and satiation. We should have as many activities and privileges that are naturally available in schools as possible (e.g., helping the librarian, visiting another teacher's class). This practice prevents a student from sticking out from his peers and also help us eventually fade out the token economy. The type of back-up reinforcers vary depending on whether the token economy is used for elementary or secondary students.Elementary-aged students often like little trinkets that secondary-aged students would find "babyish." Many stores exist throughout the country that supply trinkets at a very low cost. The little trinkets that fast food restaurants put in their "kids meals" also make excellent back-up reinforcers for younger students. In addition, it is appropriate for most elementary-aged students to purchase back-up reinforcers at a class "store." The store may consist of a table that has the back-up reinforcers and their prices displayed. Some teachers use a locked cabinet as a store. The cabinet is unlocked when the store is open. The back-up reinforcers appear on the shelves. A price sheet can be taped to the back of the cabinet door specifying the amount of tokens required to purchase various items and activities.Table 9.4 provides a list of naturally occurring activities and privileges that may be used as back-up reinforcers for elementary school-aged students. As this table shows, a token economy can be implemented without relying exclusively on trinkets, toys, candy, magazines, and other objects. For students that have difficulty reading, a picture of the activity or a snapshot of a student engaging in the activity, with the number of tokens the activity costs, can be included on the menu. It may be more difficult to come up with reinforcers for teenagers because they often find certain items gimmicky or childish. Creative descriptions of various activities might enhance their desirability. For example, a one-sentence blurb about taking a note to a friend might say, "Here's your only legitimate chance to get that special person a note during the day." Also, just like a menu at a restaurant, items that are not being purchased can be removed or used as a "daily special" that students can purchase at a reduced rate. Table 9.5. illustrates a possible reinforcer menu for teenagers.After developing a back-up reinforcement menu, we want to decide on how frequently students may exchange tokens for activities and privileges. Too long a delay may cause some students, especially younger ones, to lose interest in earning tokens. Some students may need to purchase back-up reinforcers as often as every hour. Other students may need to have the store open twice a day (once before lunch and once before going home). Still others can maintain appropriate behavior if they have access to back-up reinforcers once a day or even once a week. The goal is to gradually increase the amount of time that elapses between students earning tokens and purchasing back-up reinforcers. Managing and supervising exchanges of tokens takes time away from instruction. Nevertheless, the time and effort to managing a token economy is paid back with better-run classroom and more academically engaged students.

Procedures for Establishing a Token Economy

Setting up a token economy takes considerable time and effort. However, the time spent setting up a token economy at the beginning of the year is well worth the returns of having students' behaviors under control for the rest of the year. Table 9.1 summarizes rules for establishing a token economy. There are two concerns for establishing a token economy. First, a token economy should be introduced gradually because it can be complicated for students to understand and for teachers to administer. It is best to introduce it in steps, explain it clearly and precisely to students, and answer all students' questions. At first, we may want to implement the token economy for only a brief period during the day, perhaps initially for a 30-minute lesson. Second, we should field test the token economy before it is actually implemented (Cooper et al., 2007). For 3 to 5 days we should tally the number of tokens each student would earn without actually dispensing tokens. Field testing the system provides us with information that can be used to answer the following questions: Are students actually deficient in the targeted skills? Are some students demonstrating mastery of behaviors targeted for the system? Are some students not receiving tokens? - Select a Target Behavior - Post the Rules and Review Them Frequently - Select Tokens - Establish Back-Up Reinforcers - Establish a Ratio of Exchange

Check-In Check-Out (CICO) Program

Shea and Bauer (2011) described a multipurpose point sheet that can easily be incorporated into a token economy. A token point sheet is created with the different times/class periods listed on the vertical axis and the various behaviors (e.g., on time to class, bring materials, complete homework, follows directions) on the horizontal axis. Those behaviors are then operationally defined (see Table 9.6). Teachers can make tally marks (i.e., tokens), or initial each behavior in which the student engages and points can later be assigned to them. Various elements of the multipurpose point sheet have been used successfully since the 1980s. These types of multipurpose point sheets—or behavior report cards, as they are commonly called—can provide structure and prompts that students need through the day, (b) adult-written feedback through the day, (c) visual reminders of personal goals for the day, (d) data collection, and (e) communication between adults at school and home (Todd, Campbell, Meyer, & Horner, 2008). More importantly, they can be used as a method for delivering tokens and students earning back-up reinforcers. However, it wasn't until 2004 that a systematic, structured use of these behavior report cards was developed by Crone, Horner, and Hawken (2004), who called it the Behavior Education Program (BEP), but it is more commonly known as the Check-in Check-out (CICO) Program. It is considered an evidence-based Tier 2 intervention. Implementing the CICO program requires school personnel, the student, and parents to work together (Crone et al., 2004). The behavior point card must be developed, such as the one that appears in Figure 9.3. This card has the student's name and date, rating scale (2 = great, 1 = okay, 0 = goal not met), total points possible, points received, and percentage of points achieved. The goals are then listed on the vertical axis, and the periods of the day (either times or class periods) appear on the horizontal axis. The goals must be operationally defined: Respect others: hands and feet to self, ask and gain permission before taking, say "please," "thank you," "excuse me," and "hi" at appropriate times. Respect property: put all materials away in proper location, report any damage to teacher, ask and gain permission taking something. Manage self: raise hand and wait to be called on, walk instead of running in classroom and hallways, bring all required materials to class, turn in homework on time. Work hard: Write answers, ask and answer questions. Teachers then circle how many points the student received for each goal. Finally, there is a place for parents to sign the card acknowledging that they have reviewed it and written any comments on the back they may want to make. Effectively using the CICO program requires a concerted effort of all school personnel. Like any aspect of SWPBS, it requires all staff to have ownership of all students and not just the ones assigned to their classes. There are five daily steps involved in implementing the CICO program (Filter, McKenna, Benedict, Horner, Todd, & Watson, 2007). Step one involves having a teacher (or other designated school personnel) meet with the student at the beginning of each day (i.e., "check in"). During this time, the teacher meets with the student to go over his behavior and point goals for the day. The student is reminded of the specific behaviors that make up each goal and how he can earn points for displaying those behaviors. This meeting ends when the teacher gives the student his point card for the day (see Figure 9.3). Step 2 requires the student to give the teacher his point card at the beginning of every class/period. Step 3 requires the student to ask the teacher for feedback based on the number of points received for each goal. Step four occurs at the end of the day and involves the teacher and student to "check-out" by reviewing the daily point card. The fifth step ends the daily cycle when the student takes the card home and obtains a parent's signature. The daily cycle begins the next day when the student returns the card to school and reviews it with the teacher. The points students earn from each daily point card can be tallied at the end of the day. Students can then use those points to purchase back-up reinforcers. Students who display severe behavior problems may earn small reinforcers at the end of each class period. Eventually, we want the student to use points accumulated during an entire week to purchase back-up reinforcers at a "store" only open each Friday. The CICO is an evidence-based program with documented success that can be incorporated into interventions based on FBAs—especially for students whose problem behaviors are maintained by adult and/or peer attention (Hawken & Horner, 2003; March & Horner, 2002). In addition, reductions in problem behaviors using CICO have been associated with improved academic performance (Bowers, 2002). Most importantly, teachers find the program easy to implement and would recommend it to other schools (Todd et al., 2008).

Catch Students Being Good

Something as simple as catching students being good can be extremely difficult for many teachers to do. The reason involves the "concept of control" described in Chapter 2. Recall that the concept of control begins with the notion that teachers—and parents for that matter—expect children to be good and, consequently ignore them for behaving appropriately but react to them for behaving inappropriately with a negative consequence when they are bad. Therefore, many students with challenging behaviors quickly learn that the only way to get teacher attention is to misbehave. The key is to reverse this pattern and catch students being good and ignoring their inappropriate behavior as long as it is not a danger to themselves or others. In this section, a technique will be presented to help teachers catch students being good. In addition, the "Gotcha" program, which is a Tier 1 intervention of SWPBS, will be described. Together, they can be used at the school-wide and classroom/group (Tier 2) levels.

Spinners

Spinners and mystery motivator envelopes are typically combined with other novel applications of positive reinforcement, although they can both be used in isolation We can modify a spinner from a board game or make one out of cardboard. In either case, we divide the spinner into five or more sections, as shown in Figure 9.11. In each section, we draw a picture of the reinforcer or write its name. When students perform a target behavior, they take a spin. Whichever section the arrow lands on is the reinforcer that is obtained. This type of spinner can be used with any schedule of reinforcement described in Chapter 4. For example, for every five correct answers written, a student earns a spin (fixed-ratio schedule). Or a student could earn a spin after drawing a map for 5 consecutive minutes (fixed-duration schedule). In addition, it can be combined with chart moves. For example, when students land on a special circled dot on a chart move, they get to earn a spin and receive whichever reinforcer the arrows lands on. Or, students who are on a token economy can exchange tokens for spinning the spinner. A variation of this approach is to write the numbers one through five on the sections of a spinner, as shown in Figure 9.12. When students perform the target behavior, they earn a spin. A grab bag can be made for each number and filled with trinkets or slips of paper with privileges written on them. When the spinner lands on a number, the student randomly draws from the grab bag that corresponds to the number. Numerous other variations can be devised using this type of spinner. For example, the number on the spinner can represent points that students can accumulate (e.g., a student who spins a three receives three points). Students can then exchange points at a designated time for privileges and activities. In another variation, students get to spin and earn points only when they perform the targeted behavior. After reaching a specified number of points they can select a reinforcer from a grab bag.

Tokens Make Use of Generalized Conditioned Reinforcers

Students are less likely to experience satiation because tokens can be exchanged for a large variety of back-up reinforcers. Furthermore, if there is a variety of back-up reinforcers, our inability to restrict access to one of them is not likely to affect students' motivation to obtain others. Finally, all students will respond equally well to tokens because they can exchange them for back-up items that they individually find reinforcing. The more back-up reinforcers available for students to purchase, the more tokens will be a generalized conditioned reinforcer.

The Contract Negotiation Process

Successful contracts are those that have been freely negotiated by all involved parties. Negotiation should be conducted in a systematic and precise fashion. Four tasks must be completed to ensure a successful negotiation session: (a) the system of contracting explained and discussed, (b) the contract written, (c) the contract signed by all participants, and (d) the contract posted in a visible place (Shea & Bauer, 2011). A properly conducted negotiation contract is a time-consuming process. However, this effort pays great dividends in the form of better-behaved students. Shea and Bauer (2011) stressed that a contract must be negotiated and freely agreed on by both the student and adults involved in the contract. They also recommended that the key to successful negotiation session involves (a) explaining and discussing the system of contracting, (b) writing the contract, and (c) all parties signing the contract. Finally, they indicated that the complexity and time required during the negotiation process decreases as both the teacher and student gain experience with contracting.

Tokens Are Unaffected by the Mood of the Praiser

Teachers are human and, therefore, have both good and bad days. Verbal praise, a potential positive reinforcer for some students, will be more effective when we deliver it in a pleasant, courteous, and enthusiastic manner. Students are not likely to find our verbal praise very reinforcing when we deliver it while being in a bad mood or even in too blasé a fashion. The use of a token economy may circumvent this problem because tokens can still be exchanged for back-up reinforcers regardless of our mood when we delivered it.

"Gotcha Technique"

The "Gotcha" system was developed by Sugai and his colleagues as a way to catch students and reinforce them following rules for various sections of the school (e.g., lunchroom, hallways, school grounds) as a Tier 1 intervention of SWPBS (Lewis, Jones, Horner, & Sugai, 2010; Sugai & Horner, 2002, 2005, 2010). In this approach, students are given "Gotcha Cards" for engaging in appropriate school-wide behaviors. These cards may then be brought to the office and traded for a small prize such as ice cream or a candy bar at lunch. These cards should not be handed out to every student who performs appropriate behaviors but rather used on an intermittent schedule of reinforcement when staff who monitor the nonclassroom areas see a specific exemplar of "Pride in the Woodland Park Way." For example, an unsuspecting student who picked up trash on the school grounds would be surprised by a teacher or administrator jumping out from behind a bush or wall and giving the student the "Gotcha Card" as a demonstration of "respecting property." Sugai and his colleagues found that word of this process rapidly spreads among students and, for example, students in the cafeteria would quickly assist a peer who drops a tray because they never know when staff will be watching to give them a "Gotcha Card" for the rule of "be respectful to others." All students during a week who received "Gotcha Cards" would have a special lunch on Friday. For example, a long table could be placed on a stage in the front of the cafeteria, with those students being the "guests of honor" to have lunch along side the principal and several teachers. Sugai and his colleagues also described how the "Gotcha Card" system could be used to reinforce teacher behavior. When students saw a teacher perform something noteworthy (e.g., providing extra help to a student, stopping to talk with a student in the hall, having a special project or activity), they would be allowed to tell the principal (or another administrator) they would like to give that teacher a "Gotcha Card" and describe what the teacher did that merited receiving the card. The names of teachers who received a "Gotcha Card" from a student would be placed in a drawing at the end of the week. The teacher whose name is drawn on Friday gets surprised with the principal or assistant principal walking into her classroom with a large ceramic goose with 30 minutes remaining. All teachers know that getting "goosed" stands for Get Out Of School Early. The teacher gets to leave while the principal or assistant principal teaches the last 30 minutes of the lesson. This approach helps administrators get to know students in a different light and lets a teacher know how much she is appreciated by both her students and administrators.

100-Square Chart

The 100-Square Chart can be easily made using computer programs such as PowerPoint. The approach would be the same as creating a computer version of the game "Jeopardy." Classrooms that have interactive (i.e., Promethean) boards can be used so that students can "touch" a square and have the "X" or written reinforcer revealed. The 100-Square Chart is a method that combines intermittent reinforcement with a group-oriented contingency. We create a 100-Square Chart by dividing two poster boards into 100 squares (10 × 10) of equal size using a ruler and permanent marker as depicted in Figure 9.13. We will laminate one of the poster boards—this will be the 100-Square Chart. We then cut out the squares on the other board and fasten them to the top of each square on the chart with Velcro fasteners or masking tape so that they can be peeled off to reveal the square below. Any number of squares can be used as long as they are of equal amount (e.g., 9 × 9, 6 × 6, 8 × 8). Maag (2012) believed 100 squares may be unwieldy for teachers to operate and suggested making a 49-Square Chart (7 × 7). The next step is to randomly mark an "X" in many of the boxes throughout the chart and apply the square covers. When students perform the target behavior, they earn the privilege of removing a cover to see if an "X" is designated below. If an "X" appears, then the entire group wins a reinforcer, such as a popcorn party or video viewing. Alternatively, the names or pictures of reinforcers can appear under the squares instead of "X's." A variation of this dependent group-oriented contingency is to make use of the numbered spinner appearing in Figure 9.12. When a student performs a target behavior correctly, he gets to spin the spinner. Whatever number the arrow lands on represents the number of squares he gets to uncover and the class earns whichever reinfocer(s) appear. Another variation combines the 100-Square Chart, numbered spinner, and chart move. For example, when a student reaches a circled dot on a chart move, he gets to spin the numbered spinner. As in the previous variation, the student gets to uncover the number of squares corresponding to the number the arrow lands on. This approach combines the individual reinforcement of a chart move (the student still gets an individual reinforcer of his choice when the chart move is completed) with a dependent group-oriented contingency because the student can also earn a reinforcer for the entire class. The number of "X"s or names of reinforcers that appear on the chart can be decreased over time so that students are working to earn a chance at a relatively obscure reinforcer. However, it is important not to decrease the number of "X's" too quickly; otherwise, students will not find this program reinforcing. We can also administer the 100-Square Chart so that the reinforcer is won by an individual student instead of the group. In either case, there are two variations to consider. We can establish that students need to earn a specific number of points in order to obtain the privilege of removing a cover. For example, we might set the criterion at 10 points. When students earn 10 points, they uncover one of the squares. Alternatively, we can determine a specific number of squares with "X's" that must be uncovered before a student or group earns the reinforcer. For example, a criterion of five "X's" could be required before a reinforcer is earned. In this variation, students who perform the target behavior either take a turn uncovering a square or are required to earn a certain number of points before they can uncover a square. In either arrangement, a certain number of "X's" must be uncovered before a student or group earns access to the reinforcer.

The Compliance Matrix

The Compliance Matrix is a variation of Bingo—a popular game in which players use matrix cards to win prizes. The word matrix refers to a square composed of several equal-sized cells. The following materials are needed to implement the Compliance Matrix: Several matrices with numbered cells, such as those appearing in Figure 9.14. Cardboard key tags (available from office supply stores) or poker chips, checkers, or slips of paper. Label each object with a number from the matrix. Include one marked "Wild Card." An opaque container to hold the numbered objects. To implement this technique, we post a matrix (see Figure 9.14) or drawn it on the chalkboard/whiteboard in an area visible to students. The numbered objects (e.g., key tags or poker chips) are placed in the opaque container. When students comply with a direction within a specified amount of time (e.g., 5 seconds), they get to draw an object. When an object is drawn, the corresponding number on the matrix is marked with an "X." If students draw the Wild Card, they can pick any number to be marked off on the matrix. A mystery motivator envelope can be used or students earn a preselected reinforcer after any row, column, or diagonal is completed on the matrix. We then erase the matrix board, and the game starts over. Matrix Y is introduced after students are responding to our instructions at a high rate, and matrix Z is introduced when a high rate of compliance is achieved with matrix Y. Rather than targeting one student, the compliance matrix can be used to promote compliance with groups of students. With either a single student or groups, we place the matrix, reinforcers, and opaque container in the front of the room. We also post the predetermined reinforcer, or mystery motivator, next to the matrix to build class expectations. Students who follow a direction are randomly chosen to select one of the numbered objects. When a row, column, or diagonal is completed, the entire class receives the reinforcer. The second modification for groups involves splitting the class into several teams. We assign each team a color, which can be marked in the matrix cell of the drawn number whenever a team member complies with our direction. Several teams can occupy the same cell if they randomly draw that cell's number. The approach encourages teams to compete at being compliant and following classroom rules. Any number of teams can win by reaching the set criterion. And a student who tries to sabotage his or her team's effort can be made a one-person team. The compliance matrix can be combined with any number of other novel techniques. For example, a student who gets any row, column, or diagonal completed gets to move a space on a chart move, or spin the spinner with reinforcers, or remove a square from the 100-Square Chart. There are literally an endless number of ways any novel technique can be combined with one or more other novel techniques.

The PEGS Program

The Practice in Effective Guidance Strategies (PEGS) simulation program was developed by Dr. Mary M. Wood (2001) as a way for both pre-service and practicing teachers practice dealing with students who display challenging behaviors. The program provides simulated classroom scenarios and a number of positive behavior management techniques for which the user must select based on the situation. Many of the techniques are based on positive reinforcement and, specifically, catching students being good. There are three versions of the PEGS program: preschool, elementary, and secondary. It is based on 30 years of research in child behavior. Wood developed the PEGS program as the leader of the Developmental Teaching Program (DTP) at the University of Georgia, with funding provided by the U.S. Office of Special Education. DTP teamed with LetterPress Software to create the PEGS for teachers program. Currently, PEGS is offered by the Behavioral Institute for Children and Adolescents (www.behavioralinstitute.org). In the scenarios offered the user will encounter one or two students who display particularly challenging behaviors. The strategies that work for them may be different from those used for other students in the classroom. There are 10 behaviors users will encounter from students in each scenario. For example, students may display participating with enthusiasm, participating with hesitation, watching other students, moving restlessly, talking aggressively to peers of adults, and destroying property or materials. Users are provided with a printout of their success and can monitor their progress with each student during each activity.

Ethical Considerations When Using Group-Oriented Contingencies

The advantages and disadvantages of group-oriented contingencies must be carefully weighed. These interventions have the potential for being powerful in both positive and negative ways. There are many advantages of using group-oriented contingencies (Cooper et al., 2007). They save us time and reduce our workload because we can address the behavior of an entire class with one intervention. They are useful in situations where individual interventions are impractical, especially for substitute teachers who are not familiar with students and their behaviors. They can help resolve problems quickly when used during a lesson that demands high levels of student engagement. They capitalize on using peer influence positively, thereby facilitating prosocial interactions between students. However, several ethical issues should be addressed to ensure that group-oriented contingencies are practical, effective, and economical (Cooper et al., 2007).

Establish a Ratio of Exchange

The initial ratio between the number of tokens earned and the price of back-up items should be small to ensure students enjoy immediate success. The quickest way to sabotage a token economy is to have students who are unable to purchase back-up reinforcers the first time the store is open. We also want to dispense tokens immediately after students perform the target behaviors. This practice reduces their concern that the system is unfair or requires too much effort. Students are more likely to perform the target behaviors when they are sure they will receive tokens at the proper time. As in dispensing any type of positive reinforcement, the ratio of exchange can be changed in the direction of a more intermittent schedule after target behaviors are being performed with some regularity. Cooper et al. (2007) described several considerations when adjusting a ratio of exchange: 1. Students are allowed to spend only the number of tokens they have earned; they may not borrow tokens. 2. Students should not be able to purchase back-up reinforcers and still have tokens left over, because they can misbehave and still have enough tokens for the next time the store is open. 3. The number of highly preferred back-up reinforcers should increase as students earn more tokens so that the behaviors are being performed at a high level. In order for students to see some "payoff" for their efforts, some highly preferred back-up items and activities that do not initially appear on the reinforcement menu can be made available. - There are many purposes for token economies and many ways in which they can be implemented. Token economies require time and effort, but they represent a powerful method for delivering positive reinforcement.

Think Small

The key to catching students being good is to think small. Teachers need to keep their eyes open for minor acts of compliance. Here are some examples: Sitting quietly when appropriate Asking or answering a question Writing an answer Raising a hand and waiting to be called on before speaking Lining up for recess Helping another student These are some obvious examples of behaviors we can reinforce. The reinforcement may come in the form of verbal praise—either aloud or privately, little privileges such as being first in line for lunch or recess, getting to sit in another place in the classroom for an hour, or getting to leave class a few minutes early. Because reinforcement is individual specific, the key is to find and apply consequences each student may find reinforcing. Catching students being good and providing positive reinforcement may seem unnatural to teachers who are accustomed to reacting to students only when they misbehave. Nevertheless, the value of these small reinforcers cannot be overstated. In fact, students displaying very challenging behaviors may benefit from being reinforced as often as every minute (Maag, 2012). You may be incredulous at this seemingly impossible and artificial task. However, the more you try to follow this approach, the more attuned you will become to students' small positive behaviors, such as the following: Sitting up straight in chair Eyes on teacher Holding pen or pencil correctly Smiling Saying "please" or "thank you" Walking (versus running) in the classroom It is not always easy for teachers to "think small." In fact, the more severe a student's behavior may be, the stricter some teachers become to the point where they expect students with challenging behaviors to behave better than students without behavior problems. It is the old adage: "If I give him an inch, he'll take a mile." A technique teachers can use to catch students being good is a self-monitoring card developed by Maag (2012). It appears in Figure 9.1 and is used to help teachers keep track of the number of times they praise each student in the class. They can also use the MotivAider®, first described in Chapter 5, or their smartphone. When teachers feel the device vibrate, that cues them to catch a student being good. Then the chart is marked. Teachers can then review and modify the praise they deliver, increasing praise for students who have received too little and/or decreasing praise for those who have received a disproportionate amount. Students with the most challenging behaviors should have the most tally marks next to their names.

Students Who Enjoy Sabotaging the Contingency

The last ethical consideration represents one of the biggest threats to the success of a group-oriented contingency. Some students may find it more reinforcing to sabotage the group-oriented contingency than to receive the reinforcer because of the power/control they obtain or attention (albeit negative) they receive from others. We have two options with students who are sabotaging the contingency. We can try to find a more powerful reinforcer than the power/control and attention the student receives—a truly daunting task. Or we can eliminate the offending student from the group-oriented contingency by having him watch, but not participate. If we choose this second option, we want to place the student on an individual behavior management intervention such as a token economy or behavioral contract. Otherwise, he will engage in disruptive behavior while the rest of the class participates in the group-oriented contingency.

The Reward

The reward side of a behavioral contract includes the same components as does the task side—with one exception. Instead of stating "how well," which appears on the task side, "how much" is described on the reward side. Technically, the term reward is incorrect, as was discussed in Chapter 1. The student is actually earning reinforcers. However, the term reward is used in contracts because students typically are more familiar with it than the word reinforcement. Just as with the task side of a contract, the reward side should be written objectively and specifically. Reward statements such as "Can have some free time" or "Will take to lunch when I get a chance" are not specific and so are unfair to the student attempting to complete the task. If adults are responsible for disseminating the reward, their behaviors should also be specified on this side of the contract. Specifically, the reward component includes the following: Who refers to the persons judging task completion and disseminating the reward. In the contract appearing in Figure 9.4, several of the student's teachers, the principal, and her mother will be delivering some aspect of the reward. What is the reward. In Figure 9.4, the student can earn the reward of using her mother's car on Saturday night and have a friend sleep over. In addition, she has the opportunity to earn bonus rewards. The task standard should not be set so high that a student might be eliminated early on from being able to earn the reward. Therefore, in Figure 9.4, the student has to be on time six out of seven classes per day for four out of five days. However, the ultimate goal is to have the student attend all her classes. Therefore, a bonus reward is included for attending all classes on time and being prepared. When specifies the time that the reward will be received by the student. It is crucial that the reward be administered only after the student successfully completes the task. Many rewards cannot be delivered immediately, such as certain activities or outings. Some rewards also have a built-in limited availability—they can be delivered only at certain times. For example, it is impossible to take a student to a weekend baseball game on Tuesday. How much refers to the amount of reward a student can earn by completing the task. Bonus rewards can be stated here or in a separate section, as in Figure 9.4. This process often involves layering rewards. For example, a contract may specify that a student be on time to class 4 out of 5 days in order to go out to lunch on Friday with a friend of her choice. A contract can also include an end-of-the-day reward if the student is on time six out of seven periods each day. Finally, the contract can specify that the student can have 5 minutes of free time at the end of every class period for which she is on time. In this way, a smaller reward can potentially be delivered at the end of each period and the end of each day, and the big reward at the end of the week.

The Task

The task side of a behavioral contract describes the specific behaviors that each participate will perform. Typically, it is the student's behavior that is specified. However, the behavior of adults involved in the contract (e.g., those monitoring the student's progress or writing notes to parents) is also specified. A contract may include several pages—one page for the students behavior and other pages for the behavior of involved adults. As Figure 9.4 shows, the task component has four parts: who, what, when, and how well: Who initially refers to the student who will be performing the task and earning the reward. As mentioned above, however, the behavior of everyone involved in the contract should be specified. Therefore, "who" could conceivably also include the general education teacher, special education teacher, principal, and parents. What refers to the task or behavior the student, and other persons involved in the contract, must perform. For example, a student's behavior may involve being on time to math period in the general education classroom. The general education teacher's task may be to initial the contract each time the student is on time. The special education teacher's task may be to call the student's parents to report that he successfully made it to math class on time. When identifies the time that the task or behavior must be performed. How well refers to the criterion for acceptable performance (CAP), or task standard. It involves the specifics of the task. It is helpful to list any skills necessary to perform the task so that the student can use the contract itself as a checklist of what must be done. Any exceptions should be noted here. For example, a contract may specify that a student must be on time to five out of six classes. However, if the social studies class is canceled because a teacher suddenly falls ill, then the student would be unable, due to no fault of his own, to complete the behavior. This exception should be included. Finally, it is important not to set the task standard so high that the student cannot earn the reward. For example, it may be unrealistic for a student who never is on time to class to have the standard state, "Be on time seven out of seven class periods a day." If the student is late to second period, the reward is lost and he has little motivation to be on time for the rest of her classes.

Types of Group-Oriented Contingencies

The three most common group-oriented contingencies are dependent, independent, and interdependent (Theodore, Bray, Kehle, & DioGuardi, 2003). Each type of contingency is easy to administer, has built-in incentives to prevent group members from reinforcing individual students' inappropriate behaviors, and promotes prosocial behaviors of group members (Sarafino, 2004). However, not all types of group-oriented contingencies make use of peer pressure to the same degree.

Group-Oriented Contingencies

There are perhaps no more powerful reinforcers for students than attention they receive from peers. Instead of trying to eliminate peer attention, teachers should use this attention to make positive changes in students' behaviors. Peer attention can be a major source of reinforcement for students' inappropriate behaviors. In addition, the inappropriate behavior of one student may spread to other students until the entire class is being disruptive. A group-oriented contingency may be used to address these problems (Kauffman, Pullen, & Akers, 1986). According to Cooper et al. (2007), a group-oriented contingency involves the contingent presentation or loss of a reinforcer based on whether an individual student with in a group, a portion of students within a group, or all the students in a group perform the targeted behavior(s). Group-oriented contingencies make positive use of peer pressure and attention. All teachers recognize the existence of peer pressure in their classrooms although they rarely use it to their advantage. Peer pressure typically is viewed as a negative occurrence that teachers are constantly battling. Although this may be true, it is possible to develop a group-oriented contingency that minimizes the effects of negative peer attention and maximizes the influence of positive peer pressure to promote achievement and appropriate behavior (Kauffman et al., 1986).

Students Unable to Complete the Specified Behaviors

There is no greater disservice to students than including them in a group-oriented contingency when they are unable to complete the specified behaviors. The easiest way to avoid this problem is to assess individual students' performance on the behaviors targeted for the group-oriented contingency. We can then set the initial criterion for the group at the level of the lowest performance of any student in the group. In this way, we are guaranteeing success for all students. When all students "win" the reinforcer, there is no one to blame. However, students are adept at identifying the low-achieving and unpopular students. Therefore, if the group initially does not receive the reinforcer, members may scapegoat specific students. As individual students' performance improves, the CAP for the group can be set higher.

Behavioral Contracting

Unlike the contracts used in many business contexts in which each party is trying to maximize their benefits, behavioral contracts focus on ensuring that all involved parties are treated fairly. Behavioral contracting is another way to deliver reinforcement. It is a written document specifying who is involved, what behaviors are targeted, when and where the behaviors are to be performed, and how much reinforcement a student will receive. In behavioral contracting, each individual's behaviors and accompanying reinforcers to be administrated for successfully completing the behaviors are specified more precisely than can be captured in a verbal agreement. One person's behavior (e.g., a student coming to class on time) is dependent upon the other person's behavior (e.g., a teacher allowing the student to write a note during the last 10 minutes of class). Table 9.7 contains essential features that should be considered when developing a behavioral contract.

Raffles and Lotteries

With a raffle, we distribute tickets to students when they perform a target behavior. The students write their names on the ticket and place them in a jar. At the end of the class, day, or week (depending on how intermittently students can tolerate receiving reinforcement), we pull one ticket and that student wins a reinforcer. The more tickets students earn, the greater the chance that they will win a reinforcer. An alternative approach is to write students' names on a poster board and make tally marks every time one or more of them performs the target behavior. We then let students purchase raffle tickets for a set number of points (e.g., one raffle ticket costs 10 points). This approach makes use of a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement. With a lottery, the winning ticket is secretly predetermined or determined in a chance drawing. This technique is implemented in a fashion similar to the way state lotteries operate. We obtain (or make) a role of tickets, write a number (1 through 20, or higher if necessary) on each one, and place them in a jar. Prepare another roll of tickets with the same numbers on them to give to students when they perform the target behavior. At a designated time, such as each Friday afternoon, we pull a ticket out of the jar and announce the number. The student with the winning number gets a reinforcer. As with a raffle, the more tickets students earn, the greater the chance that they will hold the winning number. Reinforcement will be more intermittent if we initially place more tickets in the jar. The idea of raffles and lotteries, in conjunction with mystery motivators, can also be used as an interdependent group-oriented contingency. As in the good behavior game, the teacher writes three to five behaviors she wants to see all students perform. The teacher obtains a cardboard box such as those used to wrap birthday and Christmas presents. The box and top are wrapped separately with brightly colored wrapping paper. A slot is cut in the middle of the top and the box is put together. Every time the teacher "catches" a student performing one of the target behaviors, a ticket is placed in the box. A mystery motivator envelope contains a cardboard note card, a number is written on one side and the name of a reinforcer on the other. The teacher informs the students that on Friday, all the tickets will be removed and counted. That number will be written on the board. The mystery motivator envelope is opened up. If the number of tickets equals or exceeds the number written on the note card, the entire class earns the reinforcer appearing on the other side. This approach is an interdependent group-oriented contingency because the entire class must reach a certain number before anyone can receive the reinforcer. However, not all students have to perform the same number of behaviors. Therefore, students who have more difficulty performing the behaviors do not penalize the entire class because peers can make up the difference.

Token Economies

activities. Money is a special type of reinforcer—a conditioned reinforcer. There is nothing inherently reinforcing about money—after all, it is just paper. We can imagine being stranded on a deserted island with nothing with which to make a fire except a suitcase full of money. If our prospects for rescue were slim, how long would we wait before burning the money to cook our food? In this situation, money loses its reinforcing properties, other than as a flammable substance, because it cannot be exchanged for anything desirable. The reinforcing power of a conditioned reinforcer depends, to a large degree, on the number of different back-up reinforcers available (Martin & Pear, 2014). Back-up reinforcers are the items and activities that can be purchased by the conditioned reinforcer—in this case, money. Money is generalized conditioned reinforcer because it can be exchanged for a virtually limitless amount of items and activities. Imagine what would happen to the reinforcing power of money if it could only be used to purchase socks and lamps! There are many real-life examples of conditioned reinforcers—some more generalized than others. As stated previously, money is the most generalized reinforcer because it can be used everywhere—not many people or businesses turn down cash. The next generalized reinforcer would be either a MasterCard or Visa credit card. The reason is that they are accepted almost everywhere, yet some establishments and businesses do not accept them. These two credit cards are more generalized than an American Express card, which is not accepted at as many places as either of the former two. Finally, a paper check—although not used nearly as often as in years past because of electronic banking and debit cards—is still a generalized conditioned reinforcer because it is accepted at many places, but throughout the years will become an increasingly less potent conditioned reinforcer compared to credit cards. A classic example of a real-life conditioned reinforcer is the S & H "green stamps" grocery stores would give customers. The more groceries customers bought, the more stamps they received. The stamps were placed in a booklet similar to the ones used by stamp collectors. When a booklet was completely filled with stamps, customers could use it to purchase items from an accompanying catalog. The stamps were a lower-level conditioned reinforcer because they could only be used to purchase items in the specific S & H catalog. In addition, people would sometimes complain about how certain desirable items were never in stock to exchange for their stamps. A more recent example is the points American Express gives for using its card to make purchases. There is a catalog American Express sends out with items for which points can be exchanged. Although the catalog is visually appealing and has some desirable items, it is nevertheless limited by what appears in the catalog. Tangible objects, such as money, trading stamps, printed points, or gift certificates, that are exchanged for items or activities are called tokens. Any token that is some level of being generalized conditioned reinforcer can be used to increase students' appropriate behaviors. A token economy is a way to administer reinforcement. Students earn tokens for engaging in appropriate, specifically targeted behaviors that can be exchanged for a variety of back-up reinforcers. Cooper, Heron, and Heward (2007) described three aspects of a token economy: Behaviors to be reinforced are identified and defined. A medium of exchange is selected. A medium of exchange refers to some symbol or token that a student receives after successfully completing the target behavior. Back-up reinforcers are generated that can be purchased with the tokens. There are several advantages of token economies (Alberto & Troutman, 2012; Kazdin, 1985; Martin & Pear, 2014): Tokens can be administered immediately after a target behavior occurs and exchanged at a later time for a back-up reinforcer. Therefore, they "bridge the gap" between when a student performs targeted behaviors and when he has access to the back-up reinforcers. It is easier for teachers to dispense tokens than verbal reinforcement when dealing with students within a group. Unlike edible or activity reinforcers, tokens can be used to reinforce a student's behavior any time without interrupting the lesson or having satiation occur. Tokens will maintain a student's behavior over long periods of time. Tokens can be given to many students that may have different preferences for purchasing back-up reinforcers. Token economies are most often used as a Tier 3 intervention for students who display severe challenging behaviors. They typically are used as part of a BIP after conducting a FBA. However, token economies can also be used as a Tier 1 intervention for the entire school (Maag, 1999) and a Tier 2 intervention when used in conjunction with the Check-in/Check-out (CICO) program (Crone, Horner, & Hawken, 2004). Regardless of the tier at which token economies are developed and used, they all involve presenting a token after a student performs specified behaviors—usually no more than three to four. After a specified period of time has elapsed, students exchange tokens for back-up reinforcers. Tokens quickly become conditioned reinforcers because they are exchanged for back-up reinforcers. The more back-up reinforcers available, the more tokens become a generalized conditioned reinforcer. Teacher praise and approval should be paired with tokens in order to increase their effectiveness activities. Money is a special type of reinforcer—a conditioned reinforcer. There is nothing inherently reinforcing about money—after all, it is just paper. We can imagine being stranded on a deserted island with nothing with which to make a fire except a suitcase full of money. If our prospects for rescue were slim, how long would we wait before burning the money to cook our food? In this situation, money loses its reinforcing properties, other than as a flammable substance, because it cannot be exchanged for anything desirable. The reinforcing power of a conditioned reinforcer depends, to a large degree, on the number of different back-up reinforcers available (Martin & Pear, 2014). Back-up reinforcers are the items and activities that can be purchased by the conditioned reinforcer—in this case, money. Money is generalized conditioned reinforcer because it can be exchanged for a virtually limitless amount of items and activities. Imagine what would happen to the reinforcing power of money if it could only be used to purchase socks and lamps! There are many real-life examples of conditioned reinforcers—some more generalized than others. As stated previously, money is the most generalized reinforcer because it can be used everywhere—not many people or businesses turn down cash. The next generalized reinforcer would be either a MasterCard or Visa credit card. The reason is that they are accepted almost everywhere, yet some establishments and businesses do not accept them. These two credit cards are more generalized than an American Express card, which is not accepted at as many places as either of the former two. Finally, a paper check—although not used nearly as often as in years past because of electronic banking and debit cards—is still a generalized conditioned reinforcer because it is accepted at many places, but throughout the years will become an increasingly less potent conditioned reinforcer compared to credit cards. A classic example of a real-life conditioned reinforcer is the S & H "green stamps" grocery stores would give customers. The more groceries customers bought, the more stamps they received. The stamps were placed in a booklet similar to the ones used by stamp collectors. When a booklet was completely filled with stamps, customers could use it to purchase items from an accompanying catalog. The stamps were a lower-level conditioned reinforcer because they could only be used to purchase items in the specific S & H catalog. In addition, people would sometimes complain about how certain desirable items were never in stock to exchange for their stamps. A more recent example is the points American Express gives for using its card to make purchases. There is a catalog American Express sends out with items for which points can be exchanged. Although the catalog is visually appealing and has some desirable items, it is nevertheless limited by what appears in the catalog. Tangible objects, such as money, trading stamps, printed points, or gift certificates, that are exchanged for items or activities are called tokens. Any token that is some level of being generalized conditioned reinforcer can be used to increase students' appropriate behaviors. A token economy is a way to administer reinforcement. Students earn tokens for engaging in appropriate, specifically targeted behaviors that can be exchanged for a variety of back-up reinforcers. Cooper, Heron, and Heward (2007) described three aspects of a token economy: Behaviors to be reinforced are identified and defined. A medium of exchange is selected. A medium of exchange refers to some symbol or token that a student receives after successfully completing the target behavior. Back-up reinforcers are generated that can be purchased with the tokens. There are several advantages of token economies (Alberto & Troutman, 2012; Kazdin, 1985; Martin & Pear, 2014): Tokens can be administered immediately after a target behavior occurs and exchanged at a later time for a back-up reinforcer. Therefore, they "bridge the gap" between when a student performs targeted behaviors and when he has access to the back-up reinforcers. It is easier for teachers to dispense tokens than verbal reinforcement when dealing with students within a group. Unlike edible or activity reinforcers, tokens can be used to reinforce a student's behavior any time without interrupting the lesson or having satiation occur. Tokens will maintain a student's behavior over long periods of time. Tokens can be given to many students that may have different preferences for purchasing back-up reinforcers. Token economies are most often used as a Tier 3 intervention for students who display severe challenging behaviors. They typically are used as part of a BIP after conducting a FBA. However, token economies can also be used as a Tier 1 intervention for the entire school (Maag, 1999) and a Tier 2 intervention when used in conjunction with the Check-in/Check-out (CICO) program (Crone, Horner, & Hawken, 2004). Regardless of the tier at which token economies are developed and used, they all involve presenting a token after a student performs specified behaviors—usually no more than three to four. After a specified period of time has elapsed, students exchange tokens for back-up reinforcers. Tokens quickly become conditioned reinforcers because they are exchanged for back-up reinforcers. The more back-up reinforcers available, the more tokens become a generalized conditioned reinforcer. Teacher praise and approval should be paired with tokens in order to increase their effectiveness