FSOT: Communications

Discuss the following error of reasoning: circular reasoning.

A common error in speeches is circular reasoning. A chain of logic is described as circular when the assumption made at the beginning of the argument on the conclusion of the argument being true. For instance, imagine a speaker declaring that the Tigers baseball team will certainly lose their playoff series. As evidence for this claim, the speaker declares that the Tigers always lose their playoff series. This reasoning clearly does not hold up: In order to believe the Tigers will lose their playoff series, we have to assume they always lose their playoff series, which we do not really know yet, and which depends on their performance in the upcoming playoffs. In other words, the claims made by the speaker depend for their support on their speakers assumptions.

Describe the eulogy.

A eulogy is a speech that praises a particular individual and highlights his or her best qualities. Eulogies are often given at funerals as the speaker remembers the deceased in a positive light. Eulogies are not the appropriate form for criticism or objective analysis of a person's life. ON the other hand, a eulogy may fail if the audience finds it so excessively laudatory that it is not believable. In some cases, a eulogy of sorts my be given in praise of a particular event, community, or culture. Typically, a eulogy is delivered to an audience that is already disposed to think favorably of the subject. The speaker is typically someone who has extensive personal experience with the subject of the eulogy.

Describe how a good speaker uses examples.

A good speaker knows that examples can be effective because they provide concrete cases through which the audience can asses the arguments of the speech. Examples are also good for humanizing an abstract speech. For instance, n audience may have a hard time listening to a speech out water conservation, but if the speaker introduces how drought can affect individual people, they will more liekly to stay engaged. A good speaker included examples that are appropriate and interesting, but which do not distract from his or her main points. Also, examples should not dominate a speech; they should simply add interest to the body of the speaker's message.

Compare and contrast being persuaded with accepting a suggestion.

A persuasive speaker may sometimes use a suggestion rather than a direct command to achieve his or her goal. A suggestion is simply a less forceful recommendations; it implies that the audience has the ability to decide for themselves whether or not to accept the guidance of the speaker. Suggestion is a good strategy or dealing with naturally skeptical audience members, who will resist any overt attempts to change their minds. Because it is an indirect form of persuasion, however, suggestion requires a bit more subtlety on the part of the speaker. But because it gives the listener the impression that he or she has arrived independently at a conclusion, suggestion can be more effective than direction.

Describe the value of making a logical analysis of a speech topic.

A speaker should always perform what is known as a logical analysis before presenting his or her speech. This is simply an analysis of the message units that make up the speech, as well as the connections between these message units. To be effective, the logic of any speech must progress in a systematic and discernible manner and should include ample evidence and supporting materials. Speakers often create a brief outline for their speech, in which they sketch the basic structure of the speech's logic, leaving out the supplementary material. In any case, it is essential to make sure the logical skeleton of a speech is sturdy before focusing on other aspects.

Describe the welcoming speech.

A welcoming speech is often given at the beginning of a convention, meeting, or special event of some kind. Typically, the welcome will be delivered by a representative of the group or organization putting on the event. For instance, the chairman of a professional organization administering a business convention might deliver a speech of welcome to convention attendees. Welcoming speeches are typically light on substance and primarily provide an overview of the events to follow. Also, a welcoming speech typically includes a message of thanks to the organizers and administrators of the event. The speaker often indicated his or her personals goals for the even and may tell the audience how to make their questions and comments know to the event administrators.

Define active listening.

Active listening is a technique of communication reception in which the listener tries to develop an empathic relationship with the speaker. Proponents of this form of listening declare that a great deal of listening contains an unhelpful evaluative aspect, to the extent that the speaker continually feels in danger of being criticized by the listener. In active listening, on the other hand, the listener makes an effort to fully experience the thought process of the speaker before even beginning to judge. Perhaps most importantly, active listening is a skill that is developed over time. To fully engage with what someone is saying, the listener must practice subverting his or her own ego and focus instead on the perceived interest of the speaker.

Describe the creative analysis of a speech topic.

After a speaker has decided upon a topic for a speech, the next move is to conduct a creative analysis of that topic - simply a detailed exploration of the topic. To begin with, the speaker assembles as much information as he or she can within amount of time available. This may include interviews, books, and old periodicals. Experience speakers will have a good working knowledge of the public or school library and will be able to acquire diverse basic materials in a short period of time. After all this information has been assembled, the speaker will sort through it, looking perhaps for an entry point for his exploration. An interesting narrative, a point of local interest, or a previously overlooked angle on the subject may all by ways for the speaker to engaged the interest of the audience on a given subject.

Describe the illumination phase of creative speech analysis.

After the incubation phase, the speaker should have a solid structure as well as a number of creative ideas for the speech. In the succeeding illumination phase, he or she will apply the ideas gained during the incubation phase to the basic outline constructed during the preparation phase. It is very common for a speaker to feel a burst of enthusiasm during the elimination phase, as he or she discovers the unique ways in which his or her original ideas will elaborate and improve upon the original structure. The illumination phase is still basically a brainstorming phase. Speakers are still experimenting with new ideas and combinations of materials.

Name the fundamental qualities of a well-organized speech.

All well organized speeches have certain qualities in common. For instance, a well-organized speech is comprehensible, meaning it an be understood by all members of the audience. A well-organized speech also has a formal unity, which means all its parts contribute to the main idea. A unified speech has no extraneous parts. A well-organized speech is also comprehensive--it covers all the issues an audience member would expect to be addressed by a speech on the given subject. Finally, a well-organized speech does not have any repetition. Every major point should be covered in its entirety, but no points need to be repeated once they have been clearly delivered.

Discuss listening for comprehension.

Although listening appears to be a passive process, it must be active in order to be effective. Indeed, the listener should have a purpose for listening. The precise purpose of listening need not be conscious in the mind of the listener. Speech communication teachers generally distinguish four intentions of listening: comprehension, criticism, empathy and appreciation. These intentions are often intermingled in the same act of listening. When we listen for comprehension, we are trying to understand the message the speaker is communicating. In order to listen for comprehension, we need to know the standards of grammar and punctuation in English as well as the common forms of argument. We also need to have an understanding of the context in which the words are spoken so we can understand the relationship between message and context.

Describe how nonverbal communication can act as feedback.

Although nonverbal communication is typically though of as supplementary to the words being spoken during a communication event it can also serve a vital purpose as feedback. The gestures, eye movements, facials expressions, and posture of the audience often indicates their level of engagement more accurate l and honestly then verbal criticism. It is very difficult to hide extreme boredom or rapt attention. The nonverbal communication of the audience will indicate their level of interest and acceptance of the message of the speaker. The speaker can then adjust his or her message accordingly.

Discuss the use of analogies in a speech.

An effective speaker will often elaborate and clarify his or her ideas with analogies. An analogy is simply an extended comparison between two things. For instance a speech on economics might describe a current downturn in the economy as it relates to the Great Depression. In other words, the speaker is drawing an analogy between a current problem and a known historical event. The importnt thing to remember about an analogy is that the two things being compared will probably not be identical in all respects. The speaker should take care to indicate this and should not make claims that suggest the analogy is perfect On the other hand, an effective analogy can be a useful predictive tool and can give the audience a way of engaging with the subject.

Discuss the basic methods for studying public speaking.

An effective speech communication teacher will incorporate different pedagogical modalities into his or her instruction so that students receive exposure to a wide range of different methods. Student should practice giving different kinds of speeches in both formal and informal settings. Some of the different types of speeches include technical lectures, extemporaneous speeches, and entertaining monologues. Students should get some practice interpreting and analyzing different kinds of public speech, such as advertisements, political speeches, public service announcements, editorials,l or other forms. It is also valuable for students to become familiar with acclaimed historical speeches.

Describe an extemporaneous speech.

An extemporaneous speech combines elements of preparation and improvisation. When one is delivering an extemporaneous speech, he or she is drawing on prepared research but not reading directly from a sheet a paper nor reciting the speech from memory. An extemporaneous speech is more conversational and informal than a written speech and is there fore more appropriate for saul gatherings. The colloquial and informal nature of an extemporaneous speech can be extremely helpful in cultivating a good rapport between speaker and audience. To deliver an effective extemporaneous speech, however, the speaker must be extremely familiar with his or her source material.

Describe an impromptu speech.

An impromptu speech is one delivered "off-the-cuff"; that is, one delivered with a minimum amount of preparation and in an informal style. Not everyone is capable of delivering an effective impromptu speech. Most people can give a successful impromptu speech only if the topic is one on which they have discoursed before or if they are extremely familiar with their topic. Of course, we all make impromptu speeches as a matter of course in our daily lives. Every time you are asked to give your opinion on a subject or to explain an idea, you are in effect making an impromptu speech. By studying speech communication, however, people, can learn the elements of effective impromptu speeches and improve their ability to deliver them.

Discuss the relationship between reputation and persuasion.

Another factor that can greatly influence a speaker's power of persuasion is reputation. When a speaker has a reputation for upright behavior and responsibility to the truth, an audience is much more likely to believe his or her message. The credibility of the speaker is imperative, regardless of the topic. IF the content of the speech is highly specialized, the audience will want to know that the speaker has some advanced training in the subject. When an audience arrive for a speech already knowing the positive reputation of the speaker, the work of persuasion is almost complete. For many politicians or orators, building a reputation that encourages persuasion is the work of a lifetime.

Describe the unique qualities of a speech that persuades the audience to not change something.

Another kind of persuasive speech is one in which the speaker attempts to persuade the audience to not change something. Like the speech in support of change, the speech against change has three classic components. First, the speaker argues that things are fine as they are. Second, the speaker argues against any proposals for change that have been made. Third, the speaker describes the negative consequence for the audience if changes are made. As with the speech in support of change, the speech against change begins by setting the general scene and only gradually works its way around to addressing the individual concerns of the audience members. IN this way, the last impression the audience receives is that of the effects of change or stasis on their own lives.

Describe the major errors of articulation.

As a child learns a new language, he or she has a tendency to omit, sounds from words. Over time, the child will include all the sounds buy may not be able to effectively articulate some of the more difficult consonants. For instance, the "t" sound is one that is often omitted from words, as for instance in the contraction "don't," which is often pronounced "don." As an individual begins to speak more quickly, he or she is even more like to omit these common consonant sounds. To a certain extent, these errors of articulation are not a problem. When they become chronic and extreme, however, they can make speech extremely difficult to understand.

Describe how to assess the logic of a speech topic.

As the speaker reviews his prepared speech and performs a logical analysis, he needs to be constantly asking himself whether each point and piece of supporting material is essential. Everything included in the speech should be there for a clear and explicit reason or else it must be considered superfluous. The speaker must also determine whether all of the evidence clearly and directly supports the points it is intended to support. Finally, the speaker must make sure every point in the speech follows a proper order progressing logically to the speech's climax and ultimate conclusion.

Describe how nonverbal communication can alter the meaning of spoken words.

At times, the nonverbal communication produced by a speaker will give slightly different message than that of the speaker's words. This is often the case when a speaker is attempting to introduce an element of irony into his or her message. For instance, if at the conclusion of a bad movie one friend says to another, "Well, that was a good use of my time," but smiles while saying the words, the other friend might assume that the message is being delivered with sarcasm. In other words, the speaker does not literally mean that the movie was a good use of time, but rather wishes to indicate that it was a waste of time A message is being delivered, but the nonverbal communication accompanying the words creates complex message different than the mere words being spoken.

Describe resistance to persuasion.

Audience will naturally be resistant to persuasive arugments that attempt to take them out of their normal routine. People of all ages have a tendency to fall into habitual behaviors that can be difficult and even painful to interrupt. A persuasive speaker, however, is by nature one who attempts to convert an audience to a new way of living or thinking. He or she will therefore encounter the listeners' resistance, based on their entrenched habits. Habitual behavior can be attacked in a number of ways. One is to persuade the audience that these habits are detrimental Another is to suggest the advantages that can be gained from a new way of living or thinking. In all cases, however, the speaker should remember that most behavioral change is incremental and not the result of sudden conversion.

Discuss the relationship between personal conviction and persuasion.

Audiences seem to have a sixth sense for insincerity. Then can tell when a speaker does not really believe his or her message. For this reason, effective persuasion is greatly benefited by the speaker's deep conviction in what he or she is saying. It is often said that before a speaker can persuade anyone else, he or she needs to be persuaded. When the strength of a speaker's convictions is evident in his or her delivery, the natural empathy of the audience will assist in persuasion. Historically, a survey of the great persuasive orators (MLK Jr., Abraham Lincoln, Pericles & etc.) confirms that strong belief is a boon to persuasive rhetoric.

Discuss the articulation of consonants.

Consonant sounds are created by stopping or redirecting a sound. For instance, an "s" sound is formed by pressing the tongue to the palette to slow down an escaping sound. Because consonants often depend on a percussive motion, it is possible to draw them out for a long time. Similarly, because of their short duration, consonants do not have as much effect as owls on the quality of an individual's voice. Because consonants are articulated quickly, they are often more difficult to hear. For this reason, speakers need to be especially sure to clearly articulate them When a conversation is heard at a great distance, often all tat can be discerned is a long sting of vowels sounds. Similarly, individuals who mumble are doing a poor job of articulating consonants. Many individuals focus on pronunciation, but clear articulation of consonants is a prerequisite for this skill.

Describe the basic of composing a speech outline.

Creating a detailed outline, comprehensive outline is the first step before actually writing the first draft of a speech. After assembling all the necessary material and information for the speech, the speaker can then begin organizing the main points of the speech and the arguments and evidence supporting his or her ideas and claims. It is important that all secondary ideas and claims also support the speech's main idea or claim. One should always introduce the most important claim, or thesis, at the beginning of the speech. The speaker can then spend the rest of the speech building a case for this thesis and elaborating other related points. When composing an outline, remember that the finished speech should ideally be more more colorful and engaging. An outline is not meant to entertain, but rather clearly and succinctly indicate the organization of the speech.

Describe the relationship between defensiveness and good listening.

Defensiveness can be extremely limiting to an individual's ability to listen properly. When a person is defensive, he or she is overly concerned with protecting his or her own interests. Defensiveness is especially prevalent in interpersonal communications in which the two parties don't trust one another. However, some paranoid individuals may be naturally more inclined to defensiveness than others. The problem with defensiveness is that it indicates that the attention of the listener is on his or her own concerns, rather than on the content o the message being delivered. To the degree that a listener is not focusing on the message behind delivered. To the degree that a listener is not focusing on the message being delivered, his or her ability to understand and respond to the message will be impaired.

Describe the incubation phase of creative speech analysis.

During the incubation phase of creative speech analysis, the speaker actually does not engage in any direct work on the speech. Instead, the speaker allows his or her subconscious to mull over the content of the speech. Even though it seems like no work is being done during this period, the incubation phase is actually very important, as it is during this period that the most creative thinking on the subject occurs. Also, the incubation phase gives the speaker a chance to freely imagine the speech, associate various ideas, and try unique combinations. Many speakers say their most unique and powerful ideas often occur to them when they are doing something totally different than speech preparation.

Describe the preparation phase of a speech.

During the preparation phase of speech composition, a speaker will begin to organize his or her research material. Once the speaker has decided upon the basic angle and structure of the speech, he or she may need to acquire more research materials for elaboration and support. Of course, it may take the speaker a while to find the appropriate thrust of the speech. Speakers should not be discourage by numerous blind alleys or false starts during the preparation phase. Even when its seems that progress is not being made, the speaker should remember that each false start eliminates a possible point of entry bringing the ultimate goal closer.

Discuss the importance of practicing speech delivery.

Excellent speech delivery does not just happen. It is the result of extensive practice. After the speaker has outlined and drafted the speech, he or she needs to practice delivering it. Practicing a speech serves a number of purposes. For one thing, the speaker might not detect weak points in the speech until he or she actually speaks the words aloud. IN addition, it is helpful to record oneself practicing the speech and then play back the tape to identify weakness in the delivery. It is often a good idea to practice delivering a speech in front of friends or family and then have them critique the performance. Perhaps the most important point is that practice delivering the speech allows the speaker to further familiarize himself or herself with the material, thus increasing the level of comfort and fluency in delivery.

Discuss the basic kinds of feedback.

Feedback is the response of the audience to the message delivered by a speaker. Although feedback is typically thought of as verbal responses to the message, it also includes body language, attention or inattention, and participation in dialogue after the speech. To be effective, a speaker must be attuned to all these kinds of feedback. In other words, he or she must monitor the audience throughout the speech to identify signs of boredom or engagement. The feedback a speaker receives while delivering his speech is called immediate feedback. The feedback the speaker receives after delivering the speech is called delayed feedback. Delayed feedback usually takes the form of critical comments, praise, or questions. A practiced speaker will use feedback to improve subsequent speeches.

Describe the basic goals of public speaking.

For most people, the obvious goals of public speaking are political victories and support for social movements. Both are common motives of public speech but they are not the only recognized intention of public communication. Public speech is often used to define an individual or a community. For instance, people may use speeches to describe particular attributes of themselves or of the group to which they belong. People also use speeches imply to disseminate information. Speeches can be used to inspire other people to action. Famous addresses like the "I Have a Dream" speech MLK Jr. exemplify this kind of speech. Finally, public speaking can be used to introduce arguments and to debate controversial questions in a community. The presidential debates before the general election are a good example of this.

Describe the importance of listening.

For most students, the vast majority of information is obtained through listening. Despite the large amount of reading that most students have to do, they still make in more information through their ears than through their eyes. Good listening is an essential part of the communication process because it advances the interests of both the speaker and the listener. Obviously, the listener needs to understand and remember what he or she hears in order to consider the information accurately. At the same time, the listen protects his or own interests by developing an accurate impression of what the other person has to say. Meanwhile, the ability of the speaker to have his or her message be effective depends on the listening skills of the audience.

Discuss the necessity of managing creativity during the development of a speech.

For the process of creative speech analysis to be effective, a certain amount of discipline needs to be brought to bear on the creative instinct. This is one reason why the process of creative speech analysis includes four distinct phases. By adhering to a set procedural pattern, the speaker will limit the amount of time spent in any one area and will move along toward completion at a predictable pace. Also, by following an organized analysis process, it is easier to avoid the procrastination that commonly occurs during the creative process. As much as possible, a speaker should try to work at specific times without interruption to allow the creative subconscious to do its work.

Discuss the value of direct familiarity with sources in the persuasive speech.

Having direct knowledge of sources can e extremely beneficial to a speaker's power of persuasion. For instance, imagine a motivational speaker on the subject of weight loss. If that speaker has had the experience of being overweight and then successfully losing weight and becoming more healthy, the audience will be much more likely to take his or her words to heart. When a speaker can claim direct experience of the topic on which he or she speaks, the audience is unlikely to attribute the speaker's motives to personal gain or manipulation. The most effective speakers are able to present their personal experience as a model for the examination and consideration of the audience.

Discuss the functions of pauses in vocal delivery.

Human speech is not just a constant stream of syllables. The placement and use of pauses during speech also pays an important rule in forming meaning. The study of pauses in human speech is a subcategory of para-linguistics. A short pause is often used to denote the end of a sentence or clause. In many ways, short pauses are used like commas. Long pauses, on the other hand, are more similar to periods or the ends of paragraphs. When a speaker takes a long pause, he or she may be allowing what has been said to sin into the minds of the audience. Individuals often pause as they search for the right world. Other times, individual will insert a slight pause into a sentence to create a level of suspense before the though is finished.

Compare and contrast being persuaded with following directions.

Humans beings have a natural tendency to believe what designated authority figures tell them. In part, this is an inherited characteristic. Early humans, in order to survive in the wild, often had to rely on the advice and guidance of their peers. In many cases, people will follow directions from an authority figure without considering the ramifications of their actions. This phenomenon was evidence during the Nuremberg trails after WWII, as numerous Nazi officials defended their actions as "just following orders." the educational system also encourages people to trust authority figures and follow directions. Audience members should be aware of this tendency and should guard against blindly accepting the recommendations of a speaker.

Describe the basic message units in a speech.

In every speech, the content is divided into what are called basic message units. A basic message unit has two parts: the point the speaker is trying to make and the evidence or supporting material he or she has assembled. In order to be complete, a message unit needs to have both components. Otherwise, the speaker will be making points without offering any reasoning or evidence, or he will be giving factual information and argumentation without connecting the dots to make a larger point. The point stated by the speakers needs to be a complete and discrete thought. The supporting material must be pertinent to the point and sufficient to convince a reasonable person.

Describe the importance of defining the purpose of the speech.

In preparation for a speech, it is important to ust strictly define the purpose of the speech. Without a firm idea of the intention of the speech, it will be too easy for the content to miss the mark. To begin with the speaker should consider his or her own intentions as well as the intentions of the audience. As much as possible, the intentions of the speaker and those of the audience should be made to overlap. One should define the central argument or idea to be expressed in the speech and take care that this argument or idea is consistent with the intention of the speech. It is also important that the title of the speech indicates the intention as well as the central theme of the speech.

Describe the basic premise of audience analysis.

In the study of speech communication, audience analysis is simply the practice of examining the characteristics and background of the audience in order to tailor a speech appropriately. For instance, one would want to know the general age, socioeconomic status, culture, and gender of an audience while preparing a speech. The type of speech appropriate to a group of elementary schoolgirls will be quite different from that appropriate to a group of older men, even if both speeches are one the same subject. The prejudices and pre-existing opinions of these two groups will be extremely different and thus, to be effective, a speaker must tailor and deliver his or her message to each group in very different ways.

Describe the introductory speech.

It is common for a speech of introduction to precede a keynote speech, a presentation, or a public performance of some kind. For instance, a symphony director will often give a brief speech of introduction before a concert. The best introductory speeches do not simply list the achievements or characteristics of the person or event that is to follow. Rather, they engage the interest of the audience and whet their appetite for what is to come. A good speech of introduction should not include any criticism of what is to follow. It is always a good rule of thumb for the introductory speaker to confer with those who are to follow so that his or her message can be as appropriate as possible.

Discuss audience attitude.

It is important for a speaker to gauge the attitude of the audience before delivering his or her speech. Attitude, because it is more subtle than age, ethnicity, or belief system, can only be determined through direct observation. Thus, if a speaker is able to observe the audience before delivering the speech, he or she can benefit greatly., Observing the audience beforehand can provide clues to what kind of general mood the audience is in, whether good or bad. IF the audience is in a hostile mood, the speaker may want to avoid trying to joke with them. AN audience that seem jovial and engaged, on the other hand, should not be alienated with strident rhetoric or harsh words. The job of the speaker is to establish and maintain a good rapport with the audience.

Discuss the process of phrasing the main idea of the speech.

It is important when giving an informative speech to lay out the main idea in a manner comprehensible to the audience. The main idea of an informative speech should be presented near the beginning of the address and therefore should not require an audience to understand any concepts that will be explained later in the speech. The audience should be able to understand the gist of the main idea before the speaker goes on to elaborate. In the preparation of a speech, the speaker should feine the main idea early on, so that he or she can procure evidence and supporting arguments appropriate to that main idea. Too often, speakers introduce evidence and arguments not directly supportive of the main idea of the speech. This causes confusion among the audience and waters down the effect of the speech.

Discuss the importance of the title of the speech.

It is very important to settle on a clear and appropriate title for a speech early on in the preparation process. The title should make explicit the central idea or concept to be discussed in the speech. The title should also indicate the intention of the speech. For instance, if the intent of the speech is to inform the audience about a particular subject, the title should clearly state the name of the subject. If the intention of the speech is to persuade the audience, the title should indicate the main arguments to be made by the speech. To be effective, a title should be succinct, clear and if possible, engaging.

Discuss the importance of selecting a subject appropriate to the time limits of the speech.

Many speakers handicap themselves from the start by selecting a subject that is either too expansive or too narrow for their needs. To be effective, a speech subject must be appropriate for the amount of time available for giving the speech. Obviously, a half-hour speech can go into much more detail and tackle a wider range of issues than can a five-minute speech. A very short speech should have only one main idea, whereas in a longer speech the speaker may have time to deliver several important points and give supporting information for each. Although the best way to determine the appropriate subject for the time limit is to gain experience as a public speaker, beginning speakers can nevertheless help themselves by considering the parameters of a speech as they begin to consider possible subjects.

Discuss the use of eyewitness testimony in a speech.

Many speakers incorporate eyewitness testimony into their speeches to great effect. Of course, this kind of supporting material is only appropriate for certain kinds of speeches. For instance when delivering a speech about the Battle of the Bulge, it might be very useful to quote some soldiers who fought in the battle. On the other hand, eyewitness testimony seems less appropriate to a speech about climate change, which is so widespread that no one person could view its entire effect globally. When using eyewitness testimony, it is important to establish the credentials of the person being quoted. Also, a speaker should take care to indicate the particular vantage point o the eyewitness, so the audience can consider his or her testimony in light of that point of view.

Discuss some methods of cultivating self-confidence while giving a speech.

Most people struggle with some degree of anxiety when they were required to speak in public. One of the best things a person can do to reduce anxiety is to present a confident image. Naturally, one should always practice delivering a speech several times beforehand. Through repetition, the speaker becomes familiar with the appropriate gestures and rhythms of the speech which gives rise to increasing confidence in his or her ability to deliver. Another good way to build confidence is to make eye contact with the audience during speech delivery. A forthright, steady gaze from the speaker connotes a feeling of confidence. Finally, confidence can be communicated through posture and body language. Standing up straight and emphasizing key points with hand gestures is a great way to communicate self-confidence.

Describe the use of expository support material.

Most speeches include expository supporting material. The word "expository" comes from the same root as "expose" and refers to information that shed light on areas about which the audience may know little. Some of the common forms of expository information are examples, analogies, and narratives. Expository supporting material is distinguished from argumentative supporting material in that it strives to remain as objective as possible. When a speaker claims to be providing objective and impartial information, he or she will be held to that standard by the audience. For this reason, it is especially import for speakers who use expository supporting material to verify their sources.

Describe how nonverbal communication can enhance spoken words.

Nonverbal communication is the ability to enhance or elaborate on the words of a speaker. In particular, hand gestures and changes in vocal rhythm and volume have the ability to add expressiveness to what is being said. Many times, the gesture and vocal mechanism of the speaker simply emphasize his or her messages; at other times, however, the speaker ma detract from or undermine his or her message with contradictory gestures. Hand gestures and gesticulations have the ability to dramatize communication event. By giving the audience things other than words to concentrate on, the speaker engages and entertains them.

Discuss the following error of reasoning: contradictory argument.

Occasionally, a speaker will fall victim to the logical error known as contradictory argument. A contradictory argument is one in which the speaker introduces information that directly contradicts his main argument. For the most part, this error should be easy to avoid. After all, a speaker will be careful not to include information that undermines his arguments in a speech and this can be highly detrimental to their purpose. Contradictory argument is especially problematic in a persuasive speech, in which the speaker in attempting to persuade the audience from their pre-existing opinions and hope to sell them on the merits of an alternative view.

Describe the difference between immediate aim and ultimate aim when making a speech.

On occasion, a speaker will have a slightly different intention in making a speech than is apparent from the speech itself. In a field of speech communication, this is known as the distinction between immediate aim and ultimate aim. An example would be a particular speech intended to be a small part of achieving a long-term goal. A prominent businessman, for example, might make a speech about ethics in public policy. Whereas on its face the speech might seem to be a simple address about local community issues, it might be also be part of the businessman's plan to develop his reputation in advance of a political campaign. The immediate aim of the speech, then, is to inform, while the ultimate aim is to advance the political ambitions of the speaker.

Describe some basic presentation aids.

One of the defining characteristics of presentation is the use of presentation aids. Speakers often include supplementary audio or visual materials that elaborate or reinforce their presentation points. Currently, the most popular presentation aid is the PowerPoint, a software program that allows speakers to assemble a collection of slides to accompany their speech. Speakers also frequently include video samples in their presentations. In business, tables and charts are frequently used to illustrate the points of a presentation. In a classroom, a teacher might use handouts or overhead projector transparencies as a presentation aids. Basically, any medica used by the speaker to supplement his or her spoken message is considered a presentation aid.

Discuss the following error of reasoning: faulty attribution of causation.

One of the most common errors of logic one can make in a speech is the faulty attribution of causation. This occurs when the speaker erroneously assumes that just because one thing follow another, the second thing was caused by the first. For instance, I may grab my umbrella on the way out the door before it starts raining, but if I later use my umbrella I cannot claim that bringing my umbrella caused the rain. When a speaker describes major historical or social event and suggests such an event had only one cause, this is almost always the case of faulty attribution of causation. Major social and historical movements are simply too complex to be attributed to a single cause. At the very least, a speaker must provide detailed substantiation for any assertions of causation.

Describe the unique qualities of a speech that persuades the audience to change something.

One of the most common kinds of persuasive speech is one in the which the speaker attempts to persuade the audience to change something. The speaker may be asking the listeners to change their behavior, their opinion on some subject, or the way in which some issue is handled in their community .These kinds of speeches usually follow a similar arc: first, the speaker describes the disastrous state of affairs at present. Second, the speaker introduces his or her proposal for remedying the situation. Third, the speaker the rewards that the audience will obtain by accepting the proposal of the speaker. IF the speech is effective by its conclusion the audience should be practically intoxicated with the expansive vision of a positive future the speaker has outlined.

Describe the basic elements of a presentation.

Over the last few years, the presentation has emerged as the most common speech form in the United States. Members of business community frequently give presentations, but this form is also common to academic lectures, community discussions, and religious gatherings. One of the defining characteristics of a presentation is that it contains other media besides simply a speaker. It is common for a speaker to include PowerPoint slides, photographs, brochures and handouts, short videos, audio samples, in a presentation. Because presentations are often designed to be given over and over again to different audiences, they be complex, detailed and highly coordinated.

Discuss listening for empathy.

People often listen to one another as a demonstration of empathy. Empathy is the ability to understand and appreciate what another person is going through despite not having the same experience oneself. One of the ways a person can express understanding and compassion for others is simply by listening to them. Listening to someone indicates that his or her problems are worth your time. Most people find that not only is listening a good way to demonstrate empathy, but it is also a good way to develop empathy. It seems that when we listen to one another, we gradually develop a sense of each other's internal worlds, and we come to treat each other with more compassion.

Discuss the best way to select a subject for a speech.

Perhaps the most important component of an effective speech is an appropriate and interesting subject. When selecting for a speech, one should look for a topic that is engaging to a general audience. While it is important for the speaker to have some familiarity with the subject, it is not necessarily a good idea to speak about a subject on she or she is an expert. Too often, an expert delivering a speech to a general audience dwells too much in details and specificities, which has a tendency to bore the audience. It is a good idea for the speaker to have a passing familiarity with the subject, so that he or she will be able to find good research materials and judge what will be interesting to a general audience. However, the speaker should also make sure to emphasize the aspects of the subject that are relevant to the lives of the audience members.

Define persuasion.

Persuasion is the art of changing the attitudes, beliefs, or actions of other people. It can be used for any number of purposes: to sell a product, to make a friend, to advance a cause, or simply to win an argument. To a certain degree, even primarily informative speeches contain an element of persuasion. The speaker is encouraging his or her audience to understand a given subject in the same way he or she does. To be persuasive, the speaker must have a clear idea of what he or she is trying to accomplish. Also, it is important to understand the best persuasive strategy for achieving the desired effect. Persuasion can be styles as direct argument or as more indirect, even subversive, suggestion.

Describe the general purpose of a persuasive speech.

Persuasive speeches are designed to change the minds of the audience or motivate the audience to action. The precise goals of a persuasive speech are dependent on the particular cause promoted by the speaker. Moreover, the methods employed in a persuasive speech will depend on the subject matter and the speaker's rhetorical style. SOme speakers employ a dry, data driven style when making a persuasive speech. They hope to overwhelm their audience with their strength and breadth of information. Other speakers seek to beguile their audience by amusing and entertaining them. THis kind of speech is appropriate for general audience and non-technical subjects. When a persuasive speech is being delivered to an audience of experts, or is centered on a complex issue, it must include cogent reasoning and supportive data.

Describe the psychological effects of listening.

Simply listening to another person can have profound psychological implications. Indeed, the entire field of psychoanalysis is large based on the idea that having a sympathetic audience for one's problems is profoundly therapeutic. Many people pay a great deal of money simply to have a sympathetic listener who can offer some professional advice. Psychoanalysts are especially skilled at creative listening. That is they are able to "unpack" the message of the speaker and discern new, possibly hidden meanings. Numerous studies have indicated that the process of verbally elaborating and describing personal issues eases the burden of stress on the mind, regardless of whether the interpretation of these issues is accurate or constructive.

Describe how creativity can be used to select a speech topic.

Sometimes it can be difficult to come up with a topic for a speech. All the "good topics" may seem to have already been covered, or there may be no one single subject on which a potential speaker has enough information to be effective. Effective speakers developed creative ways to come up with new speech topics. Being creative, however, doesn't mean sitting back and wait for the must of speech topic to visit. Creative speakers work proactively to develop new topics. They list their areas of interest and are constantly considering everything they see and read in terms of how it could be developed into a speech. Most creative speakers discard more ideas for speeches than they ever use.

Describe how nonverbal communication can create contradictory communications.

Sometimes, a speaker's nonverbal communication is contradictory to the words he or she is speaking. This can often create confusion and conflict. For instance, imagine a person is in distress. In some culture, it is not considered dignified to ask another person for help, even in emergency situations. So a person in dire need of assistance might be saying he or she does not need help, even though observation of nonverbal signs say otherwise. Obviously, this will create conflict in the mind of the audience, who will want to obey the wishes of the person but will also want to lend assistance to a person in need. When an individual directly contradicts his or her own words with his or her nonverbal communication, it become much more difficult for the communication message to be interpreted.

Discuss the use of narratives in a speech.

Speakers often incorporate narratives into their speeches as a way of engaging interest and indirectly making a point. A narrative is simply a story. Narratives can be either fiction or nonfiction. As with examples, narratives tend to have more impact on an audience when they are true. However, an artfully told fictitious narrative can also captivate an audience. Recent scientific research suggest that audience members are mentally programmed to pay attention to information when it is presented as a story. That is, the human mind is naturally receptive to a narrative. Good speakers take advantage of this tendency by delivering information in the context of a narrative.

Discuss the use of statistics in a speech.

Speakers often use statistics to provide numerical evidence for their assertions. Basically, a loose definition of statistics is any information that contains numbers. To be effective, statistics must be clear and accurate. Statistics can have a great deal of sway of audience, since they carry with them the impression of objectivity and mathematical truth. That being said, audience members should keep in mind that statistics are often highly subjective. For instance, by manipulating sample size, information taken into consideration, and scope of a statistical survey, a speaker can present information to support his point no matter how incorrect it is. Audience member should always be wary of statistics and should press the speaker to provide more information on the origin and methodology behind any statistics he or she uses.

Describe a basic outline for a proof speech.

Speech communication instructors often refer to a "proof speech." This is a common type of speech, in which the speaker introduces his or her argument and then attempts to prove it. Proof speeches follow a consistent pattern. In brief, a proof speech has four components: introduction, argument, development, and conclusion. A speech that follows this pattern allows the audience to become acquainted with the thrust of the speaker's arguments before substantiation is offered. The lengths of the various components of a proof speech will vary, depending on the speaker's interests and the knowledge level of the audience. For instance, an audience already familiar with the subject matter may not require as much supporting material to be convinced.

Describe how public speaking is a transaction.

Speech communication instructors often refer to public speaking as a "transaction," or a way of indicating the important active roles of both the speaker and audience. Too often, people consider speech-giving as a process in which one person actively provided information while another group of people passively receives information. Instead, the ideal public speaking relationship is one in which the speaker presents a message and the audience presents feedback. Even when the audience is not given an opportunity to speak, they provide feedback in a form of attention or inattention. BY referring to public speaking as a transaction, instructors emphasize the roles and responsibilities of both speaker and audience. IN general, speech communication instructors would feine a transaction as any communication in which information passes from speaker to listen and vice versa.

Describe the various way that defensiveness can impair communication.

Speech communication theorists identify a number of ways in which defensiveness can impair effective and accurate communication. These ways are basically defined by the attitude of the listener. FOr instance, some defensive listeners adopt an overly evaluative posture, in which they indicate that it is up to them to decide whether the speaker is competent or not. OTher defensive listeners adopt a self-consciously apathetic attitude, as if to indicate that they are above being interested in the message of the speaker. Another common listening attitude for a defensive individual is certainty, or the assumption that he or she already knows the content of the message. This attitude draws the speaker up short and makes it difficult for him or her to continue communicating.

Discuss the relationship between persuasion and likability.

Students of rhetoric have long noticed the correlation between a charismatic personality and persuasion. Basically, if a speaker is able to established strong personal relationships with his or her audience, he or she is much more liekly to be an effective persuasive communicator. The most important thing a persuasive speaker can do is to establish trust from the outset. If a speaker can convince the audience that he or she has their best interests at heart and is a competent source of information, the work of persuasion is largely done. Establishing trust and respect with the audience is as much a matter of one's credentials as one's appearance and presentation. Speakers who can demonstrate expertise an empathy are likely to find success with the audience.

Describe the use of examples, both real and hypothetical.

Successful speakers are likely to use both real and hypothetical examples in the course of a speech. Real examples are appropriate in speeches describing a particular historical or social topic that is ground in reality. For instance, it would not be appropriate to use a hypothetical example in an argument about the Revolutionary War since there are plenty of real examples to illustrate points regarding that conflict. In more general speeches, however, it may be necessary to use a hypothetical situation as an example. When describing the possible result of some decision, for instance, a speaker might invoke the case of some hypothetical person as a means of dramatizing his or her argument. In general, real examples are treated with more respect by an audience and should be used whenever possible.

Describe the importance of having specific purposes for a speech.

The first step in preparing a speech is knowing the specific purpose of that speech. This enables the speaker to focus on what is important and the research efficiently for relevant material. Knowing the specific purpose of the speech allows the speaker to emphasize the most important points within the speech. The specific purpose of a speech might be informing the audience on a particular point, changing a few mins on a particular subject, raising some money, or simply entertaining the audience. It is a good idea to make the species purpose of the speech explicit in the speech. Although you do not want to best your audience over the head with your intentions, there should be no question as to what the speech is meant to accomplish. In general, the specific purpose of a speech is defined in terms of the desired reaction from the audience.

Describe the verification phase of creative speech analysis.

The fourth and final part of the creative analysis of a speech topic is the verification phase. During this phase, the speaker looks over his or her notes carefully. Occasionally, some of the ideas that seemed so brilliant during the incubation and illumination phases turn out to be inappropriate or implausible. Other times, a careful examination of the speech will uncover holes in the reasoning of the argument or reveal the necessity of adding or removing a particular part of the speech. The verification phase of creative speech analysis can be seen as a final polishing of the materials gathered and organized during the first three phases.

Discuss the difference between an idea and a claim in a speech.

The goal of a speech is to disseminate information or persuade the audience. In other words, a speaker will either deliver ideas or make claims. A speaker who is delivering ideas is expressing information and opinions for their own sake, and not necessarily trying to change the minds of the audience. Informative speeches are usually on subjects about which the audience is not expected to know very much. The purpose of such a speech is to increased the knowledge of the audience rather than to convert them to any particular viewpoint. When a speaker makes claims, on the other hand, he or she is introducing opinions that may or may not be held by the members of the audience The intention of this type of speech will be to provide arguments and evident to support the speaker's claims.

Describe the basic characteristics of the speech listener.

The individual or group of individual who listen to a speech bring their own characteristic to bear on the quality of the speech. For one thing, listeners will always have their own intentions. That is, they will always be seeking to obtain something from the speech, whether it is information or entertainment. Listeners will also have varying degrees of skill, meaning that some groups will be better at understand a complex message. Listeners will also bring their pre-existing attitudes toward the speaker and the speaker's subject. To deliver an effective message, a speaker needs to perform an audience analysis to determine the characteristic of his or her listeners.

Discuss the basic elements of the message of a speech.

The message of a speech is communicated not only with the words being spoken but also through the speaker's self-presentation. In other words, the quality of the speaker's voice and his or her body language contribute to the message as well. The message of the speech is generally considered to have three basic components: structure, content, and presentation. The structure of the speech is the order in which information is delivered. To be effective, a speech must have a logical and coherent structure. The content of the speech is the information it contains; even an entertaining or persuasive speech must have good content. Finally, the presentation of a speech is the style in which it is delivered to the audience. Different kinds of speeches required different presentation styles. The most important thing is to match the presentation to the intention of the speech.

Describe the general purpose of an entertaining speech.

The only goal of some speeches is to entertain and amuse the audience. Standup comedy is a type of entertaining speech. Many speeches that also contain information or persuasive content are primarily entertaining. They keynote speakers are conference and convention often cloak their arguments in witty anecdotes and jokes. Obviously, serious subjects are not appropriate content for entertaining speeches. However, many speakers will introduce some elements of an entertaining speech to first capture the attention of the audience and then persuade them to engage seriously with the more weighty elements of the speech.

Describe the process of speech organization.

The process of speech organization entails selecting the elements that will comprise the speech, placing them into a coherent order, and arranging the supporting material for each message unit. During the organization process, a speaker will often summarize each message unit in a simple sentence. This gives the speaker simple building blocks that can be easily rearranged. In general, a speech should include a coherent introduction, body, and conclusion. The introduction should engage the interest of the audience and summarize the main points to e made. The body should contain the central points of the speaker's argument as well as the supporting evidence. The conclusion should summarize the argument and give the audience food for thought.

Describe the essential points of speech evaluation.

There are a number of things to look for when evaluating the quality of a speech. All effective speeches share a few essential characteristics, such as a good introduction--one that engages the audience and introduces the main idea or argument of the speech. The body of the speech should include clear exposition of ideas and appropriate supporting material. The conclusion of the speech should reinforce the main idea or claim and solidify audience understanding. The representation of the speech should be appropriate to the audience and setting and should be fluent in it delivery.

Describe the various uses of numbers in speech.

There are few different ways to use numbers in a speech. One way is to use numbers as markers of evaluation. When we say a person weighs 120 pounds, for instance, we are using number to evaluate their weight. In a similar way, numbers can be used as a basis for comparison. By comparing the prices for two dishwashers, for instance, we obtain an important piece of information we can use making a consumer decision. Numbers can also be used to make illustrative points For instance, speakers often cit various statistics in support of an argument. It is important to emphasize that, although numbers suggest impartiality, they are calculated by human beings, who are highly subjective and whose intentions should be rigorously question.

Discuss the purpose of studying public speaking.

There are number of reasons for studying public speaking, but the most commonly cited are social, intellectual, and consumer motives. People need to learn to speak in public in order to function in society and to manage relationships, administrate social events, and minimize conflict. Intellectually, a study of public speaking gives insight into human thought, ethics, and persuasion. Public speeches can generate emotions and ideas in listeners as well as influence their existing thoughts and feelings. IT is also important to study public speaking not only to improve one's own speaking skills, but to improve one's ability to analyze and interpret the speeches of others. Students need to be able to understand the forum of public expression, the rhetorical vocabulary, and the various methods of thinking critically about speech.

Define beliefs.

To accurately assess what an audience might be thinking, one must understand that audience's core beliefs. Strictly defined, beliefs are the facts, ideas, and opinions that the audience holds to be true. Objectively, some of these beliefs may actually be untrue. However, to deliver an effective message, a speaker must take into account the sum total of the audience's beliefs. If the purpose of the speech is to adjust the beliefs of the audience, the speaker must appeal to either the reasoning skills or the emotions of his or her interests.

Discuss the basic research required to prepare for a speech.

To adequately prepare for delivering a speech, one needs to assemble all pertinent information and create a complete outline. One of the reasons why it is a good idea to select a familiar topic for one's speech is that less research will be required. At the very least, one should know where to look to find the information necessary to deliver an informative and comprehensive speech. Speakers may need to consult with experts in the given subject or peruse newspapers, magazines, and books for extra information. Many local and school libraries have extensive databases for performing research, and a through Internet search can often provide vast amounts of helpful material.

Discuss the most important attributes of a speaker.

To be an effective speaker, one must have a clear intention, a good attitude, and extensive knowledge of the subject of the subject of the speech, as well as a degree of credibility with the audience. The speaker should fully understand the intention of the speech, even if that intention is not directly expressed in the speech. Sometimes a speaker will have hidden motive or a long term goal that cannot be expressed in the speech. To established credibility, the speaker should posses a solid working knowledge of the subject of the speech. When the speaker is fluent in the subject of the speech he or she is discussing the speech will flow more naturally and the speaker will be able to tailor his or her message to the audience's level of understanding. Referring to a speaker's "attitude" simply means his or her self-conception; that is, the image the speaker has of himself. If a speaker has a positive self-image, he or she is more likely to deliver an effective speech.

Describe the importance of ethic in public speaking.

To be an effective speaker, one needs to maintain a high degree of ethical rectitude. This is true not only because of the inherent virtues of ethical behavior, but also because an audience will not trust a speaker whom they believe to be unethical. To promote good ethics as a public speaker, one should always be as honest as possible. One should also try to promote the interests of the audience whenever appropriate. It is important to give members of the audience responsibility for making up their own minds, rather than attempting to browbeat them into submission with one's argument.

Discuss the relationship between persuasion and competence.

To be persuasive, an individual must be perceived as competent by the audience. Competence manifests itself in a number of characteristics, such as preparedness, poise, thoughtfulness, and clarity. A competent speaker should be able to answer questions from the audience on a specific subject, or should at least be able to explain where the answers could be found. A competent speaker must have supporting evidence for his or her arguments and must make this evidence clear to the audience. A competent speaker will also be able to organize his or her message effectively, giving the audience the best opportunity to educate themselves. Finally, a competent speaker will appear unhurried and calm.

Describe the basic elements of speechmaking.

To master the speechmaking process one should clearly understand a few basic elements. The central figure is the speaker; that is, the one delivering the speech. The speaker brings a self-conception as well as a conception, or impression, of the audience's general identity. In the study of speechmaking, the audience's general identity. In the study of speechmaking, the audience is sometimes referred to as the "receiver." Like the speaker, the audience members will have a self-image as well as an impression of the speaker. The speaker uses various channels of communication, including words and gestures, to communicate his or her message The audience members will deliver their responses to the speech both verbally and through body language. This response to the speech is called feedback.

Describe the fundamentals of preparing a speech.

To successfully prepare a speech it is best to follow a basic set of established steps. By following these steps, the speaker (or speechwriter) can more efficiently develop an organized and effective presentation. 1. Select subject, if the topic has not been predetermined. 2. The speaker should articulate to himself or herself the key ideas and arguments to be included in the speech. As he or she begin to formulate these ideas and arguments, it is important to take into account the characteristics of the intended audience. 4. The speaker should begin gathering materials for the speech, whether through research or brainstorming. 5. Outline the speech. 6. Write a draft of the speech. IT is always a good idea to practice delivering the speech and to make revisions or adjustments where necessary.

Discuss the relationship between mimicry and persuasion.

Unconscious mimicry or imitation can be one of the most powerful forces for persuasion. Human beings have a natural tendency to imitate the behavior of those they perceive to be leaders or role models. People often adopt beliefs or act in ways uncharacteristic of who they really are in order to mirror the behavior of the leader. This phenomenon is due in part to the tendency of human being to minimize difference between one another as a means of preventing conflict. Of course, to inspire imitation on the part of the audience, a speaker must appear competent and have a good reputation. The members of an audience should be particularly skeptical of speakers who encourage them to adopt a point of view because others are doing it.

Describe the primary factors of audience analysis.

When a seasoned public speaker conducts an audience analysis, he or she focuses on a few specific characteristics of the audience. For one thing, the speaker wants to know the audience's background as it relates to him or her and his or her subject matter. Although much of audience analysis consists of determining the approximate ages and socioeconomic background of the audience, this is primarily because such information enables the speaker to estimate the audience's opinions and degree of familiarity with the subject matter and speaker. A speaker who is will-liked by the audience can employ a different rhetorical strategy than one with whom most of the audience disagrees.

Discuss the process of phrasing the main claim in a speech.

When a speech is designed to present or advance a particular viewpoint, the speaker will need to pay special attention to the phrasing of the speech's main claim. The main claim should be phrased in such a way that it will be comprehensible to a general audience and will not offend causal listeners with a harsh or controversial tone can be used with an audience of like-minded individuals, whereas a diverse group of uncommitted listeners requires a more evenhanded tone. When constructing the man claim of a speech, the speaker should be sure to present only ideas that can be supported by available evidence and reasonable argument. If the main claim of a speech is far-fetched or unsupportable, even the more rational elements of the speech may be dismissed by skeptical audience.

Discuss the relationship between persuasion and the motivation of the speaker.

When an audience is considering the elements of a persuasive speech, they will likely give some though to the motivations of the speaker. For instance, when approached by a salesperson, a customer is likely to assume that the salesperson has a vested personal interest in making a sale and does not necessarily have the best interests of the consumer at heart. In other contexts, however, the motivation of the speaker may be harder to discern. In an academic speech, for instance, the audience will be aware that the speaker is attempting to promote a certain viewpoint, but they may not be able to determine exactly why the speaker supports that point of view. To the extent that the audience can discern the motivation of the speaker, they will be able to intellectually consider the merits of the speech, and not be swayed by emotions.

Discuss the difference between facts and opinions.

When considering the convictions of an audience, it is good to distinguish between facts and opinions. Fact are those convictions that can be proven in an objective sense. Scientific assertions, for instance, are considered facts. Opinions, on the other hand cannot, necessarily be supported by hard data. People often hold opinions for rather arbitrary individual reasons, such as those based on personal experience .The fact that communities hold collective opinions must also be considered when making a speech. In general, it is easier for a speaker to adjust beliefs or convictions based on opinion than those based on fact.

Discuss the importance of tailoring the subject of a speech so that it is appropriate to the audience.

When deciding on the subject of the speech, the speaker must take into account the characteristics and ability level of the audience. The speaker should be aware of teh audience's expectations. That is, whether they expect to be informed, entertained, or persuaded. Audience memers may be annoyed if a speech has a drastically different tone from the one they were expecting. For instance, an audience expecting a serious speech will be impatient with a speaker who spends a great deal of time trying to make them laugh. In some cases, it may be necessary to thwart the expectations of the audience, as for instance when a serious moral point must be made instead of providing sheer entertainment.

Discuss the importance of tailoring the subject of a speech to the qualifications of the audience.

When deciding upon the subject matter of a speech, the speaker should take into account the audience's general intelligence level and subject-related knowledge. A speech will be ineffective if it is either too elementary or too advanced for the audience. If the speaker is unfamiliar with the knowledge base of the proposed audience, he or she should take steps to determine this knowledge before preparing the speech. For an unschooled audience, it is a good idea to focus on the most basic and important principles of a given subject. For an audience of experts in given field, however, it is important to provide information that will be stimulating and informative.

Discuss the difference between memorizing and reading a speech.

When delivering a speech, the speaker may need to decide whether to memorize or read the text. There are advantages to each approach. When a speech is memorized, the speaker can make eye contact with the audience and use his or her hands to make illustrative gestures. Memorized speeches run the risk of sounding overly rehearsed, however, and the speaker may falter if he or she loses track of the speech. Some speakers prefer to read their speeches, often because they prefer to have a copy of the speech for reference. If the speaker plans to read his or her speech, he or she should become extremely familiar with the speech so it is not necessary to ready every word from the paper. Regardless of whether a speech is memorized or read, the speaker should practice delivery to increase fluency.

Discuss the difference between fixed and variable beliefs.

When describing the beliefs of an audience, speech communication instructors often distinguish between fixed and variable beliefs. The primary difference between the two is that fixed beliefs are harder to change. Typically, fixed beliefs have been held throughout an individual's life and most likely reinforced by his or her experience. Variable beliefs, on the other hand, may have been recently acquired and therefore may be less established individual's mind. A speaker is more likely to change variable beliefs and should therefore focus his or her attention on these. Variable beliefs are especially vulnerable to change when they are based on opinion rather than fact.

Discuss the importance of remembering the audience's capacity to act.

When developing a speech, one should always remember the characteristics and capabilities of the audience. This is especially important when producing a persuasive speech.l Ti does not make sense to encourage the audience to take an action they are not capable of taking. For instance, a politician would be foolish to make an impassioned plea for votes to a bunch of elementary school students, all of whom are years away from voter eligibility. WHen developing a persuasive speech, then, it is essential to remember the capacity of the audience to act.

Describe the general purpose of an informative speech.

When one is delivering an informative speech, his or her primary goal is to instruct the audience on a particular subject. If the speech is effective, the audience members will leave with more knowledge and understanding. College lectures are a great example of an informative speech. Although informative speeches may be entertaining, the humor or "color" of the speech should not distract from the overall intention, which is to disseminate information. Informative speeches often contain specific statistical data and an organized set of arguments and supporting evidence. Many informative speeches contain mention of counter-arguments, including rebuttals.

Describe the elements of setting a speaker should consider when preparing a speech.

When preparing a speech, a speaker should take into account any idiosyncrasies of the speech format or setting. For instance, in some situations a speaker will have specific guidelines and rules for his or her speech. When giving an address to the members of a particular religious or cultural group, for instance, one might need to abide by specific rules. Another thing to consider is the placement of the speech in the overall event. For instance, if other speeches are to follow, one might want to make sure there will be no overlap in speech content. Also if the speech is to be diben directly after dinner, one should be aware the audience members will be less likely to pay attention to the details of the speech. Finally, a good speaker will be aware in advance what the physical setting for the speech will be. That is, he or she will know beforehand such details as whether or not the speech is to be given standing or sitting and whether a podium will be available.

Describe how time limits influence the preparation of the speech.

When preparing a speech, one must be aware of exactly how much time is available for presenting the material. The time limit will greatly influence the content of the speech. It is rarely possible, for instance, to effectively discuss a complicated subject in a short period of time. Nor will it be possible to hold an audience' interest over a long period of time without having a wealth of information and ideas. Giving an effect persuasive speech in particular requires sufficient time. This is especially true when one is trying to convert an audience's opinion on a subject with which they are unfamiliar or on which they already have firm opinions. Generally, it takes a strong arguments, elaborated through a number of points, to alter an opinion already agreed upon by most members of the audience.

Describe how the location should dictate the characteristics of a speech.

When preparing a speech, one should always keep in mind the occasion for which the speech is intended as this will help determine what kind of speech is appropriate. Individuals who have gathered together for a summer picnic, for instance, will not be interested in hearing a long and complicated speech. A short, humorous address would be more appropriate for this setting. A convention of professors, on the other hand, will be receptive to a more substantive speech that might also include relevant technical information. On rare occasions, a speaker ma decide it is necessary to deliver a speech not entirely appropriate for the setting, this should only be done, however, when it is absolutely necessary.

Describe the use of expert testimony in a speech.

Whenever possible, speakers attempt to incorporate expert testimony into their speeches. Any time a speaker can quote a well-known authority who agrees with his or her point of view, he or she will be eager to do so. Most members of an audience will probably feel relatively uniformed compared to the speaker and will be ready listen to anyone who may be considered an expert. Of course, testimony is only expert and appropriate when it comes from an expert tin that particular field. For example, most people would be less inclined to take seriously the political views of an expert in basketball than they would if those view came from a respected public servant. Nevertheless, an audience should remain skeptical about persuasive argument, even when the are made by experts. The standards of logic required of experts apply to everyone else as well.