Fundamentals of Management - Motivation
When you want to make a behavior continue:
-positive reinforcement: give a desirable reward -negative reinforcement: take away something unpleasant
When you want to stop a behavior from continuing:
-punishment: add something that is unpleasant -extinction: take away a potential reward or ignore the unwanted behavior
4 categories of theories of motivation
1) Need and content theories 2) Process theories 3) Empowerment and participation theories 4) Reinforcement theories
Extrinsic reward
A tangible award given to you for accomplishing something. Example: money
Intrinsic reward
An individual personal satisfaction from accomplishing something. Example: "I am motivated to learn the guitar because playing for my children makes me feel good."
Inputs
An individual's contributions toward an outcome
Motivational Factors
Aspects of a job that increase employees job satisfaction Includes: achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, advancement, and growth
goals setting theory
Behavior is a result of conscious goals and intentions
Reinforcement Theory
Behavior that results in rewarding consequences is likely to be repeated, whereas behavior that results in punishing consequences is less likely to be repeated
McClelland's Needs Theory
Composed of need for achievement, need for affiliation, and need for power.
Equity theory
Contends that people are motivated to seek social equity in the rewards they receive for performance my inputs/my outcomes = others inputs/others outcomes
Gainsharing Plan
Designed to share the cost savings from productivity improvements with employees
Need for power
Desire to be influential in a group and to control ones environment
Popular Motivational Strategies
Empowerment and participation Alternative work arrangements
Empowerment
Enabling workers to set their own work goals, make decisions, and solve problems within their sphere of responsibility and authority
Process theories
Focus on why people choose certain behavioral options to satisfy their needs and how they evaluate their satisfaction after they have attained those goals Includes: equity theory, expectancy theory, goal setting theory,
Participation
Giving employees a voice in making decisions about their own work
The Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy Theory
If performance results in equitable rewards people will be more satisfied
Maslow's Hierarchy of needs
Individuals are motivated by their lowest order unmet needs. From bottom of pyramid to top: physiological --> safety --> love/belonging --> esteem --> self-actualization
Needs theories
Maslow's Hierarchy of needs, McClelland's needs theory, Herzberg's two factor theory
organizational behavior modification (OB Mod)
Method for applying the basic elements of reinforcement theory in an organizational setting
piece-rate incentive plan
Reward system wherein the organization pays an employee a certain amount of money for every unit he or she produces
Scanlon Plan
Similar to gainsharing, but the distribution of gains is tilted much more heavily toward employees
Competence
The ability to do something well
Hygiene factors
The aspects of the job that don't actually motivate employees, but the lack of these factors can lead to dissatisfaction Include: policies, supervisors, work conditions, salary, status, and security
Performance-to-outcome Expectancy (Instrumentality)
The belief that if you perform, you will receive the reward that has been promised
Effort-to-performance Expectancy (expectancy)
The belief that increased effort will yield better performance
Autonomy
The desire to be self-directed and independent
reward system
The formal and informal mechanisms by which employee performance is defined, evaluated, and rewarded
Outcomes
The positive and negative consequences an individual has incurred as a result of their inputs.
Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory
The things that satisfy or motivate us; and the things that dissatisfy or demotivate us are related to two different factors: hygiene or motivational.
Valence
The value an individual puts on a reward they are pursuing.
Avoidance
Used to strengthen behavior by avoiding unpleasant consequences that would result if the behavior were not performed
Extinction
Used to weaken undesired behaviors by simply ignoring or not reinforcing them
Alternative Work Arrangements
Variable work schedules flexible work schedules job sharing telecommuting
compressed workweek
Working a full-time number of hours in less than a standard workweek
Postivite reinforcement
a method of strengthening behavior with rewards or positives outcomes after a desired behavior is performed
variable-ratio schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
variable-interval schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
fixed-ratio schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
fixed-interval schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
Content Perspectives on Motivation
address the question "What factors in the workplace motivate people?"
Telecommuting
allowing employees to spend part of their time working offsite, usually at home
job sharing
an arrangement whereby two part-time employees share one full-time job
incentive plans
are management compensation plans that tie management compensation to share price; one example involves the granting of stock options.
merit pay plan
compensation plan that formally bases at least some meaningful portion of compensation on merit
stock option plan
established to give senior managers the option to buy company stock in the future at a predetermined fixed price
Motivation equation for expectancy theory
expectancy x instrumentality x valence = motivation
Basic Model of Motivation
need or deficiency -> search for ways to satisfy need -> choice of behavior to satisfy need -> Evaluation of need satisfaction -> determination of future needs and search/choice for satisfaction
merit pay
pay awarded to employees on the basis of the relative value of their contributions to the organization
Expectancy theory
suggests that motivation depends on two things- how much we want something and how likely we think we are to get it
goal specificity
the clarity and precision of a goal
Need for affiliation
the desire for human companionship and acceptance
Need for achievement
the desire to accomplish a goal or task more effectively than in the past
goal difficulty
the extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort
Motivation
the set of forces that cause people to behave in certain ways
punishment
used to weaken undesired behaviors by using negative outcomes or unpleasant consequences when the behavior is performed
flexible work schedules
work schedules that allow employees to select, within broad parameters, the hours they work