Foundational Concepts Review - BEHA 5455
Using Ration Schedules Effectively
1 Select Schedules to sustain desired rates -Individualizing schedules, reducing rates 2. Thin gradually- 3. Consider ongoing reinforcement schedules prior to implementing Extinction to reduce problematic behavior
Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates (DRL)
Reinforcement delivery when the number of responses in a specified period of time is less than, or equal to a predetemined set limit.
Stimulus Overselectivity
Responding exclusively to just one among a complex set of stimuli regardless of variations in stimuli and contingencies in effect
Overgeneralization
inappropriate generalizations
behavioral momentum
making requests known to promote high rates of compliance in advance of the activity less likely to be performed
examples of tacting
"I"m hungry" "I"m sad" "My tummy hurts"
Fixed Interval Scallop
A fixed-interval schedule often produces a scallop: A gradual increase in the rate of responding, with responding occurring at a high rate, just before reinforcement is available. No responding occurs for some time after reinforcement.
What are the advantages of Changing-Criterion Design?
As with the multiple-baseline design (Chapter 9), it does not require a reversal phase to demonstrate experimental control
with Fix ratio schedules:
Note that with the fixed ratio schedule, a pause sometimes follows the completion of a ratio, after which rapid responding begins again. This pattern of FR responding is called break and run,
Advantage of Stimulus Generalization
Repeating certain behavior under varied stimulus conditions. Whether planned or not it can conserve time, effort, and material resources, big economic means
A feature that describes how correct or valid conclusions are about the functionality of the relationship between two variables, such as an intervention procedure and changes in behavior.
internal validity
Adjusting or progressive schedule
one that decreases or increases gradually as a function of a client's performance
differential reinforcement of high rate (DRH) schedule
restricts reinforcement to a response preceded by rate of responding as in the case of reinforcing only if at least 5 responses have been emitted in the last 2 seconds
Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR) schedule
the responses requirement remains constant
Interreinforcement Interval
the time between reinforcer deliveries
2 echoic training methods
1. shaping 2. incidental teaching
Variable Interval Schedule (VI)
Operate like fixed interval schedules except that the interval required before a response can produce a reinforcer varies. We usually indentify such schedules in terms of the average interval
choral responding
Oral response of students (in unison) to a question or problem presented by the teacher.
Stimulus change
Presenting or withdrawing motivating operations and/or SDrs or SΔs.
Redirection
Taking actions to interrupt inappropriate behavior and prompting the organism to engage in an alternative appropriate behavior.
Disadvantage of Stimulus Generalization
Using our native language in another country. When baby calls another man daddy. making eye contact where not appropriate. Remedying unwanted generalization after the fact adds to cost of changing behavior because than we need to teach new discriminations
Response versus Stimulus Generalization
With this the response of interest does not remain intact as with stimulus generalization but it begins to shift its form or topography
differential reinforcement of paced responding (DRP)
limits reinforcement to those responses that fall within some high and low rate boundary, as when the response is reinforced only when preceded by 5 seconds of responding at a minimum rate of one per second and a maximum of 2
Factors affecting rate of responding during ratio reinforcement after schedules are no longer in effect
size of the ratio requirement the gradualness with which the reinforcement is phased out How fluently the response pattern is emitted
Disadvantages of Interval schedules
the individual may excessively display unrelated behaviors to fill the time between reinforcer delivery. such behaviors are more likely when other reinforceable activities are unavailable during the inter reinforcement interval
Positive behavior interventions accomplish what 3 things.
• Prevent or reduce problematic behaviors • Are less likely to provoke violence, escape and aggression • Are considered more pro-social
IOA for Permanent Product Recording
# of agreements (A) / # of agreements (A) + # of disagreements (D) x 100 . Alexia counts the assigned math problems she completed correctly: # 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10. Mrs. Rau counts the math problems Alexia completed correctly: # 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 10.
Social Reinforcer
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Disadvantages of DRA
- Effect may be delayed, could take time for the contingencies to take effect. - Other adaptive behavior may decrease in other settings, must make sure to implement procedure across all settings.
How to use DRO effectively.
- Maximize opportunities for reinforcement -Adjust schedule gradually -Combine with other procedures For example: An investigator found that providing a clock assisted children to distinguish when any particular schedules of reinforcement were in effect (i.e. how long they needed to refrain from unacceptable behavior to receive their reinforcers).
Disadvantages of response cost procedure
- Not universally effective: misuse decreases effectiveness - Punitive, non-constructive contingencies - Can suppress acceptable responses
Why vary aversive stimuli.
- You use less intrusive punishers mixed in with more intrusive. - Delay habituation to punishing stimulus.
Advantages of DRL and DRD:
-Benign, both permit reinforcement to continue, thereby sharing many of the advantages with other positive procedures. -Tolerant, both reflect a built in tolerance for the target behavior, communicating the message.
Advantages of differential reinforcement of other behaviors (DRO).
-Widely applicable: DRO is benign and easy compared to the dense reinforcement required of DRA. -Relatively rapid -Often durable and general: often has produces lasting response suppression.
Using Modeling effectively:Managing contingencies
-highlight similarities between models and observer --Encourage behavior rehearsal (preschoolers needed to be shown and told how to share and then requested to rehears or practice the skills to accomplish the goals) ---provide instructions rules an rationales: verbal instructions and rules can increase the effectiveness of modeling --Ensure simplicity of imitative prompt (try modeling someone putting together a complex machine-YOU CANT) --Reinforce the modeled performance: this has been found to increase initiation --Reinforce imitating
Advantages of Alternating Treatment Designs
-permit the effects of one or more independent variables to be compared -long baselines are unnecessary because these designs rapidly reveal distinct differences as a function of each diverse treatment -it permits the variables to be compared within the context of a more slowly changing background, such as seasonal changes, variations in available materials
What are the disadvantages of ratio schedules?
-ratio strain -diminishing performance quality - interval schedules are easier to use
Strategies for Promoting response rates
-reducing or increasing the size of the interval for a while -building a history of reinforcing high or low rates of the response -reinforcing high rates of responding -adding a limited-hold component -using instructions or rules -arranging competitive contingencies -taking advantage of contrast effects -interspersing easy tasks
How to avoid reinforcing behaviors targeted for reduction
1) have a clear understanding of how positive and negative reinforcement work 2) carefully observe the effects of given consequences 3) by using functional assessments to determine the function of the targeted behavior
Philosophical Concepts on which ABA is based.
1. Determinism 2. Empiricism 3. Parsimony 4. Scientific Method 5. Pragmatism
Ways to reduce rates of reinforcement
1. Differentially reinforcing low (DRLs) or Dimminishing Rates (DRDs), that is limiting delivery of reinforcers to response sequences consisting of rates no higher than (DRLs) or progressively higher that DRDs
What are the variables related to the effectiveness of punishments?
1. Immediately 2. Intensity 3. Manner of Introduction
Methods to make a self-management successful
1. Link self-management procedures to functional analysis results 2. Determine the individual's history as related to self-management 3. Criteria Setting 4. Self-monitoring 5. Surveillance - Accuracy of self-monitoring 6. External consequences for self-reinforcing
What are the advantages of ratio schedules?
1. generate high response rates 2. high rates generated initially may continue even when the schedule is shifted to one that is interval-based 3. particularly easy to use when the target response produces a permanent product 4. used to facilitate the transition from artificial to natural reinforcing contingencies
6 reasons peers are effective contingency managers
1. peers have more contact with peers 2. peer-managed interventions are more preferred by clients. 3. peers retain more of what they learn 4. peer tutoring is cost effective 5. peer tutoring is more effective in general 6. peer managers often learn the skills better themselves because of augmented training opportunities
4 types of antecedent manipulations
1. presenting sds that signal reinforcement (SDr) 2. Removing SDs taht signal punishment (SDp) 3. Decreasing the necessary response effort for the desirable behavior 4. Presenting or arranging a MO that heightens the reinforcing value of the consequence of the desirable behavior
Determining experimental significance
1.Trend analysis- 2. time series statistical analysis
conditional discrimination
4 term contingeny-Given conditional stimulus S1, one three-term contingency operates: A1 signals that a contingency relating B1 to C1 is operating. Given conditional stimulus S2, a different three term contingency operates: A2 signals that a contingency relating B2 to C2 operating
Ratio Strain
A behavioral effect associated with abrupt increases in ratio requirements when moving from denser to thinner reinforcement schedules; common effects include avoidance, aggression, and unpredictable pauses or cessation in responding. Ratio Strain can also occur when ratios becomes too large or when response requirements exceed the participant's physiological capabilities.
Intraverbal
A fill in the blank, or feature, function, or class. A conversational skill.
Valid Measure
A measure that gauges what it claims to measure. Example: A scale measures weight, not height; a ruler measures dimensions of an object.
Subject Measure
A measure that is not publicly verifiable and does not readily permit others to reliably repeat or 'replicate' it. Contrasts with objective measure.
DRO
A reinforcer is delivered only if "t" seconds have passed without a SPECIFIC response
Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior (DRO)
A reinforcer is presented after a fixed interval of time if the response of interest has NOT occurred during that interval
Formal Similarity
A relationship between (1) a stimulus that evokes a response and (2) the response-product of that response in which the stimulus and the response-product are both in the same modality and their physical patterns or sequences resemble one another
Point-to-Point Correspondence
A relationship between a discriminative stimulus and the response it controls in which both the stimulus and response have two or more components and each component of the stimulus controls a specific component of the response
Descriptive assessment
ABC data recorded observational data
alternating
ATD: research design with two or more treatments _________ systematically
Reward
An arbitrary item chosen under misguided assumption that will encourage the individual to repeat a given behavior
Advantages of DRD
Benign: permits reinforcement to continue. Tolerant: Built in tolerance for the target behavior.
Operant Behavior is... (3 things)
Emitted Selected by its consequences Modified by its consequences
Issues with inconsistent and delayed use of punishment.
Every time the response occurs without being punished it is reinforced.
Disadvantages of DRO
Fails the "dead man's test". May return to baseline levels if "other" behavior produces reinforcers of lesser value. Requires attending to the problem behavior, therefore possible inadverntly reinforcing problem behavior with attention. Risk reinforcing other unwanted behavior. Behavioral contrast effect.
MO and EO response deprivation influence reinforcer selection
Familiar with recent events have they eaten or been active what are the conditions
ratio
Fixed ______: Schedule of reinforcement where delivery happens after a specific number of occurrences
interval
Fixed ______: Schedule of reinforcement where delivery happens after the first occurrence after a specific time period
Applied
Focus on behaviors having social significance Ex. Disrupting class is socially significant because it affects him and others in the environment
Generalized reinforcer
Generalized reinforcer is a learned reinforcer that has become effective for a wide range of behaviors under a variety of circumstances or settings.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Includes: continious reinforcement (CRF), intermittent schedules of reinforcement (FR, VR, FI, VI), differential reinforcement of low-rate behavior (DRL), differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO), differential reinforcement of high rate behavior (DRH), differential reinforcement of paced responding (DRP)
Determining the significance of Demonstrated Function Relation
Internal Validity
Effective
Intervention results in socially significant behavior change. The outcome is effective according to target behavior data Ex. Data shows that Adam's target behaviors decrease
Direct Instruction
Is a system of teaching a number of academic subjects. A teaching method that involves using a prepared curriculum. It relies on stimulus control interventions to help teach general concepts, principles and problem solving strategies.
Intraverbal
Is controlled by a verbal stimulus without point to point correspondence or formal similarity and is reinforced by non specific reinforcement consists of the fact that the behavior is controlled by the preceding verbal stimulus and produces non specific reinforcement
Simple discrimination contingency.
It consists of an antecedent stimulus, a behavior, and the consequence. For example: A--B--C SD--R--Sr
Variable Interval
Melvin gets a break when he has worked for about ten minutes on his math worksheet.
Measuring untreated responses intermittently to assess any variations in those responses due to generalization or unidentified conditions; also used to enable learners (or others) to as certain whether the untreated skills actually were being acquired or just varying randomly.
Multiple probe design
Treatment history (inside or outside the experiment) influences performance under a subsequent treatment.
Multiple-treatment interference
A dog is hit with a newspaper for going to the bathroom inside of the house
PUN
A parent yells at her child for getting poor grades
PUN
Treatment Integrity or Fidelity of Implementation or Program Integrity
Refers to the accuracy with which the intervention or treatment is implemented.
Instructional Demand
Refers to the effect on behavior produced by variations in the manner in which instructions are presented to clients.
Conceptually systematic
Relates procedures to basic principles from which procedures are derived Basic Principles: Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement, Positive Punishment, Negative Punishment, Extinction
Response Location
Relative to the external environment
Discriminative Stimuli (SD)
Sets the occasion for SR of an operant. Stimuli in the presence of which responding is likely to be reinforced Ex: "Baby on Board" sign
IOA for Duration and Interresponse Time (IRT)
Shorter duration / Longer duration x 100 Billys mom said tantrum = 23 minutes Billys grandmother said tantrum = 25 minutes 23/25 x 100 = 92% IOA
Verbal Prompt
Teacher/practitioner speaks to give a hint, a clue, or a direction.
Context
The environment in which a person behaves in.
Punishment-by-prevention-of-a-reinforcer Contingency
The response contingent PREVENTION of a reinforcer resulting in a decreased frequency of that response
Buying state lottery tickets and winning
VR
Gestural
______ Prompts: Facial expressions & posture
conditioned
______ Reinforcer: A stimulus that acquired reinforcing properties
functional relation
______ ______: The tendency of one event to vary in a regular way with one or more other events.
changing criterion
______ _______ design: research design with a number of different goal levels
covert behavior
a response that is internal or hidden from view
SM (motivating stimulus)
a stimulus that makes some other stimulus a reinforcer
partial/intermittent reinforcement
animal finds food sometimes
differential reinforcement of low rate (DRL)
arranges reinforcement only for responses that are preceded by long pauses or low rates as when response is reinforced only if no other response has occurred for at least 10 seconds
Punishment
contingent consequences that decrease the subsequent rate of the behavior
Multiple probe design
data are collected only intermittently on other baseline data
Component Anaylsis
identifying which and to what extent individual or combinations of elements influence behavior measured changed
Stimulus generalization
the individual responds in the presence of a new stimulus in the same way as to a previously taught stimulus having the same characteristics
Strong/Tight stimulus control
when a given response reliably occurs at a much higher or a much lower frequency in the presence of the relevant stimulus than its absence
Respondent conditioning
when a neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with a US thereby producing
positive behavioral contrast
• Behavior increase without a change in schedule of reinforcement when another behavior decreases due change in rate of reinforcement or schedule of reinforcement.
Advantages of NCR
• Inadvertently strengthens desirable behaviors • Provides higher rates of reinforcement • Easy to implement • Rapidly promotes reduction in problem behaviors
When is redirection not a good idea?
• When the function of the problem behavior is attention, redirection may just reinforce the inappropriate responding. • When the function of the behavior is escape, redirecting to a preferred activity redirection servers as a negative reinforcer in this case.
IOA for Interval Time-Sampling
# of intervals agreed / # of intervals agreed + # of interval disagreed x 100 Scored Interval = only those intervals in which the behavior was scored as occurring are included in the analysis. Used when behavior occurs at LOW rates. Unscored Interval = only those intervals in which behaviror was not scored as occurring are included in the analysis. Used when behavior occurs at HIGH rates.
three disadvantages of timeout
(1) Loss of learning time; (2) legal and ethical considerations (3) public concerns with timeout
Seven safeguards to minimize public reactions to timeout.
(1) combine with other procedures; (2) create as reinforcing a natural environment as possible (3) remove as many reinforcers supporting unwanted behavior as feasible during timeout (4) determine magnitude empirically (5) use the smallest magnitude of aversive conditions found to be effective (6) clearly communicate response cost or timeout conditions (7) use consistently (8) consider delivering response-cost points to a peer (9) avoid opportunities for self-injury, self-stimulation, and escape during timeout (10) monitor implementation and progress (11) design the program to minimize emotional outbursts
two factors that influence the effectiveness of a timeout procedure.
(1) combining it with other procedures (2) creating as reinforcing a natural environment as possible
Advantages of Positive punishment
- Decreasing collateral inappropriate behavior. Other mal-adaptive behavior may decrease along with the target response. - Increases responsiveness to reinforcement. "punishment may enhance the efficacy of reinforcement for establishing appropriate behavior that competes with or replaces inappropriate behavior, an outcome that may lead to the withdrawal of punishment. - Modeling what not to do for peers - May facilitate acquisition of a range of skills.
Advantages of response cost procedure
- Effectively reduces behavior when used correctly - Promotes discriminative learning - Socially acceptable - It is relatively convenient to use
What may cause NCR to be ineffective?
- If the target response has been under Intermittent reinforcement schedules NCR may take a long time to take effect. - Other reinforcers are maintaining the response. - Non functional reinforcers being delivered. - Neurological disorder (tics).
Contextual factors that affect punishment
- Proximity to the punishing stimulus / agent - Punishing agent (mom, stranger, teacher) - Time, setting response takes place - Tiredness, hunger, EO's of the orgnism
Disadvantages of positive punishment
- Punishment can evoke other behaviors (aggression, escape crying). - Suppressing responses. other responses besides the target behavior may decrease. - Learned helplessness
Good Behavior Game
- interdependent group contingency used in combination with modeling, rules, and DRL or DRD to obtain faster results - groups compete against each other by seeing which is able to hold their penalty points below a given limit - the team(s) scoring below the set number, or who have the fewest infractions, win various reinforcers
Behavioral Objective Format
-Problem - Goal, context -Criterion Level - Rate of behavior, rate of criterion, other dimensions of behavior -Behavioral Objective
Disadvantages of DRL and DRD:
-Time, both may take a while to combine with other positive reductive procedures. -Many not be suitable for dangerous objectionable behaviors. -Focus on undesirable behavior, this may poses that preferred behaviors may be overlooked or unwanted ones unduly attended to and thereby be inadvertently reinforced by the extra attention.
Advantages of changing criterion design
-does not require a reversal phase to demonstrate experimental control (very good when dealing with irreversible behaviors) -can demonstrate experimental control with a single individual behavior or within one setting -suited to programs in which criteria are changed gradually and progressively as in DRD or DRH or DRL
Disadvantages of Changing Criterion Design
-each phase acts as a baseline for the next -long phases if behavior is slow to change or stabalize -it requires control over both directions and level of change -losing experimental control due to behavior's progressing more rapidly than anticipated to the desired end level
Disadvantages of alternating Treatment desgins
-sequencing effects -is that its participants may fail to discriminate between conditions that are rapidly alternating
Social validity
-social significance of the goals -socially appropriateness of the procedures -social importance of the effects
Using and demonstrating Control Via the Changing-Criterion Design
-the different component can be adjusted by varying length of the phases, the magnitude of change demanded by the criterion levels, and the number of phases -the varying lengths of each phase increases the design's validity
Advantages of interval schedules
-their ease of implementation is major. They are duration rather than frequency based -They delay satiation because they are intermittent schedules of reinforcement. this is probably responsible for maintained responding during reinforcement -Although FI tend to produce changing response rates (scallops) variable interval schedules promote more consistent responding
example of Multiple Probe Design
1 of three children learning laundry skills. The probes measure each response in the entire chain right before the baseline and training of each component. no reinforcers were delivered during probes. the baseline data only measure components previously trained, plus as teh data indicate the component to be trained next.
Behavioral Objectives Consists of:
1. A goal behavior 2. Clear specifications of the conditions or context 3. Criteria or standards
Characteristics of ABA
1. Applied 2. behavioral 3. Analytic 4. Technological 5. conceptually systematic 6. Effective 7. Generality
Ways to use DR effectively
1. Clearly Identify relevant stimulus properties 2. present specific instructions 3.emphasize or boost relevant antecedent stimulus properties
Using the "Tell" procedure
1. Ensure that instructions govern the individual's behavior in general (Infant's "Wave bye" in response to parent's cues) 2. higher order classes- (i.e.student is self injurious for "attention", but techniques are not working, agression is part of a higher order class of behaviors like yelling hitting) 3.Develop instructions as discriminative stimuli- 4. use stimuli known to be in the repertoire of learner 5. present instructions rapidly 6. combine instructions with goal-setting and modeling
4 features that must be present for stimulus control to occur. (RAID)
1. REPERTOIRE: Must already be in the learners repertoire. 2. DETECT: The learner must be able to detect the antecedent stimuli. 3. ADEQUATE REINFORCEMENT: The behavior must be reinforced adequately enough to firmly establish the 3 term contingency. 4. INAPPROPRIATE R: Inappropriate responses must not be reinforced I the presence of the essential SD.
Reinforcement Relations
1. Responses must have consequences 2. Their p must increase 3. The increase must occur because of these specific consequences (and not others)
Component skills involved in self-management
1. Selecting their own goals 2. Self-monitoring 3. Selecting procedures 4. Implementing Procedures 5. Self-evaluating
Assumption of Science
1. determinism 2. empiricism 3. experimentation 4. Replication 5.Parsimony 6. Philosophical doubt
How can you promote high rates of responding with ratio schedules?
1. provide clear instructions 2. ask the client to imitate the rate of responding of someone else shown earning a reinforcer 3. differentially reinforcing high rates (DRH) 4. fluency training
Disadvantages of Ratio Schedules
1. ratio strain and diminishing performance quantity 2. interval schedules often are easier to use
How to use differential reinforcement effectively to develop stimulus control
1. reinforcing the appropriate response in the presence of SD 2. Not reinforcing in the presence of other stimuli *Must be maintained because if they are not, stimulus control may weaken or disappear.
Using physical guidance effectively
1. secure the client's cooperation and keep guidance to a minimum 2. help learners attend as well to proprioceptive cues-the stimuli or sensations that arise from within their own bodies 3. Transfer stimulus control-gradually transfer stimulus control from the FP to other discriminative stimuli to permit the learner to follow instructions
4 controlling antecedent variables of verbal behavior
1. some state of deprivation or aversive stimulation 2. some aspect of environment 3. other verbal behavior 4. one's own verbal behavior
2 consequence conditions of verbal behavior
1. something related to deprivation/aversive stimulation 2. social (educational) consequences
Advantages of Ratio Schedules
1. tend to generate high response rates 2. the high rates generated initially may continue even when the schedule is shifted to one that is interval based 3. they are particularly easy to use when the target response produces a permanent product 4. may be used to facilitate the transition from artificial to natural reinforcing contingencies
7 Steps in using Direct Instruction (DI)
1.Follow a very carefully organized and detailed sequence of instruction. They Follow scripts to ensure that material is presented properly and followed with appropriate consequences. This minimizes problems with instructional demand and supports delivery of merited reinforcement 2. Teach in small groups as appropriate 3. Prompt unison group (coral responding 4. Use signals to encourage all students to participate at specific times during a lesson 5. Use rapid pacing during presentation 6. Apply specific techniques for minimizing and correcting errors, including graphing errors, supplying the correct answer in discriminations tasks, prompting students to use a multi-step strategy and others 7. praise as merited
Describe the Activity table
: A table displaying a variety of reinforcing activities. Individuals earn access to time at the table for "good behavior".
Differential Reinforcement of Low Rate (DRL)
A R is reinforced, ONLY if some minimum amount of time has passed since the last R Note- A response is required Example: Starting a flooded engine
Differential Reinforcement of High Rate (DRH)
A R is reinforced, if at least "n" R were emitted during the last "t" seconds Note- Responses are required Example: Juggling, Fluency
Differential Reinforcement of Lower Rates (DRL):
A behavior is reinforced only after it occurs following a specific period of time during which it did not occur, or since the last time it occurred. (Delivering reinforcement contingent on a sequence of responses emitted at low rates) Ex: waiting three minutes instead before raising your hand instead of every 30 seconds, giving others the opportunity to answer.
Stimulus control refers to
A change in behavior that occurs when either an SD or an S-Delta is presented
conditioned aversive stimuli
A class of stimuli which a person learns to experience as aversive, as a result of pairing with an unconditioned aversive stimulus.
dependent group contingencies
A contingency in which reinforcement for all members of a group is dependent on the behavior of one member of the group or the behavior of a select group of members with the larger group. Also called a hero procedure.
Overcorrection
A contingency on inappropriate behavior requiring the person to engage in an effortful response that more than corrects the effects of the inappropriate behavior
Daily report card system.
A daily rating of one or more specific behaviors (completing assignments, following directions, sitting down quietly). The rating is shared with parents, who reinforce improvements or positive ratings
Fixed-interval Scallop (Fixed-interval responding)
A dixed-interval schedule often produces a scallop (curve)- a gradual increase in the rate of responding, with responding occurring at a high rate just before reinforcement is available. No responding occurs for some time after reinforcement
Radical behaviorism
A form of behaviorism that attempts to understand all human behavior including private and public events ex: Cooper and Skinner approach
positive practice
A form of overcorrection in which, contingent on an occurrence of the target behavior, the learner is required to repeat a correct form of the behavior, or a behavior incompatible with the problem behavior, a specified number of times; entails an educative component.
Echoic Behavior
A form of verbal behavior in which the response is vocal and controlled by a prior auditory stimulus, there is point-to-point correspondence between the stimulus and the response, and there is formal similarity between the stimulus and the response-product
Stimulus Class
A group of stimuli that have a common effect on an operant class and vary across physical dimensions.
Experimental Group
A group of subjects exposed to the presumed crucial value of the independent variable
Control Group
A group of subjects not exposed to the presumed crucial value of the independent variable
How do generalized reinforcers develop
A learned reinforcer that has become effective for a wide range of behaviors under a variety of settings and circumstances
Objective Measure
A measure that is publicly verifiable. The definition of the behavior is observable, free of interferences, and unambiguous.
Reliable Measure
A measure that is repeatable, i.e., remains standard, or consistent, regardless of who does the measuring, on what occasion.
Sensitive Measure
A measure that reflects subtle changes in the target response. Example: measuring the 50 yard dash in minutes vs tenths of a second.
Behaviorally-anchored Rating Scale (BARS)
A method of assessing performance by assigning a numerical value to one's judgements. Each number on the scale represents a specific set of observable behaviors, such as steps, tasks, or skills involved in a complex task. These numbers and their corresponding behaviors are located on a rating scale.
Tact
A mother and son are looking up at the sky. An airplane fly's by and the son says, "Airplane!" Mom responds by saying, "that's right!"
Respondent Conditioning (Classical Conditioning)
A new relation develops between a stimulus and a formerly unconditioned response.
Successive Approximations
A particular response that has shifted along some dimension, such as quality, rate or intensity as it more closely approaches its target criterion.
bonus response cost
A procedure for implementing response cost in which the person is provided a reservoir of reinforcers that are removed in predetermined amounts contingent on the occurrence of the target behavior - Not engaging in target behaviors allows the individual to keep all their bonus tokens.
Planned ignoring
A procedure for implementing time-out in which social reinforcers - usually attention, physical contact, and verbal interaction - are withheld for a brief period contingent on the occurrence of the target behavior.
Contingent Observation
A procedure for implementing time-out in which the person is repositioned within an existing setting such that observation of ongoing activities remains, but access to reinforcement is lost.
extinction
A procedure in which the reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior is discontinued.
Least to Most Prompting
A prompting heirarchy is used to teach learners new skills. The least intrusive prompt needed to assure that the skill occurs correctly is attempted first, followed by more intrusive prompts.
Continuous Reinforcement (CRF)
A reinforcer follows each response
Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule of reinforcement
A reinforcer is contingent on the last of a fixed number of responses
Variable-ratio (VR) schedule of reinforcement
A reinforcer is contingent on the last of a variable number of responses
Principle of punishment by prevention of a reinforcer
A response occurs less frequently if it has prevented a reinforcer in the past
Principle of punishment by prevention
A response occurs less frequently is it has prevented the removal of an aversive stimulus in the past
Operant
A response that produces a change in the environment and increases in frequency due to that change
Fixed Interval (FI)
A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement is delivered for the first response emitted following the passage of a fixed duration of time since the last response was reinforced (e.g., on an FI 3-minute schedule, the first response following the passage of 3 minutes is reinforced).
Variable Interval (VI)
A schedule of reinforcement providing reinforcement for the first correct response following the elapse of variable duration of time occurring in a random or unpredictable order. VI produce a low - moderate, steady response rates (pop quizz at unpredictable times). The larger the average interval, the lower the overall rate of response.
Principle of Behavior
A scientifically derived rule of nature that describes the enduring and predictable relation between a biological organism's responses and given arrangements of stimuli.
Chain
A sequence of responses that are functionally linked to the same terminal behavior.
Response Class
A set of responses that either are: a) similar on at least one response DIMENSION, or b) share the EFFECTS (the way the environment affects the behavior) of reinforcement and punishment, or c) serve the same FUNCTION((way the behavior affects the enviornment)) (produce the same outcome)
Stimulus Class (Concept)
A set of stimuli, all of which have some common physical property
Supplementary reinforcers to reinforce timing
A signal to indicate that a stronger reinforcer is on its way Using learned reinforcers to cope with delay a smile or good job before free time
Simple Discrimination contingency
A simple discrimination contingency consists of the antecedent stimulus A (sd) the behavior (B) or response R and the consenquence C (for reinforcer)
Concurrent (total/ whole task) chaining
A simultaneously teaching method, in which all or several sub skills are taught at the same time; opposed to joining one link at a time.
Limited Hold
A situation in which reinforcement is available only during a finite time following the elapse of a fixed interval (FI) or variable interval (VI): if the target response does not occur within the time limit, reinforcement is withheld and a new interval begins (e.g. on an fixed interval (FI) 5-minute schedule with a limited hold of 30 seconds, the first correct response following the elapse of 5 minutes is reinforced only if that response occurs within 30 seconds after the end of the 5-minute interval).
Receptive
A skill in which the student points to something corresponding to the speakers instruction.
Expressive
A skill in which the student uses their communication modality to engage in any of the verbal operants.
Stimulus
A specific event or combination of events (stimuli) that may influence behavior.
Negative reinforcement
A stimulus (aversive stimulus) is removed to increase the future frequency of behavior under similar conditions
Mediated Reinforcement
A stimulus change that occurs after a response has been emitted, increases the future probability of that response, and results from the action of another individual
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
A stimulus that does not automatically elicit a UR, is paired with a US, thereby producing a UR. As those pairings continue, the formerly neutral stimulus gradually gains the eliciting properties of the US, eventually changing into a conditioned stimulus (CS) capable of eliciting a response generally similar to the UR, the conditioned response (CR).
Aversive Stimulus (negative reinforcer)
A stimulus that increases the future frequency of a response that its REMOVAL (termination) follows
Response Product
A stimulus that is the result of someone's behavior
Punisher
A stimulus. You don't deliver punishment, you deliver a punisher.
Differential reinforcement of incompatible behaviors(DRI)
A sub class of DRA: the alternative behavior cannot be emitted simultaneously with the unwanted behavior.
Token economy
A system whereby participants earn generalized conditioned reinforcers (e.g., tokens, chips, points) as an immediate consequence for specific behaviors; participants accumulate tokens and exchange them for items and activities from a menu of backup reinforcers.
Functional Behavior Assessment
A systematic method of assessment for obtaining information about the purposes (functions) of a problem behavior and increasing appropriate behavior
Tact
A teacher holds up a picture of a dog and says, "what is this?" The student says "dog."
Intraverbal
A teacher says, "What is your favorite thing to eat?" the student says "pizza."
Intraverbal
A teacher says, "twinkle, twinkle little ______" the student fills in the blank, "star."
Spontaneous Recovery
A temporary recovery of the extinguished behavior, short lived and gets shorter each session until stopping all together An increase in the rate of responding above operant levels after and during exposure to Extinction
Audience
A type of controlling variable that is usually a listener in the presence of whom verbal behavior is typically reinforced and that controls a group of response forms
functional sim/diff between + - reinforcement
A warm coat can add warmth but remove cold arranging aversive conditions vs adding desirable stimulus
repeated
ABAB design: research design with _____ baseline and intervention conditions
Avoidance Behavior
Actions that postpone or circumvent an aversive stimuli
Escape behaivor
Actions that remove or reduce aversive stimuli
Fixed-ratio Responding
After a response is reinforced, no responding occurs for a period of time, then responding occurs at a high, steady rate until the next reinforcer is delivered
Technological
All procedures (application) are identified and clearly described - so that Application can be replicated
A within-subject or intensive experimental design consisting of alternating presentations of two or more independent variable arrangements.
Alternating-treatment design
behavior-altering effect
An alteration in the current frequency of behavior that has been reinforced by the stimulus that is altered in effectiveness by the same motivating operation. For example, the frequency of behavior that has been reinforced with food is increased or decreased by food deprivation or food ingestion.
Task Analysis
An analysis of complex behavior and sequences of behavior into their component responses, looking at the process not just the final product
Functional Assessment
An assessment of the contingencies responsible for problem behaviors
Establishing Operation
An environmental change or event that precedes the response to which it is functionally related and increases the effectiveness of a particular stimulus change as reinforcement
Motivating Operations
An environmental variable that (a) (value-altering) alters (increases or decreases) the reinforcing effectiveness of some stimulus, object or event. Ex: a hungry child will eat. and (b) (behavior-altering) alters (increases or decreases) the current frequency of all behavior that have been reinforced by that stimulus, object, or event.
Reversal Design
An experimental design in which we reverse between intervention and baseline conditions to assess the effects of the intervention
S-Delta
An extinction stimulus and tells us that reinforcers will not be available. Ex: Someone talking
Links
An inapt response that combined with others form a behavioral chain; small teachable units that may configure a series of sequentially ordered links within more complex behavioral chains.
Positive Reinforcement
An increase in the rate or probability of behavior is a function of the frequency with which that behavior is reinforced. In positive reinforcement, the organism gains a stimulus, dependent or contingent on a response, resulting in the rate of that response increasing or maintaining.
social stories
An instructional technique in which students create or interpret narrative or visual illustrations that reflect typical social encounters. are a specific antecedent strategy designed to enable children to better follow a particular social protocol
Permanent Products of Behavior or Outcome Recording
An observational method based on assessing durable products of behavior. The evidence remains intact.
Variable Ratio (VR)
An operant conditioning principle in which the delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses. (e.g., on a VR 10 schedule an average of 10 responses must be emitted for reinforcement, but the number of responses required following the last reinforced response might range from 1 to 30 or more). VR schedules do not produce a "Postreinforcement Pause". They create high & constant rate of responding. Behavior becomes most resistant to extinction.
Free Operant
An organism may repeatedly engage in the response over an extensive period of time
Example of FT Schedule
Angela complimentented her workers every 2 hours regardless of whether they were doing their assigned task. Workers earn paychecks every 2 weeks, wether or not they do good job
Negative Reinforcer
Any event that increases operant behavior by its removal
Reinforcer
Any stimuli, added or subtracted that increases or maintains behavior in similar conditions
Determinism
Assumption of Science. Behavior is caused by some event or all events have a cause.
Empiricism
Assumption of Science. Information is collected by objective observations
Conditional Reinforcer
Becomes effective as a reinforcer through its relation to some other reinforcer
Rate of Behavior
Behavior expressed as the frequency of the behavior divided by a standard period of time. Reporting rate is preferable to frequency if the time during which observations are conducted varies from one session to the next.
Contingency-shaped behavior
Behavior learned by experiencing consequences directly. Behavior shown to be more susceptible to generally prevailing contingencies than to verbal stimuli such as instructions or rules
Duration of Behavior
Behavior measured as the total time elapsed between the start of the behavior and its completion.
Latency of Behavior
Behavior measured by recording the time that elapses from the signal to begin until the response occurs.
Verbal Behavior
Behavior reinforced through the mediation of another person who has been specifically trained to provide such reinforcement
overt behavior
Behavior that has the potential for being directly observed by an individual other than the one performing the behavior.
Stimulus Generalization
Behavior that is emitted in the presence of a specific S-D is also emitted in the presence of other stimuli, which usually share some characteristics with the S-D
Verbally Controlled or rule-governed behavior
Behavior under the control of as rules and instructions, rather than behavior shaped by reinforcing or aversive consequences. Because it covers a broader array "rule-governed behavior" generally has been replaced by the term "verbally controlled"
Unconditioned Respondent Behaviors
Behaviors reliably elicited by stimuli that produce them despite any prior learning. Also known as a reflex.
Transitory Behaviors
Behaviors that can be observed and counted as they come and go, but do not produce tangible, quantifiable outcomes or products. Topography, magnitude size/intensity, frequency/event, duration, interresponse time (IRT)
Escape extinction
Blocking escape attempts so that escape responses no longer provide reinforcement.
Task analysis
Breaking down a complex skill, job, or behavioral chain into its component behaviors, sub skills, or subtasks. Useful in planning specific stimulus control and chaining procedures.
Variable Ratio
Buying lottery tickets
How does behavior analysis work?
By breaking complex behavior down into its functional parts. Behavior analysis restricts itself to actions that can validly and reliably be observed and recorded, either by the person engaging in the behavior or by others.
how punishment can diminish self-esteem
By directing aversive comments at the organism instead of at the target response. e.g., You'r an awful child! Vs. No Hitting! Hitting is awful!.
Contextually inappropriate behavior
CIB or behavior unsuitable in the particular context, Describes classes of behavior that might reasonably be targeted for reduction given specific circumstances
Mand
COMMAND A verbal response in which the form of the response is controlled by an establishing operation A request. Asking for something. Function: Gain access to item
Examples of Motivating Stimulus
Cannot drive car unless you have your keys but you have lost it. You look in all familiar places until you find it. When you wanted to drive the key became the reinforcer-hunting for it was evoked by those circumstances (this is a S M) Hunger is the MO-and a bowl of hot soups is served minus the spoon (SM). The individual must request the spoon or locate to eat. Or putting puzzle to together and find the piece (SM) is missing. He must request or find that piece to finish
Functional Communication training
Car and Durrand developed a procedue to rectify maladaptive behavior. It can be viewed as an application for mand training Involves using DR to teach people to mand in a socially acceptable way for the same reinfocer that historically served to maintain problem behavior
response cards
Cards, signs, or other items that are simultaneously held up by all students to display their response to a question or problem presented by the teacher; response cards enable every student in the class to respond to each question or item.
Schedule Thinning
Changing a contingency of reinforcement by gradually increasing the response ratio or the extent of the time interval; it results in a lower rate of reinforcement per responses, time, or both.
involving successive changes in the criterion for delivering consequences, usually in graduated steps from baseline levels to a desired terminal goal.
Changing-Criterion Design
Fixed Interval
Checking the oven to see if cookies are done when the cooking time is known (i.e., they won't be done until that time is up).
Fixed Interval
Checking your mail when you know the mailman comes every day at 1 PM.
Using Modeling effectively by choosing models
Choose models who: --share common characteristics of observe --are competent in the skill to be imitated --have initially experienced difficulty learning the skill (coping models) --have had previous positive interactions with the observer --are prestigious (receive above average reinforcers from peers and supervisors --select multiple models
Example of VI
Chuck's teacher would have varied the interval from 0-10 minutes when she prepared the clock to prompt the reinforcement. Eventually these intervals would have averaged about 5 minutes. it would then be called VI 5 minutes or Variable interval 5 minutes
Operant Classes
Classes of Responses that are affected by the way in which they operate on the environment. No two responses are identical, so we speak of a class of R that produce similar effect on the environment.
Describe the activity table
Combines DRA and modeling to teach youngsters appropriate behavior in a novel, exciting, and enjoyable way. Used to teach specific behaviors or to achieve control in disruptive classrooms or group settings.
Describe "catch 'em being good game
Combines DRA with modeling and can be used to teach appropriate behavior in varied situations.
Compound Schedules of Reinforcement
Combines schedules of reinforcement (CRF, FR, VR, FI, VI, DRH, DRL), with / without Sds for individual or combination of elements to form the following schedules: • Concurrent • Conjoint • Alternative • Multiple • Mixed • Chained • Tandem • Progressive • Conjunctive
Interobserver Agreement (IOA)
Compares the recordings of two observers from episode to episode, to determine how their recordings match.
Rational task analysis
Components of a task analysis derived from studying the subject matter and specifying the process or procedure that is presumed to be involved in performing the task.
Learning
Consists of altering response patterns, generally as a function of changes in environmental conditions. Learning = behavior change. The way we know an organism has learned something new is by observing changes in patterns of behavior in relation to particular environmental events.
Advantages of DRA
Constructive: Better to increase appropriate response than decrease inappropriate responses Benign: unlike extinction, response cost and timeout, DRA procedures continue to deliver reinforcers. Acceptable: more socially acceptable than other procedures. Lasting change: Once the target response stops, if the alternative is maintained the target response is not apt to return.
philosophical doubt
Continually question the truthfulness of what is regarded as fact
Behavior with ____________ reinforcement, rather than _____________- reinforcement, is more likely to produce an "extinction burst."
Continuous - Intermitten
Event Recording or Frequency Recording
Counting how often a specific behavior occurs within an interval, session, class period, day, week, month, or observation period. Particularly appropriate for measuring discrete behaviors.
How do you develop secondary/learned reinforcers
Couple the neutral stimuli with a primary or other learned reinforcers
Using DRH to promote high responding
DRH is designed to promote consistently rapid responding. To establish DRH we very close watch sequences of responding and deliver reinforcers only when several responses occurring in rapid succession at or above a pre established rate
what is meant by non-contingent delivery of reinforcers (NCR).
Delivery of reinforcers to the environment independent of the participant's behavior. These conditions are maintained on a FT or VT schedule.
Why is caution necessary when combining NCR with other interventions like DRA.
Dense schedules of NCR may make other interventions / schedules of reinforcement less effective.
Reactivity
Describes the way the assessment procedures themselves (not any treatment or intervention) affects the clients temporary, initial reaction to being observed.
Backward chaining
Developing a behavior chain of responses by reinforcing the last response, or link in the chain, until the entire chain is emitted as a single complex behavior.
Forward chaining
Developing a chain of responses by training the first response or link in the chain initially. Then joining the entire link together until the entire chain is emitted as a single complex behavior.
cumulative record
Displays rates of some event (usually a response), in the form of changes in the slope or curve of the record as a function of conditions in effect.
To qualify as a true ABA program,
Each single case application must be accompanied by graphic displays of the impact of the specific intervention. Additionally, before any treatment is deemed to produce a particular result reliably, it must demonstrate that outcome in the form of multiple replications either across different behaviors within the same individual or across different individuals or groups
Analytical
Emphasis on demonstration of functional relationships OR the ability to control the occurrence and non-occurrence of the behavior Ex. The relationship between off task behavior (behavior) and teacher giving him attention (consequence)
negative practice over-correction
Engage in inappropriate behavior repeatedly (i.e. if parents caught child smoking, make them smoke entire pack in one sitting)
burst
Extinction ______: Temporary sharp increase of strength of behavior
A teenager recieves an allowance every Saturday
FI
Checking the oven to see if chocolate chip cookies are done, when baking time is known
FI
Going to the cafeteria to see if the next meal is available, when the serving time is known
FI
A blueberry picker recieves $1 after filling 3 pints boxes
FR
A hotel maid takes a 15 minute break only after having cleaned three rooms.
FR
A student's final grade improves one level for every three book reviews submitted
FR
Behavioral
Focus on observable events Ex. Talking to peers, being out of seat, throwing objects, and passing notes to peers
Percentage of Opportunities
Frequency (divided by) Opportunities x 100 . When the rate of response is limited or restricted, you must report the number of response opportunities and the percentage responded to correctly.
Continuous
Herman gets a sticker every time he behaves at the doctor.
Rate of Response
How frequently a behavior occurs per unit of time. Rate of response for FI is slow-moderate> The larger the duration of FI, the longer the postreinforcement pause and the lower the overall rate of response.
How to reduce, remove, or override competing contingencies
How to: Reinforce appropriate behavior of client AND natural/competing contingencies
Three Functional Assessment Strategies
INTERVIEW: talk to the person with the behavior problem and those who interact with and have direct contact with that person OBSERVE: observe the person in his or her daily routines for an extended period of time INTERVENE: present, remove, or modify the contingencies that may be reinforcing the problem behavior
Dead-man Test
If a dead man CAN do it, it probably is NOT behavior If a dead man CANNOT do it, it probably is behavior
Response deprivation hypothesis (RDH)
If access to one of a pair of events is restricted below free operant levels (baseline of naturally ongoing behavior), an organism will work to regain access to that activity. In other words, if access to a reinforcing activity is restricted, admission to it becomes more reinforcing as a function of the deprivation conditions in effect.
What are the benefits of activity schedule?
Improve transitions between activities. Warning signal for event change. Reducing problem behavior.
four variations of time out categorized by Ryan, Peterson, and Rozalski (2007).
Inclusion timeout Exclusionary timeout Seclusion timeout Restrained timeout
Advantage of Independent group contingencies
Independent group contingencies permit each individual to profit regardless of the performance of other individuals, however peers have no incentive to try supportive or coercive tactics to influence another.
Behavior Analytic Procedures
Interventions or treatments used to induce behavioral change (e.g., the application of behavioral principles). Behavioral procedures, or strategies, are used to occasion, teach, maintain, increase, extend, restrict, inhibit, or reduce behaviors and constitute the core of most applied behavior analysis program.
Differential reinforcement of alternative behaviors (DRA)
Involves reinforcing ANY alternatives to the unwanted behavior, while treating or withholding reinforcement from the unwanted behavior. For DRA to be effective, must identify and withhold all sources or reinforcement positive & negative from the problem behavior.
Positive Punishment
Involves the presentation of some stimulus contingent on behavior and results in a decrease in the future likelihood of that response. Example: Spank a child
Negative Punishment
Involves the removal of some stimulus contingent on behavior and results in a decrease in the future likelihood of that response. Example: Remove favorite toy
SM (Motivating Stimulus)
Is a stimulus that must be present to allow the individual to engage in the behavior that is primed for reinforcement. Its absence evokes seeking out that stimulus.
Differentiate between motivational operations, discriminative stimulus, and other antecedent events.
MO: antecedent events that change the value of the consequence or along with the immediate SD may alter the behavior. SD: antecendent's that influence given subsequent behavior. Either evoke or abate the occurrence of behavior. SDr: A stimulus which a given response is likely to be reinforced. SDp:A stimulus in which a given response is likely to be punished. S-Delta: A stimulus in which a given response does not produce reinforcer's.
Catch em being good game
Make up behaviors that define "being good". Reward students with tickets (tokens) for catching them being good.
duration
Measurable properties of behavior are frequency, ______, intensity
intensity
Measurable properties of behavior are frequency, duration, ________
Ways to minimize reactive effect of observation
Minimize obtrusiveness of observers Minimize interaction between subject and observer Instruct subjects to act natural Allow time for signs of reactivity to dissipate use discrete recording methods use subjects to observe other subjects.
A child stops crying when a parent picks him up
NR
A husband stops nagging his wife once she takes out the trash
NR
A person takes aspirin to eliminate a headache
NR
A rat stops receiving shock to his feet when he pushes a lever
NR
Two major positive punishment procedures
Negative punishment positive punishment
abulia or Learned helplessness
Not discriminating the contingency punishment is in effect for.
differential reinforcement of diminishing rates (DRD)
Number of responses in a specified period of time is less than or equal to a set limit. e.g, an organism would be reinforced in 5 or less responses occurred at the end of a 5 minute interval.
Methodological behaviorism
ONLY considers behaviors that are observed and measured.
transitory behaviors
Observed and counted as they come and go, but do not produce tangible, quantifiable outcomes or products.
IOA for Event or Frequency Measures
Observer 1 Observer 2 Block by Block coefficients 4 5 .8 5 5 1.0 6 4 .7 3 3 1.0 7 5 .7 6 8 .75 8 4 .5 6 6 1.0 3 6 .5 6 5 .8 53 51 7.75 Total IOA = 51/53 x 100 = 96% Block by Block IOA = 7.85 / 10 (# of intervals) = 79%
Response Generalization
Occurrence of Rs similar to target R in the presence of Sd for target R
Extinction (EXT)
Occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. Occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS)
Treatment Drift or Procedural Drift
Occurs when the application of the intervention begins to veer off course from its originally intended path.
Automatic Reinforcer
One that has a natural relation to the response the produces it
How to use DRO effectively
Optimize reinforcer delivery. Set the DRO t to just below baseline interval lengths. combine with other procedures. Adjust schedule gradually.
Matching Law:
Organisms distribute their behavior between two or more concurrent schedules of reinforcement. Ex: If a behavior is reinforced 60 percent of the time and in another it is 40 percent, that behavior tends to occur about 60 percent of the time in the first situation and 40 percent in the second.
Explain the risks involved in "modeling punishment".
Others may duplicate the act of delivering punishment. e.g., Mom hits dad playfully, daughter hits brother in the face BLAM!.
3 ways to observing Behavior in Groups
PLA-Check, zone system and ecobehavioral assessment.
A dog is given a treat for shaking his paw.
PR
A teacher gives praise to a student
PR
After studying hard for a test, a student earns an "A"
PR
An Employee is given a bonus for finishing a project
PR
A person is given a speeding ticket for driving over the speed limit
PUN
A teenager is grounded for not getting in by curfew
PUN
How can response cost procedures be abused.
Particularly when frustrated, contingency managers may be tempted to apply those methods more frequently or restrictively than necessary.
Advantage of dependent group contingencies
Peers have often been noted to attempt to influence three performance of other group members, by showing or telling them what to do. One drawback to such group contingency is that in the absence of further rules the pressure extended by pees may be negative or coercive (bullying).
Discuss why it is not effective to increase the cost in a response cost procedure by small increments.
People adapt more to gradually to increasing intensities of punishment. Implementers should return to baseline for awhile and then increase the magnitude of the procedure.
Stereotypy
Persistent and inappropriate repetition phrases
Scientific Method
Philosophical Concept on which ABA is based. A method of research in which a problem is identified, relevant data are gathered, a hypothesis or question is formulated from these data, and the hypothesis or question is empirically tested.
Pragmatism
Philosophical Concept on which ABA is based. A practical approach to problems in which truth is found in the process of verification. Pragmatism and behaviorism go hand in hand.
Parsimony
Philosophical Concept on which ABA is based. The simplest theory that fits the facts of a problem is the one that should be selected.
Example of Surrogate CMO
Picture of your favorite coffee cake (surrogate) versus an actual cake in the bakery window. both make your mouth water.
Antecedent Manipulations increase the likelihood of desired responses by
Presenting discriminate stimuli that signal reinforcement Removing disriminative stimuli that signal punishment Decrease the necessary response effort for the desirable behavior Present or arrange a motivational operation that heightens the reinforcing value
Primary positive reinforcers and primary aversive stimuli.
Primary positive reinforcers function as reinforcers the very first time they occur. Primary aversive stimuli is the cessation or prevention of which is reinforcing, regardless of prior learning.
Consequential Stimuli- SR
Primary reinforcing Stimulus-reinforcing in absence of prior learning history (fluids when deprived of them)
Teaching
Promoting learning by any or a combination of various means: showing, telling, guiding and most important of all for educators, differentially reinforcing or arranging matters so that reinforcers follow a reasonable portion of those efforts directed towards meeting behavioral objectives.
Percentage
Proportion of number of times achieved or correct, divided by total possible time multiplied by 100.
Promoting high rates with ratio schedules
Provide clear instructions and prompt Imitation of High rates ask the client to imitate the rate of responding of someone else earning a reinforcer
Differential-punishment Procedure
Punishing one set of responses and not punishing another set of responses
Punishment or Reinforcer? Child spits, dad ignores child for 1 min, child doesn't spit
Punishment
Punishment or Reinforcer? Child spits, dad says, "No spitting!" child doesn't spit.
Punishment
4 Successful reinforcement applications
Quality, Quantity, immediacy, schedule(continuous,intermittent)
Restricted Operants
Rate of responding is determined by opportunities to emit the response The response can only be made if the experimenter does something They are to be contrasted with free operants
Progressive Ratio (PR)
Ratio Schedule in which the ratio size gradually increases over time. This schedule is sometimes used to assess reinforcer effectiveness. To do so, the "break point" is identified - when the organism stops responding.
Ratio Strain:
Ratio Strain: A disruption in performance when ratio requirements are very high or are raised abruptly. Ex: Making 10 goodie bags within 2 minutes, getting reinforced, and then slowing down to four goodie bags within two minutes, and then going back up to 10 goodie bags
Receptive
Receptive or Expressive? the teacher places a picture of a cat, dog, and apple and says, "show me the one you eat." The student points to the apple
Expressive
Receptive or Expressive? the teacher says, "tell me somethign you eat?" The student says, "Apple."
Event/Frequency
Records- # of times a behavior occurs Used When - Behaviors are transitory, discrete and with durations roughly equal in length IOA Method - Total or block-by-block
Permanent Product
Records- Outcome of the behavior Used When - Behavior has enduring effects (ex. # of math problems completed) IOA Method- Total agreement sm/lrg x 100
Partial-Interval Time Sampling
Records- Response if it occurs anytime in the interval Used When - Behaviors are transitory, continuous and goal is to DECREASE behavior IOA Method- Interval Agreements/Agreements + disagreements x 100
Momentary Time Sampling
Records- Response if it occurs at the end of the interval Used When - Behaviors are transitory, continuous and there are observation issues IOA Method- Interval Agreements/Agreements + disagreements x 100
Whole-Interval Time Sampling
Records- Response if it occurs throughout the interval Used When - Behaviors are transitory, continuous and goal is to INCREASE behavior IOA Method- Interval Agreements/Agreements + disagreements x 100
IRT
Records- Time from offset of a R to onset of next response Used When - Behaviors are transitory, discrete and when interested in time between responses IOA Method- Total
Measurement Complexity
Refers to the number of intricacy of the behaviors you are targeting. An observer is more likely to accurately assess three or four behaviors than eight or nine.
Contingency
Refers to the specified dependencies or relations between behavior and its antecedents and consequences.
Punishment or Reinforcer? Child spits, dad says, "No spitting!" child spits again
Reinforcement
Differential Reinforcement of Diminishing Rates (DRD)
Reinforcement is provided at the end of the predetermined interval contingent on the number or responses emitted during the interval being fewer than a gradually decreasing criterion based on the individual's performance in previous intervals.(e.g. girls talking in class; fewer than 5 occurrences in 5 minutes .. , then 4 in 4 ... ). DRD is a procedural variation of DRL (provides ABA with new and improved label for internal DRL procedures).
Progressive Schedules of Reinforcement
Reinforcement is thinned independent of the performance of the learner at a predetermined rate.
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Reinforcement occurs at fixed response intervals: (FR 5 = giving reinforcement after every fifth response). Skinner called them response units (all 5 combined).
Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement
Reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer follows the response only once in a while
Punishment or Reinforcer? Child spits, dad says, "Cool, did you see that?" child spits again.
Reinforcer
Fixed Time Schedule (FT)
Reinforcer delivery is not contingent on specific behavior. Reinforcers were delivered regularly after a fixed or constant time period regardless of the ongoing behavior. It can be risky because while the schedule is in effect the only condition stipulated for the delivery of reinforcers is the passage of time.
The Differential Reinforcement Procedure
Reinforcing one set of responses and not reinforcing another set of responses
negative punishment
Removal of a stimulus (a positive reinforcer) contingent upon a response, in which the rate of response decreases in the future,
Withdrawal of materials
Removing reinforcing materials such as toys from an individual contingent upon the infraction.
Baseline
Repeated measures of the ongoing behavior, designed to represent it typical pattern of occurrence prior to any intervention. It provides other phases of data with a comparison.
Echoic
Repeating a word, sound, pitch, syllable emphais, sentence, or phrase stated by the speaker.
Verbal Behavior
Requires a speaker and listener. Behavior whose reinforcement is mediated by a listener; includes both vocal-verbal behavior, nonvocal-verbal behavior, and augmenatitive devices.
Simple correction
Requiring the organism to return the environment to its previous state.
resurgence
Response that was once punished and is no longer punished reemerges. re-occurrence of previously extinguished behavior when current ongoing behavior is being extinguished.
Punishment Contingency (positive punishment)
Response-contingent PRESENTATION of an aversive condition (negative reinforcement) resulting in a DECREASED frequency of that response
Influence of response cost, quantity; or effort on the quantity or density of reinforcers provided.
Responses requiring measurably more effort or cost require stronger and/or more frequent reinforcers. (The less preferred the activity, the more reinforcers will be needed to effect change)
Resurgence
Return of the previously extinguished behavior during EXT of more recently reinforced behavior
What do are the following S+, S-, and S0
S+= a neutral stimulus designed to serve later as a discriminative stimulus for reinforcement (positive SD) S-=a neutral stimulus designed to serve later as a discriminative stimulus for punishment (Negative SD) S0= a neutral stimulus designed to serve later as a discriminative stimulus for extinction
SD s versus MO s
SD's evoke maintain and increase or decrease responding depending upon consequences for responding that they signal MO s maintain, increase or decrease the effectiveness of the reinforcers or punishers
Different categories of discriminative stimulus
SD= discriminative stimulus S-delta= discriminative stimulus for extinction: signals that the response is not likely to produce a reinforcer SDr (discriminative stimulus for reinforcement) = signals that in its presence, a given response is apt to be reinforced SDp= discriminative stimulus for punishment: in the presence of that particular stimulus, a given response is likely to be punished
Reprimand
Scolding, etc. Can be a punisher, but depends on the context. Delivering a reprimand starts a vicious cycle of behavior. The parent can make the behavior stop, but has to keep delivering reprimands.
Secondary or learned reinforcers and secondary aversive stimuli.
Secondary or learned reinforcers are stimuli that acquire their reinforcing properties only as a function of events in the individuals life. Secondary aversive stimuli is the removal or prevention of which also becomes a reinforcing event.
Matching to Sample
Selecting a comparison stimulus corresponding to a sample stimulus
Four characteristics of a good measurement system.
Sensitive measure: Objective measure: Reliable measure: Valid measure:
Four Characteristics of a Good Measurement System
Sensitive, objective, reliable, and valid.
Variable Ratio
Slot machines at a gambling casino often pay out after an average amount of times that the machine is played.
positive
Social _________ reinforcer: contingent presentation of an appetitive stimulus by another person that strengths behavior
negative
Social _________ reinforcer: contingent removal of an aversive stimulus by another person that strengthens behavior
Listener
Someone who provides reinforcement for verbal behavior. A listener may also serve as an audience evoking verbal behavior.
Examples of response generalization
Sometimes Mr Grup praises with moderate enthusiasm, sometimes with a flat tone, sometimes quite heartily When you drive a different car, you adjust the way shift from what you did in your previous car
Process vs. Product
Sometimes you need to make reinforcers and feedback contingent on the component responses of the process, not just the product (outcome)
Premack Principle
States that a higher frequency (probability) response will reinforce a lower frequency (probability) response.
Premack principle
States that contingent access to higher-probability behavior (preferred activities) reinforces lower probability behavior.
Primary reinforcers
Stimuli that function as reinforcement without any prior learning
unconditional aversive stimuli
Stimuli that functions as a punisher or negative reinforcer without prior learning history or pairing with another stimulus..
positive punishment
Stimulus is presented contingent on a response and the probability of the responses occurring in the future decreases.
Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior (DRA)
Stopping reinforcement for an inappropriate response, while shifting that reinforcement to an appropriate response
Extinction
Stopping the reinforcement or escape contingency for a previously reinforced response causes the response frequency to decrease
Intensity
Strength or force with which a behavior is expressed.
Empirical task analysis
Task analysis based on systematically observingthe learner in action.
Discrete Trial Training (DTT)
Tasks are broken down into short, simple trials.
Modeling Prompt
Teacher/practitioner engages in the target skill for the learner. These prompts can be verbal if the skill being taught is verbal, or they can be motor responses, if the skill being taught involves moving a body part.
Full Physical Prompt
Teacher/practitioner leads a learner through the task by providing full physical assistance (e.g., hand-over-hand) to ensure correct use of the target skill.
Gestural Prompt
Teacher/practitioner makes some kind of motion to prompt the learner to use the target skill.
Partial Physical Prompt
Teacher/practitioner provides minimal physical assistance to help the learner use the target skill correctly. Taps, nudges, and light pushes are used.
Shaping
Teaching new behavioral properties by differentially reinforcing successive approximations toward the behavioral objective.
Deprivation
The absence or reduction of reinforcement availability for a period of time
Unconditioned Stimuli (US)
The antecedent stimuli that directly elicit respondent behavior.
Dependent Variable
The behavior of interest. A measure of the subject's behavior, "effect"
Negative reinforcement procedure
The change agents planned removal of an aversive stimulus as a consequence of a particular response, for the purpose of strengthening that response
Reliability Measurement
The comparison of measurements of dependent variables and independent variables obtained by independent observers
Operant Class
The composite set of behaviors that result in a single type of reinforcing event.
Positive reinforcer
The contingent presentation of a stimuli that increases the likelihood of responding in similar conditions
Explain why it is a good strategy to combine bonus response cost with other procedures
The delay of reinforcement imposed by even the bonus response cost is much too long for many clients to tolerate, so adding a procedure designed to increase the rate of an acceptable replacement behavior, such as a DRA, is highly recommended.
Single-subject Research Design (aka-within-subject)
The entire experiment is conducted with a single subject, though it may be replicated with several other subjects
Aversive Stimuli
The events that organisms work to avoid, escape, or get away from.
Group Research Design (aka-between-subject)
The experiment is conducted with at least two groups of subjects, and the data are usually presented in terms of the mean (average) of the performance of all subjects combined for each group
Accuracy
The extent or degree to which the response meets standards
Variability
The extent to which data "bounce around" on the graph.
Topography
The form, appearance, or shape of response; its physical or natural features, usually restricted by response definition.
Operant Level
The frequency of responding before reinforcement
Social Validity
The goals, procedures, and results of an intervention are socially acceptable to the client, the behavior analyst, and society
Positive behavior contrast
The increase in one response (in unchanged environment) that accompanies a decrease in responding in the intervention environment
Inclusion timeout
The individual may be moved to an area where he or she can hear and see what is happening (or may even stay out), but for a brief period of time gains no response from others nor is allowed to participate.
Three Term Contingency
The interdependency among the antecedent conditions (A), the behavior (B), and the consequences (C).
Independent Variable
The intervention. The variable the experimenter systematically manipulates to influence the depended variable. Independent variable means "cause"
Duration
The length of time that passes from the onset to the offset of a response.
Episodic Severity (ES)
The measure of intensity or gravity of a behavioral incident by use of a rating scale or the duration of the episode.
Trials to Criterion
The number of responses it takes for someone to meet the standard set for success.
Frequency
The number of times a response occurs.
Rate
The number of times a responses occurs within a given period of time or per opportunity.
multiple treatment inference
The participants learning history may impact his or her performance under subsequent treatment.
The Sick Social Cycle (Victim's Punishment Model)
The perpetrator's aversive behavior punishes the victim's appropriate behavior, and the victim's stopping the appropriate behavior unintentionally reinforces that aversive behavior
Speaker
The person who's behavior we typically identify in verbal behavior. Someone who engages in verbal behavior by emitting mands, tacts, intrverbals, etc.
Response Dimensions
The physical properties of a response Examples: Topography, Latency, Duration, Pitch, Force..
Primary aversive stimuli
The prevention of what is reinforcing, regardless of prior learning
Reinforcement
The process by which consequences make responding more likely
Response Differentiation
The reinforced response class occurs more frequently than the response class that is not reinforced, usually as a result of differential reinforcement
Differential Reinforcement
The reinforcement of one class (or form, or topography) of behavior and not another.
Stimulus Control
The relation between a stimulus and a response when the stimulus (discriminative stimuls) sets the occasions which the response has a consequence
Escape
The removal of an aversive stimuli
Escape Contingency (Negative Reinforcement Contingency)
The response contingent removal of an aversive stimulus resulting in an INCREASED frequency of that response
Disadvantages of delayed prompts
The response must always be in the repertoire or taught first, some may never emit the response unassisted, others may produce a wrong response during the pause
Whole Interval Time Sampling
The response must be emitted throughout the entire interval if it is to be scored. Underestimates bx
Partial Interval Time Sampling
The response must occur at least once during any part of the interval, even if only briefly, for it to be scored. Overestimates bx
Punishment-by-prevention-of-removal Contingency
The response-contingent PREVENTION OF REMOVAL of an aversive condition resulting in a DECREASED frequency of that response
Unconditioned Responses (UR)
The responses elicited from the unconditioned stimuli.
Response Topography
The sequence (path of movement), form, or location of components of a response relative to the rest of the body (relative to body)
Progressive/adjusting Schedule
The size of the response requirement increases in some systematic way, as in augmenting the requisite number of responses (on average) for reinforcers to be delivered. Ex: First ratio requirement's is 10, but after 5 reinforcers it increases to 20, and after another 5 reinforcers it increases to 30 and so on.
Mand
The teacher hands the student a PECS book and says, "what do you want?" the student takes the picture of their favorite stuffed animal and hands it to the teacher. The teacher gives the student the stuffed animal.
Mand
The teacher holds a piece of candy in her hand. The student signs "candy" and the teacher gives the student the candy.
Echoic
The teacher says, "Say, Cat" the student says, "Cat"
Echoic
The teacher signs, "apple." The student signs, "apple."
Definition of Client
The term client as used here is broadly applicable to whomever the behavior analyst provides services whether an individual person (service recipient), parent or guardian of a service recipient, an institutional representative, a public or private agency, a firm or corporation.
Operant Behavior
The term used toe describe behavior that "operates" on the environment.
Latency
The time between the signal or opportunity for a response and the beginning of that response
Errorless Discrimination Procedure
The use of a fading procedure to establish a discrimination, with no errors during the training
Reactivity
The way the assessment procedures themselves influence the client's behavior, compromising, thereby, the validity of the data.
Abscissa
The x-value, on the x-axis or the horizontal line of a graph, usually expressed in observational sessions or standard units of time, such as hours, days, weeks or months
Disadvantages of DRL and DRD
Time. May take more time to produce positive effects. Not suitable for dangerous behavior. - e.g., You want to eliminate not reduce SIB. Focus is on undesirable behavior so desirable behavior may be overlooked.
Reinforcement is used in what ways?
To change behavior To increase behavior To maintain Behavior the contingent relation between the behavior and the stimulus affecting it An observable natural event
Purpose of a Functional Assessment
To determine the probable function the behavior serves to develop a behavior intervention plan composed of preventative measures
four purposes for collecting baseline data
To display actual current levels of performance. To serve as a basis for predicting future levels of performance To enable us to assess the durability of change in response pattern To decide whether to reinstate, and perhaps permanently install or slowly phase out the intervention.
When to use Continuous reinforcement
To increase or stabilize a behavior, but not for maintaing over a long period of time
graduated guidance
Typically used with chained skills. Teacher/practitioner uses the controlling prompt to start, then makes decisions about what level of prompt to use during the instructional activity, based upon the learners response.
When to use INTERMITTENT REINFORCEMENT
Use: to maintain behavior
PLA-Check
Used to help determine how best to alter an environment to promote high levels of productive engagement. A variant to momentary time sampling.
Calling a garage mechanic to see if your car is fixed yet
VI
Checking the front porch for a newspaper when the delivery person is extremely unpredictable
VI
Watching and seeing shooting stars on a dark night
VI
A charitable organization makes an average of ten phone calls for every donation it recieves
VR
A professional baseball player gets a hit approximately every third time at bat
VR
Variable-ratio Responding
Variable-ratio schedules produce a high rate of responding, with almost no post-reinforcement pausing
Who protects client rights?
Various people serve as advocates for dependent clients, by reviewing and approving (or not) the intervention goals and methods. These advocates may include members of a peer review committee who represent the perspectives of the clients; the consumers of ABA services, their parents, guardians, or designated representatives.
Behavior
What any organisms (including people) say or do.
Formal Control
When a controlling variable evokes a response and there is point-to-point correspondence between the controlling variable and the response
recreating the episode
When an opportunity to punish a response is missed - one strategy is to recreate the event and punish the response then.
Observer Awareness of Being Assessed
When observers are conscious that their own scoring is being monitored.
Treatment Drift
When the application of the intervention begins to veer off course
Negative Reinforcement
When the removal, prevention, or attenuation of some stimulus results in an increase in the future probability of the response
When, and only when, might you use punishment to change or control behavior?
When you can neither identify nor control the reinforcers maintaining severe problem behavior, nor find competing reinforcers.
Selecting Free versus Discriminated Operants
Whether the purpose of the intervention is to promote interdependence and generality (free operants) or to promote tightly controlled performance as with (discriminated operants)
Choosing a Time-Sampling Method
Whole Underestimates Increasing Behavior Partial Overestimates Decreasing Behavior Momentary Random Observational Constraints
Variable Ratio
You are in sales and know that on average, every five people you call will buy your product.
why is negative punishment not considered harmful
You are just removing stimuli from the environment you are not adding any aversive stimuli to the environment.
Fixed Ratio
You are paid on a commission and get paid for every five sales.
Fixed Ratio
You get a free flight on a frequent flyer program after accumulating so many flights.
Fixed Interval
You get a paid vacation after working at a company for 6 months.
backward
______ chaining: chaining procedure beginning with last element
ABAB
______ design: research design with repeated baseline and intervention conditions
Partial
______ interval recording: observation method involving recording if a behavior occurs at any point during the interval
whole
______ interval recording: observation method involving recording if a behavior occurs during the whole interval
physical
______ prompts: Physical guidance for behavior
mand
______: A verbal response that specifies its reinforcer
fading
______: Way to reduce the need for a prompt
Verbal
_______ Prompts: Involve words or parts of words
multiple baseline
_______ ______ design: research design with repeated treatments across different situations
Time Sampling
_______ _______: observation method involving recording if a behavior occurs at a the moment of observation
IOA; inter-observer agreement
_______ ________: estimation of reliability of data generated by observation
Functional
_______ assessment: an attempt to identify the environmental determinants of specific responses that currently exist in an individual's repertoire
Premack
________ Principle: Access to high-preferred response contingent upon low-preferred response can increase the occurrence of the low-p response
unconditioned
________ Reinforcer: A stimulus which functions as reinforcer the first time the organism contacts it
alternating treatments (ATD)
________ _________ design: research design with two or more treatments alternating systematically
forward
________ chaining: Chaining method begins with first part
Chaining
________: Reinforcement of successive elements of a chain
Shaping
_________: Reinforcement of successive approximations
Differential
__________ Reinforcement: Combination of reinforcement & extinction
Backward
__________ chaining: Chaining method beginning with last part
Continuous Recording
__________ recording: observation method involving recording each occurrence of a behavior during the prescribed period
Automatic
___________ reinforcer: the production or termination of sensory consequence that strengthens behavior
most to least
a _________________ hierarchy moves from: hand over hand, hand to wrist, hand to elbow, model, gestural, independent
least to most
a _________________ hierarchy moves from: independent, gestural, model, hand to elbow, hand to wrist, hand over hand
behavioral cusp
a behavior that affords clients greater access to reinforcers, by expanding their repertoires and enabling more rapid learning
avoidance behavior
a class of behavior that postpones or circumvents an aversive stimulus. The act of avoidance cannot remove an aversive stimulus because it has not yet occurred, but rather it prevents its occurrence or postpones it.
negative behavioral contrast
a decrease in responding in the (non intervention environment) that accompanies an increase in the other
Required relaxation
a form of time out in which the person is required to rest (lie on a bed) contingent on misbehavior.
Autoclitic
a form of verbal behavior that modifies other forms of verbal behavior
Responding during Extinction
a history of intermittent reinforcement tends to promote persistence under extinction-that is when responding no longer yields contingent reinforcement. Interval schedules teach people that although not all responses are followed by reinforcement some are.
duration (definition)
a measure of the total extent of time in which a beahvior occurs. works best for measuring behaviors that may last for varied lengths of time (tantrums, screaming) and have a clear beginning and end.
time sampling
a measurement of the presence or absence of a behavior within specific time intervals. works best for measuring behaviors that occurr at high rates, or do not have a distinct beginning and end (very frequent spitting or hand mouthing)
A-B-C analysis
a method for analyzing relationships among the behavior (B), and its consequences (C) and its antecedents (A)
treasure box
a motivational tool used in schools and homes. Toys, games and arts and craft materials are contained in colorful boxes and used as reinforcers for young people. Items within a box will vary from time to time, or if used in school, boxes can be exchanged periodically among classrooms to increase novelty.
three-term contingency
a phrase used to describe the interdependency among antecedents, behavior and consequences (A-B-C)
Timeout ribbon
a procedure for implementing nonexclusion time-out in which a child wears a ribbon or wristband that becomes a discriminative for receiving reinforcement. Contingent on misbehavior, the ribbon is removed and access to social and other reinforcers are unavailable for a specific period. when tme-out ends the ribbon or band is returned to the childnand time-in begins.
timeout
a procedure in which access to varied reinforcers is barred for a specific time, contingent upon a response; it is a negative punishment procedure. Either the individual is removed from the reinforcing environment or the reinforcing environment is removed from the individual for some stipulated duration.
Free operant
a response class limited by constraints or prompts, so that it may be freely emitted. Promotes interdependence/generality Behavior does not depend on an instruction, prompt, or any supportive discriminative stimulus provided by another individual.
Example of Reflexive CMO
a sequence of failures (perhaps increasing unpleasant emotional reactions) has been shown to set the stage for escape (self agression, injury, eloping) History of failure becomes the reflexive MO
Across-individuals multiple-baseline design
a single-subject or intensive experimental design that involves: 1) collecting baseline measures on the same behavior of several different individuals;2) applying the intervention first with one individual while the baseline conditions are continued with the other individuals; then 3) applying the intervention to the second individual's behavior as in item 2. This procedure is continued until it becomes apparent that individual's behavior systematically changes only when the intervention is applied.
Across-behavior multiple-baseline design
a single-subject or intensive experimental design that involves: 1) obtaining a validly representative set of pretreatment measures (baseline) of several different behaviors; 2) applying the intervention or experimental procedure to one of the behaviors until its measurement pattern changes substantially, while continuing to record the baseline measures of the other behaviors; 3) applying the identical intervention to a second behavior; then to a third and so on. The procedure continues until it becomes apparent that each behavioral measurement changes concurrent with the intervention.
The duplic
a situation in which the response form is controlled by a verbal stimulus and the response product has formal similarity to the controlling stimulus. The duplicated stimulus can be a spoken word, a sign, gesture, or written stimulus. (teacher saying "Bueno Dias" at the start of class. Students imitate so often in their reply-that eventually saying it becomes second nature
functional relationship
a specific change in the dependent variable is produced by specific manipulations to the independent variable.
Response Generalization (response induction)
a spread of an intervention effect from a targeted behavior to a similar non targeted behavior.
Positive reinforcement
a stimuli (reinforcement) is gained as a consequence of an emitted behavior
Secondary learned reinforcers
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer
surrogate MO (CMO-S)
a stimulus that has acquired its effectiveness by accompanying some other MO, and has come to have the same value-altering and behavior-altering effects as the MO that it has accompanied
acquired
a target that moves from acquisition to a hold after meeting the criteria of 3 correct probes in a row across at least 2 therapists.
matching to sample
a task in which an individual selects from 2 or more alternatives the stimulus that matches or corresponds to a standard or sample
delayed matching to sample
a type of matching in which the sample item is removed before the choices are presented
Restrained timeout
a variation of seclusion timeout often referred to as either (a) movement suppression or (b) therapeutic holding/ restraining - the more severe variation of the two.
Alternating-treatment design
a with-in subject or intensive experimental design consisting of alternating presentations of two or more independent variable arrangements. The term multi-element has sometimes been reserved for situations in which each arrangement is correlated with the distinctive discriminative stimulus. The distinctive response patterns generated under each condition then are revealed by comparing performance under each of the variables.
X-axis
abscissa
Reflexive CMO
acquire their effectiveness as mo s by preceding a situation that either is worsening or improving. (depends on conditional relations)
reflexive MO (CMO-R)
acquire their effectiveness as motivating operations by preceding a situation that either is worsening or is improving
Response deprivation hypothesis
activity is restricted and access to it becomes highly reinforcing as a function of the deprivation conditions is effect.
FBA leads to treatment development
address function select and teach replacement behaviors modify antecedent and select consequences
Advantages of response generalization
allow you to avoid having to teach minor behavioral variables completely fro scratch. instead you can capitalize on response induction by using variations of shaping behavior (tennis coach may capitalize on clients skill in badminton to promote an appropriate tennis swing
Within Stimulus Prompts
alter the physical characteristic of the stimuli to be discriminated to increase the likelihood that correct responses will occur early in training
Independent group contingencies
an arrangement in which a contingency is presented to all members of a group, but reinforcement is delivered only to those group members who meet the criterion outlined in the contingency
Ratio Schedule
an arrangement that delivers reinforcers contingent upon some number of responses.
transitive motivating operations (CMO-T)
an environmental variable that establishes (or abolishes) the reinforcing effectiveness of another stimulus and evokes (or abates) the behavior that has been reinforced by that other stimulus
Transitive Conditioned Motivating Operations (CMO-T)
an environmental variable that establishes (or ebolishes) the reinforcing effectiveness of another stimulus and thereby evokes (or abates) the behavior that has been reinforced by that other stimulus
MO/EO
an event that alters the reinforcing or punishing value of a stimulus and increases or decreases the rate of behavior that produce that consequence.
Back-up reinforcer
an object or event that already has demonstrated its reinforcing function for the behavior of an indivdual.
Time series statistical analysis
analysis of the repeated patterns of individuals performance under each experimental condition. very useful when visual displays are insufficiently convincing or when measures are not independent of one another
sequencing method
another way to asses for the antecedent stimuli controlling a response. Trying first one then combining two, three, and so on
Trend Analysis
another way to infer that the treatment has been effective is to examine systematic changes in the trend occurring as a function of treatment conditions
External validity
answered by the questions "What significance is an demonstrated functional relation
motivating operation (MO)
antecedents that (a) alter the value or strength of consequences, and that may (b) alter the behavior as a result
Stimulus change procedure
any time we present or withdraw an antecedent stimulus for the purpose of changing a behavioral pattern
external validity
approximate validity which conclusions are drawn about generalizability of a causal relationship to and across populations of persons, settings and times. Did the procedures have generally beyond the original set of cases-to other people
Positive Behavior Interventionss (PBIs)
are designed to reduce deviant behaviors by prompting and reinforcing substitute alternative constructional beahviors
Stimulus Fading
artifical or intrusive prompts are gradually and systematically removed for the purpose of enabling control to transfer to the antecedent stimuli that are supposed naturally to evoke the response
Experimental significance
asking how a behavior looks now, under treatment,, versus how we would have expected it to look had the experimental intervention not occured
ratio schedules (two types)
based on number of response behaviors; fixed and variable
Ratio
based on outcome
interval schedules (two types)
based on passage of time-- after the interval ends, the first behavior will be reinforced; fixed and variable
Interval
based on time
With ratio schedules:
be aware of the verbal repertoire of students, also be aware that ratio response patters are not as precisely predictable in natural settings
Ecobehavioral assessment
behavior relates to environment aba/ecological psychology
Operant Conditioning
behaviors are evoked/or not by stimuli that precede them, but are controlled by stimuli that follow the behavior
Unconditioned respondent behavior
behaviors reliably elicited by stimuli that produce them despite any prior learning; also known as reflexes - unconditioned stimuli (US): eliciting stimuli -unconditioned responses (UR): responses that those stimuli elicit
Stimulus Over Selectivity
by responding to one or more non-relevent stimuli among the full array (i.e. maybe saw someone wearing item of clothing "oh look thats__" but looking closer you realize its not so and so or Student works touching nose in DTI in cubby because table and chair are present
least to most
can require less trials to reach mastery, but often results in the most number of errors.
least to most
can require less trials to reach mastery, but often results in the most number of errors. offers a 2 second time delay for independent responding on the first trial. if that results in an incorrect, the SD is repeated and the least intrusive prompt is utilized. good for targets which the learner has already demonstrated some success at the independent level, and learners who are more likely to acquire new skills rapidly. progressing the prompt hierarchy from: independent, gestural, model, hand to elbow, hand to wrist, hand over hand
Behavioral procedures commonly used to teach social skills
chaining, prompting (instructions and demonstrations) and differential reinforcement of alternative behaviors
Personalized System of Instruction (PSI)
characterized by self-pacing, use of proctors, unit mastery, emphasis on the written word, and lectures and demonstrations used primarily for motivation purposes
Example of interval schedule
chuck and his teacher agree he should volunteer to speak in class more often during social studies. his teacher defines volunteering as rising his hand then when he is called on respond with a novel comment directly related to topic. the teacher then activates a timer to vibrate following the passage of 15 minutes. the first time chuck volunteers after the teacher detects the vibration she tells him he receives a check mark
good and bad of FB Analysis
clearly demonstrates function controlling env isolates behavior provokes behavior can establish a new function
fixed interval
complete quiz before it's due
Operant class
composite set of behaviors that result in a single type of reinforcing event
description
consists of collection of facts about observed events that can be quantified, classified, and examined for possible relations with other known facts.
Modeling
consists of demonstrating the appropriate or replacement behavior or positively recognizing others for engaging in replacement behaviors a stimulus control procedure based on demonstrations or "showing" to prompt an imitative response
Edible reinforcers
consumable items, like milk and snacks.
Interdependent group contingencies
contingency arrangement in which members of the group are treated as if they were a single behaving individual; the group's performance determines the reinforcer each member receives. Example: "if the group averages 90% on the test, everyone will have free time"
premack principle
contingent access to a high probability behavior reinforces low probability behavior
event recording
counting how often a specific behavior occurs within an interval, session, or other observational period.
frequency (definition)
counting the number of times a behavior occurred within a given time period; often expressed as rate per minute/hour/day. works best for measuring behaviors with a distinct beginning and end (punching someone, head banging)
How to develop secondary or learned reinforcers.
couple the neutral or weak stimulus with primary and/or other learned reinforcers. For example pair "Good boy" with a pat on the back.
Correspondence training
delivering reinforcers contingent on correspondence or agreement between verbal reports saying and actions
Non Contingent Reinforcement (NCR)
delivery is based on the passage of time, fixed or variable, regardless of the person's actions at the time
Educations significance
depends on whether change has occurred as a function of the program but also whether the intervention was implemented as specified and beneficial to the client and those in his environment
Setting Criterion Levels in the changing criterion design
design depends on the match between the value of the dependent variable and the pre-established criterion level. If set at too easy a level, the behavior may run way with itself, thereby failing to correspond to the criterion levels
positive behavioral interventions
designed to reduce deviant behavior by prompting and reinforcing subsitute alternative constructional behaviors
most to least
does not offer a 2 second time delay until faded to the independent prompt level.
disadvantage of modeling
does not produce immediate change
Imitative responding (duplic category)
duplicating with point to point correspondence the physical action of another such as producing a gestural sign ( a person signing "peace"
Fading
during fading the response and the reinforcers usually remain the constant while the prompts, those discriminative stimuli that have temporarily served to occassion these behaviors, are slowly removed or replaced by stimuli and increasingly resemble them
What are the dis-advantages of Changing-Criterion Design?
each phase basically serves as the baseline for the next. phases can become unduly long if the behavior is slow to change or stabilize.
Backward chaining procedure
effecting the development of a behavioral chain of responses by reinforcing the last response, element or link in the chain first; the last two next; and so on, until the entire chain is emitted as a single complex behavior
value-altering effect
either (a) an increase in the reinforcing effectiveness of some stimulus, object, or event, in which case the MO is an establishing operation (EO); or (b) a decrease in reinforcing effectiveness in which case the MO is an abolishing operation (AO).
Interresponse Time (IRT)
elapsed time between two successive responses (a measure of temporal locus). Long IRT produce low rates of response, while high IRT produce high rates of response. Examples: 1. DRH schedule produces reinforcement when response occurrs before a time criterion of 30 sec. Thus, response gets reinforced when IRT is 30 sec. or less. 2. DRL produces reinforcement when occurring after a set time critterion (45 Sec.) Thus, a response produces reinforcement when IRT is at least 45 sec.
Generative Learning/Instruction
enhances comprehension of new material as a result of previous learning Morning Side Academy
Deciding to target behavior for reduction
ensure that the procedures you are considering have been empirically demonstrated to be effective among the types of populations your client represents and for the behaviors of concern
response delay
entails preventing the client from responding too quickly by requiring a present delay between the discriminative stimulus and the response
4 functions of behavior
escape access self stimulation/automatic reinforcement attention
Functional analysis
evidence based assessment manipulating environment controlling for MO's
Parametric Analyses
examining response patterns under different quantitative values of the independent variables. one parameter is held constant while other variables, within a family of functions change to help determine their relative effects
child was told to say in seat or she would have to "take a break" which was chair being turned away from desk and removing task and turning away from student for 30s. at other times she was told the consequence would be "time out" which consisted of the same things. results showed that child's rate of behavior was high when the contingency was described as taking a break versus time out
example of an instructional demand
Parents reinforce compliance at some times but not at others, children learn to comply irregularly, except when stimuli (e.g parental expression or tone of voice)indicate highly probably consequences for compliance or non compliance
example of contingency shaped behavior
i.e (mom picks up baby's hand and helps her wave back and forth, cooing her approval and hugging her whole time. When baby responds to mom or dad's "Wave bye bye" good things happen)
example of verbally controlled behavior
Exemplars
examples containing the critical stimulus or response features
Disadvantage of the reversal design
extended time required to complete the evaluation
contingency delay
extending the timeout interval contingent on any inappropriate behavior that occurs during timeout. Potential liabilities: it could be extended to a lengthy duration for minor offenses such as crying; more training is necessary to ensure correct application
The correctness or validity of conclusions about the generalizability of a functional or causal relationship, to and across other people, settings, or times.
external validity
over justification on intrinsic motivation
extrinsic stimuli reinforce intrinsic motivation the expected reward group performed at a lower rate
progressive (or graduate) delayed prompting
first present the request or the verbal stimulus you intend to make functional as a discriminative stimulus. as necessary follow this with as minimally obtrusive prompts as possible, yet one with reliably occasional a response
Contingent effort
form of punishment that requires the individual to perform effortful exercises as a consequence for a response.
Specify why using SELF-MANAGEMENT is important
frees the client of having to rely on others for reinforcement; maximizing the effectiveness of reinforcers
analysis
functional ______: test of hypotheses about functional relations
relations
functional analysis: test of hypotheses about functional __________
replacement behaviors
functions equivalent to what the problem behavior previously provided attention give new attention
Differential Observing responses (DOR)
gain the client's attention and to teach him or her to discriminate the defying characteristics, or critical features of reach sample stimulus prior to the matching to sample task (i.e. high accuracy of scores that have no common letters but not when they do. DOR strategy would be to teach letters that those words have in common)
most to least
good for new acquisition, and slower learners who are more prone to make errors.
least to most
good for targets which the learner has already demonstrated some success at the independent level, and learners who are more likely to acquire new skills rapidly.
bar graphs
graphic depictions in bar form; generally used to compare discrete sets of data that relate to one another; or to summarize performance within a condition or group of individuals
ratio strain
if subject stops during the ratio run; usually occurs when response requirement is raised suddenly; not extinction because reinforcement is still available
Clinically significant
if we accomplish the pre-stated objective
SDp
in presence of that particular stimulus, a given response is likely to be punished
Progressive DRO
increase the quantity of reinforces you deliver to some preset maximum, in tandem with increasing the length of time during which the unwanted behavior is absent.
reinforcement vs Punishment
increases behavior or rate of decreases behavior or rate of As a function of a consequence
Activity reinforcers
individuals preferred pastimes, such as working on the computer. spending time at the activity table, or baking bread.
computer assisted instruction (CAI)
instruction aided by computer technology
Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)
instruction aided by computer technology [For example: The Component Learner Model (CLM)]
Heighten response rates under interval schedules by
interspersing easy tasks
Difference of interval versus ratio schedule
interval schedules depend on an interval of time plus one response
Antecedent Control Strategies
involve manipulating some aspect of the physical or social environment to evoke a desired response or to reduce the likelihood of unwanted behaviors being emitted
Stimulus Change
involves either presenting or removing such antecedent stimuli as discriminative or motivating stimuli
Exclusionary timeout
involves relocating the individual from a reinforcing to a non-reinforcing environment or separating the reinforcing environment from the individual.
Seclusion timeout
involves removing the individual from the environment and for a brief period of time, placing him or her alone in a room or other environment designated for this purpose; also, if necessary, preventing him or her from leaving until the end of the timeout period.
Multi Element Designs
involves repeated measurement of a behavior under alternating conditions of the independent variable
Redirecting
involves taking action to interrupt people's inappropriate behavior and prompting their engagement in more acceptable alternative beahvior
unchaining
is a method designed to lessen behavior by unlinking one element of the chain from the next so that one link no longer serves as a discriminative stimulus for the next link, nor as the reinforcer for the prior link
A discrete trial
is a single cycle of behaviorally based instructional routine consisting of four or five parts ( 5 parts)
Verbal operant
is a single instance of verbal behavior (such as saying "Hi" or "How are you")
Surrogate CMO
is a stimulus that has acquired its effectiveness by accompanying some other MO, has come to have the same value-altering and behavior altering effects as teh MO that it has accompanied
Tact
is a verbal operant in which the response is reinforced by generalized conditioned reinforcement and is under the functional control of a nonverbal SD A label. Stating what something is based on seeing, hearing, smelling, touching it. it is saying the word in the presence of the object, event, or a feature of an abstract stimulus Bx under control of actual item being present
Errorless learning
is accomplished when instructional methods specifically designed to prevent or substantially minimize any learner errors are used to each particular discrimination
Programmed Instruction (PI)
is an instructional application of shaping characterized by contingencies managed in such a way that the student progresses successfully in steps from one level of difficulty to the next. Reinforcement derives primarily through confirmation of correct responses.
Personalized system of instruction (PSI)
is characterized by self-pacing, use of proctors, unit mastery, emphasis on the written word, and lectures and demonstrations used primarily for motivational purposes.
Limited Hold(LH)
is imposed when a response rate is eligible to be reinforced only within some restricted time period (if a store will close in 15 and you want to purchase you ll get there before then before 15 min limited hold ends)
Behavioral momentum
is making requests known to promote high rates of compliance in advance of an activity less likely to be performed
Internal Validity
is there a causal relationship from one variable to another in the form in which the variables were manipulated or measured
Overall Number of Criterion Changes
it can vary the more often measures of the behavior change conform closely to the new criterion, the more convincing the demonstration of experimental control
Advantages of delayed prompting
less likely to attend to irrelevant prompt, training stimuli need not to be modified as in fading, the train for will know the exact moment of transfer-thereby allowing the teacher to avoid presenting unnecessary trials
Antecedent control strategies
manipulating the environment to evoke desired responding or abate undesired behavior from being emitted.
reflexivity (identity matching)
match items to themselves (A1 to A1 from an array of samples)
matching law
matching or distributing responses according to the proportion of pay off (usually studied in conccurent schedules) response rate and reinforcement rates should always match
Disadvantages of stimulus change
may prove unreliable on any particular occasion because other factors readily alter the affect. even when stimulus control over a given response is well established, presenting or withdrawing antecedent stimulus will not necessarily turn the behavior on or off Depending on the learning history of the individual, SD s simply set the occasion for certain responses. The antecedent stimulus derives its strength from a prior history of reinforcement, extinction, or punishment of the responses emitted in its presence (bright light always changes pupil, ringing of the telephone do not necessarily produce a learned reaction every time. is the contingency managers are not always in the position to arrange each and every stimulus that may set the occasion for a desired response
Parameters
measure behavior quantities timing frequency intensity whose values influence the effectiveness of any reinforcement procedure
cold probe
measures only the first response of the day/session as correct or incorrect. works best for measuring new acquisition, but it will be difficult to record each instance as correct or incorrect due to staff resources.
percent correct
measuring the number of correct responses divided by the total opportunities (correct responses / correct + incorrect responses). works best for measuring new acquisition skills in which there will be several teaching opportunities presented per day, and there are staff resources to record each response.
Augmentative verbal communication
methods of supporting communication beyond the typical means of speaking, writing, gesturing, etc.
advantage of modeling
modeling turns the situation around so that those that deserve praise will receive it. It also teaches appropriate replacement behaviors
concurrent chain schedule reinforcement
more than one schedule operating at once, but once subjects choose which schedule to use, they are committed to it for a certain period of time
what is not tacting
naming is not tacting. you can name something that is not present but you can only tact something that is present. you must able to tact something to name it
Secondary aversive stimuli
neutral stimuli become aversive by their relation to primary aversive stimuli
partial reinforcement schedules
not reinforced every time; two types: ratio and interval
fixed ratio schedule (response rate & extinction)
number of behaviors necessary to get the reinforcer stays the same; fast response rate between reinforcers
Rate
number of responses (divided by) standard time period and expressed as "per ____(the time period)"
variable ratio schedule
number of responses required changes from trial to trial; lower frequency of pausing, steady rate of responding; harder to extinct
Event Recording
number of times behavior repeated per specific period of time
Tangible reinforcers
objects such as gloves and gold stars, bonuses and trophies.
Differential reinforcement (DR)
of a discrimminated operant class- 1)reinforcing appropriate response in the presence of stimuli and 2)not reinforcing it (i.e. extinguishing and/or punishing it in the presence of others
Concept
one or a set of abstract critical properties shared perhaps only in part among a number of critical antecedent stimuli. For Example: Our concept of a Dog is that is has four legs, they bark, and they are in certain colors and/or shapes.
Scatter Plot
one variable usually time of day is plotted on the ordinate (y axis) and a second variable usually days, is plotted on the absiscca (x-axis). May help to identify elusive enviornment stimuli.
Sequence carryover
or alternating effects all refer to situations in which one experimental treatment influences behavior within other treatment phases
Y-axis
ordinate
Matching Law
organisms distribute their behavior between two or more concurrent schedules of reinforcement ( ie. if the behavior is reinforced about 60 percent of the time in one situation and 40 percent in another situation, the behavior tends to occur about 60 percent in the first and 40 percent in the second)
fixed ratio
paid for each chore completed
post-reinforcement pausing
pause in responses that occurs after reinforcement; appears more as FR becomes higher
overcorrection
positive punishment in which, contingent on a response, the learner is required to engage in effortful behavior directly or logically related to fixing the damage caused by the behavior.
Avoidance
postpone an aversive stimuli
Differential reinforcement of Incompatible behaviors
procedure designed to increase the rate of a behavior that cannot coexist with the one targeted for reduction.(E.g., reinforcing completion of work reduces those forms of disruption that are incompatible with working.)
most to least
progressing the prompt hierarchy from: hand over hand, hand to wrist, hand to elbow, model, gestural, independent
variable interval
radio plays your favorite song, but when it plays is unknown
spontaneous recovery
reappearance of the extinguished response at the beginning of a new session, despite no resumption of reinforcement.
video self modeling
recordings of the clients' optimal behavior are extracted and used as the model to be imitated (student is recorded and the tape is edited to take out weak or external prompts. only great performance is left) this difference self modeling from self observation.
partial interval
records that behavior occurred at any point/time during the recording interval
whole interval
records that behavior occurred during the entire recording interval.
Satiation
reduction in effectiveness of a reinforcer with repeated presentations or with consumption during continued availability (Example: continued consumption of food)
Habituation
reductions in the respondent (reflexive) responding elicited by a stimulus over repeated presentation. (Example: the startle response to a loud noise diminishes with repeated presentation). Term primarily used in respondent or classical conditioning.
Adaptation
reductions in the responding evoked by an antecedent stimulus over repeated or prolonged presentations. (Example: when the client no longer reacts to the presence of the observer). Term primarily used in operant learning.
time delay
refers to the amount of time between the delivery of the sd and onset of a prompt
continuous reinforcement (rate of performance & extinction)
reinforcement every time the behavior occurs; produces a steady rate of behavior because reward is always available so there is no motivation to increase performance; extinction is fast
Differential Reinforcement of Diminishing rates (DRD
reinforcement is delivered explicitly when the number of responses in a specified period of less than or equal to a prescribed limit. Ex: reinforcing at the end of the interval if raising your hand was less than or equal to the criteria.
Differential Reinforcement of High Rates (DRH)
reinforcement is delivered for rates of responding ABOVE a specified predetermined criterion (based on the individual's performance in previous intervals). (e.g., more than three responses per 5 minutes).
automatic reinforcement
reinforcement that occurs independent of the social mediation of others and is produced by the response itself
Whole-interval DRO
reinforcer delivered following a period of time the organism did not engage in the target behavior.
Momentary DRO
reinforcer delivered if the organism is not engaging in the response at the moment the interval terminates.
Differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL)
reinforcer is delivered if a certain amount of time has past since it last occurred. e.g., DRL 5-minute procedure, an organism would be reinforced for emitting a response at 5:01 if the response did not occur during the 5 minute interval.
Variable-Ratio (VR)
reinforcers are also contingent on a number of responses, but the particular number on any occasion varies. Usually VR schedules are identified by the average, ie. VR 20 will on the schedule be reinforced one out of every 20 responses
Socially mediated reinforcers
reinforcers delivered by another person
Supplementary reinforcer:
reinforcers used to augment the natural reinforcers to help bridge the time gap before the natural reinforcer is delivered. They are des9gned to signal that a stronger reinforcer is forthcoming.
Differential reinforcement of alternative behaviors
reinforcing any alternative to the unwanted behavior, while treating or withholding reinforcement from the unwanted behavior.
Response effort
relates to the amount of force, exertion or time requisite to engaging in a response. Other factors being equal we can avoid problematic reactions by temporarily removing the aversive properties inherent in eh response requirement
baseline
repeated measures of the strength of level of behavior prior to the introduction of an experimental variable. Baseline measurements are continued until performance has stabilized and can be used as a basis for assessing the effects of the intervention or experimental variable.
Replication
repeating of experiments to which scientists determine the reliability of their findings and to discover mistakes
Echoic (duplic category)
repeating the verbal behavior of another person, as in parroting what another has said (when I say "icky" and 1 year old says "Icky"
Functional consequences
responses providing people with effective positive reinforces or ridding them of aversive stimuli
fixed interval schedule
set amount of time for intervals; see scalloping pattern where behavior only occurs at the end of the interval
concurrent schedule of reinforcement
set up contingencies of multiple schedules at once so subjects can chose which one they prefer (i.e. which one best suits their learning)
Reinforcer preference assessment
several items are repeatedly presented in counterbalance order and observer records which items are approached, chosen, spend most time with
progressive DRD
size of the interval between responses lengthens or the maximum number of responses within the interval decreases gradually.
variable ratio
slot machine pays off every few pulls, but which pull is unknown
4 major classes of reinforcers
social edible tangible activity
Activity Schedules
specify in words or pictures or display in pictures the daily sequence of activities the student or client is to complete by the time a cue is provided to signal the change of an activity
behavioral goal
state the direction and level to which the target behavior is to be changes.
Primary reinforcers
stimuli that functions as a reinforcer the first time it occurs without any prior learning history
example of Changing Criterion design
stopping a 23 year old male graduate student's smoking after having smoke 20-30 cigarettes a day for several years. He and analyst agreed that if he smoked more than 15 cigarettes a day he would tear a dollar bill into tiny pieces and throw it away. THis criterion remained in effect for five days. Then it was lowered to 13 for five more days and so on. Each 5 days phase acted as a baseline for the next 5 days phase and demonstrated that the self imposed consequence of tearing the bill up was effective.
extra-stimulus prompts
such as modeling, response delay, and or gestures and graduated guidance
Positive behavior interventions
systematic use of scientific principles emphasizing supporting or reinforcing apprpriate behavior instead of punishing inappropriate behavior
Distinguishing between Fixed Interval and Fixed Time Schedules
take care not to assume that an FI schedule is in effect just because reinforcers are being dispensed regularly. For a schedule to qualify as FI reinforcers must be contingent on a given response that follows the end of the Fixed interval. reinforcer delivery is contingent on a specific behavior
mastered
target which results in a correct probe after a 5 day hold.
maintenance
targets that have met the mastery criteria, and after the 5 day hold the target is probed, and results in a correct response. These targets are referred to as being on ___________.
behavioral contrast can:
temporarily alter the rate of responding under interval schedules especially when direct acting strategies are impractical
response effort
the amount of force, exertion, or time requisite to engaging in a response. We can avoid problematic rections by temporarily reducing the level of the demand
unconditioned motivating operation (UMO)
the antecedent value-altering effect of the reinforcer does not depend on one's learning history
Physical guidance
the appropriate body part or parts are physically guided through the proper motion by another person
Reinforcement Procedure
the change agents planned presentation of positive reinforcers or removal of adverse stimuli, as a function of a given response for the purpose of increasing the future behavior
conditioned motivating operation (CMO)
the effect of an antecedent depends on learning history
Conditioned Motivating Operation (CMO)
the effect of an antecedent depends on learning history-the person has learned that that a certain task results in failure
Unconditional Motivating Operation (UMO)
the effect of the reinforcer doesn't depend on prior learning history. (ie if you have just ate a huge meal than eating in producing satiation is UMO that decreases the reinforcing value of food
latency (definition)
the elapsed time from the onset of a stimulus, until the initiation of the response. works best for measuring behaviors that are important to occur within some specified time from a signal. (responding to greetings, changing class when the bell rings).
Changing Criterion Design
the experimenter successively changes the criterion for consequation, usually in graduated steps, from baseline levels to desired terminal level. a step wise introduction of different criterion values above or below baseline. The steps consists of progressive increases or decreases in the response requirement If the behavior changes successively at or close to the set criterion levels, experimental control can be demonstrated
target
the first step of behavioral assessment is: identify the ______ behavior
transitivity
the individual will be able to choose appropriatley given ordered matches that share a common member: if the individual has learned to choose to B1 given A1 and C1 given B1, and similarly for class 2, the individual also choose C1 given A1 and C2 give A2
Functional behavior
the lawful manner in which the rate and form of the behavior relate to the consequences that influence it in the past
Asymptote
the point at which the behavior reaches its peak; when the increase stops and the rate levels off and remains steady, possibly before declining
moment of transfer
the point to which each individual anticipates (responds before the prompt)
Response rates with FI schedules
the reinforced response tends to occur at low rates early in the interval and to increase gradually as the end approaches (this pattern is called a Scallop, based on the appearance of the FI performance in cumulative reports). it thus may not be a good choice when the target is maintain relatively consistent rates of responding over time
Automatic reinforcer
the reinforcement is inherent in the response
response cost (Src)
the removal or withdrawal of some quantities of reinforcers contingent on a response (the procedure must function to reduce the rate of the response on which it is contingent).
Alternating Treatment designs
the same person is the recipient of two or more rapidly alternating conditions often used as a tool for functionally analyzing the conditions associated with self injurious and destructive behavior
Simultaneous matching to sample
the sample item often a picture though sometimes a three dimensional object is presented while the other choices remain exposed
Progressive Differential Reinforcement of diminishing rates:
the size of the interval between responses is to lengthen, or the maximum number of targeted responses within the interval is to decrease gradually.
Progressive Ratio (PR) schedule
the size of the response requirement increase in some systemic way as in augmenting the requisite number of responses (on average) for reinforcers to be delivered At some point the requirement becomes so large that responding ceases for a while.
habituate
the weakening of an unlearned environmental-behavior relation when the environmental event is repeatedly presented without consequence (i.e. when the dear is no longer afraid of us) relation between the eliciting stimulus and the respondent reaction weakens
Delayed prompting
this technique shifts control of responding from the currently functional prompts (SDs) to the discriminate stimulus designated to evoke the behavior (S+). interposing gradually increasing periods of time between the discriminative stimulus and the artificial prompt.
Discriminated operants
those classes of behavior which the Sd sets the occasion for a response (seagull landing there) becase that response has different consequences (people bringing food) in the presence of that stimulus than it is absence promote tightly controlled performance
Pacing schedules
those setting upper and lower limits on reinforceable response rates. DRP is characterized by reinforcement arranged to occur contingent only on response rates within those limits. They are suitable in any instances in which a particular tempo is important as in performing certain assembly tasks. inappropriate for students with high impulsivity
Coping models
those who now have the skill to be demonstrated by are known to have experience difficulty with the behavior to be imitated in the past
variable interval schedule
time dictates when subject will be reinforced regardless of behavior; produces a steady rate of response and is hard to extinct
Interresponse Time (IRT)
time elapsed from R1 to R2
NCR allows you to ...
to break the contingent relation between the response and the reinforcer without depriving the individual of important reinforcers.
Stimulis Equalization
to eliminate differences in the irrelevant dimensions of stimuli. They temporarily reduced the complexity of stimulus by eliminating the irrelevant dimensions. Only the critical dimensions were left
Multi Element Designs, alternating treatment design, simultaneous treatment, mutiple schedules or concurrent schedules
treatments consisting rapidly alternated within or across sessions or days and that permit us to examine any emerging differences in the rates as a function of each intervention
How to identify social skill deficits.
use observation and rating scales to identify deficits -observation: watch person in action and compare to others in the setting -rating scales: use to help identify subtle social deficits
identify behavior function
use reinforcers from FBA test is conducted antecedent to prompt behavior MO to influence reinforcer anayse data
3 Common concern about reinforcement
using contrived over natural reinforcers bribery treating people differently than peers
most to least
usually takes the most trials to reach mastery, but results in the fewest number of errors.
Abolishing Operation
value-altering effect: A motivating operation that decreases the reinforcing effectiveness of a stimulus, object, or event. ex: food ingestion= decrease in the reinforcer effectiveness of food Behavior-altering effect: a decrease in current frequency of all behaviors that have been reinforced by that stimulus ex: food ingestion- a decrease in all behaviors that have been reinforced by food
behavioral contrast
when a procedure that decreases behavior is introduced into one context, the behavior maintained in other contexts may increase, despite no other change in contingencies directly affecting the latter. change in rate of responding opposite to the rate occurring within the treatment setting.
Discriminative control
when an individual responds consistently in the presence of a particular antecedent stimulus
S-delta
when it signals that the response is not likely to produce a reinforcer(reponse will go under extinction)
prediction
when repeated observations reveal 2 events that covary with each other
Equivalence classes
when stimuli assume equivalent functions they can be grouped in these classes
Weak or incomplete stimulus control
when the behavior occurs inconsistently in the presence of the relevant stimuli
tact versus intraverbal
while a tact allows you to talk about an object or event that is actually at hand and intraverbal allows a speaker to talk about objects and events that are absent
symmetry
will be able to reverse the direction of matching (choose B1 given A1 and B2 given A2, the individual also choose A1 given B1 and Given A2 given B2
Why is timeout considered more aversive than extinction?
with timeout, access to the full range of ordinarily available reinforcers is denied for a period of time.
Control condition
withhold antecedent stimuli or conditions and reinforcers to eliminate alternative explanations
Advantage of stimulus change
you can influence the frequency of those behaviors simply by presenting or withdrawing the controlling Sd
Whenever you have a punishment contingency...
you must also have a reinforcement contingency
Simple Stimulus Control
you present discriminative stimulus (SD) to evoke or reduce particular behavior
Differential Rf of High Rates (DRH)
you want the behavior to occur faster, so you reinforce the first behavior and then restart the interval. any behaviors outside the interval aren't reinforced
Differential Rf of Low Rates (DRL)
you want to slow down the response rate, so you do not reinforce behaviors in the interval and instead restart the interval if behaviors occur
Steps to increase delay gratification
•Make the reinforcer visible •Gradually increase the delay, or gradually increase the time engaged in the task •Provide learned or conditioned reinforcers during the delay •Teach clients to engage in providing themselves with self-instruction or self-prompt.
