Geog 130 Midterm 3

Lustig concerns with sugar

"Now, let's consider toxicity. A growing body of epidemiological and mechanistic evidence argues that excessive sugar consumption affects human health beyond simply adding calories4. Importantly, sugar induces all of the diseases associated with metabolic syndrome"

"war between two food systems" (Jacobs and Richtel)

-"If I ask 100 Brazilian families to stop eating processed food, I have to ask myself: what will they eat? Who will feed them? How much will it cost?" -Mike Gibney (Univ College Dublin and Nestlé consultant) -seeing "a war between two food systems, a traditional diet of real food once produced by the farmers around you and the producers of ultra-processed food designed to be over-consumed and which in some cases are addictive... but one food system has disproportionately more power than the other"-Carlos A. Monteiro (Univ Sao Paulo)

food and farmers as cultural products (Berry)

-"My point is that food is a cultural product: it cannot be produced by technology alone... A healthy farm culture can be based only upon familiarity and can grow only among a people soundly established upon the land; it nourishes and safeguards a human intelligence of the earth that no amount of technology can satisfactorily replace." (43) -culture of excellence passed down through generations -moving to cities from the farm= "simplification of the mind" as the farmer goes from "being his own boss" to a "specialized subordinate"

new malnutrition/diet violation by MNCs globally (Jacobs and Richtel)

-"New type of malnutrition": across the world, more people are obese than underweight! Doubled in 73 countries since 1980, 4mil premature deaths -MNCs like Nestlé, Pepsico, and General Mills expanding LDC presence as their growth in DCs slow→ totally violate traditional/local diets in Latin Am, Asia, Africa, etc --Inexpensive, processed food availability inc and ofc mostly affect the world's poorest --Farmers abandoning subsistence crops in favor of cash crops (greater demand for the inputs of this food) --Political influence! Anti-soda tax, lobbying, etc -Fast food (2011-2016: 30% inc globally vs 21% in U.S.), packaged food (2011-2016: 25% inc globally vs 10% in U.S.), and soft drink sales (Latin Am sales doubled since 2000 and overtook North Am in 2013) inc globally

Hauter's view on corporate consolidation

-"The evisceration of antitrust law, usually overlooked in critiques about the nation's food system, is at the core of its dysfunction." (65) -corruption and political bribery of corporations, inherently uncompetitive and lead to poor consumer/farmer outcomes -govts can reform and ensure stability of equitable capitalist food system (problem isn't capitalism, but rather government and how it's operating)

"7 Reasons Why Machine Learning is a Game Changer for Agriculture" (Kharkovyna, towardsdatascience.com)

-#1: automated irrigation systems (continued maintenance of soil conditions to increase average yield, save/optimize water usage, etc) -#2: drones (ex. spraying crops) -#3: Robocrop: Smart Robots for Picking Fruit (dec in labor, sensors/radar/GPS and autonomous crop handling) -#4: crop monitoring systems (yield prediction with crop, weather, and economic analysis, crop quality and data analysis, disease detection with agrochemical placement, weed detection with computer vision, etc) --Microsoft and ICRISAT engineers/scientists and AI--> optimal planting time in India, monitoring soil and selects necessary fertilizers--> 30-40% yield increases -#5: Precision Agriculture (real time data and algorithms--> smaller pesticide amounts to certain areas/plants/leaves > one large area) --ex. Prospera (uses video, sensors etc to monitor crops and gather real time data that is analyzed to find signs of disease that can be pre-meditated and mitigated) -#6: Animal identification and health monitoring --ex. Alibaba and Dekon Group (Chinese companies) AI to manage pig farms, infrared sensors temp and movement data to assess health, recording pig coughs to identify disease--> mortality rates decrease 3%/year -#7: Greenhouse Climate Controller (artificial neural networks ANNs and Fuzzy Logic Controllers aka FLCs--> regulate variables like temp and humidity in greenhouses)

overpopulation and communism ("The Malthusian Movement: Feed Em or Fight Em" (Robertson))

-1954 and Moore's "The Population Bomb", pop growth as a national security threat ("deadly triangle" of pop growth, communism, and war) -overpopulation--> hunger and poverty--> communism -danger of "domino theory" (food imbalances destabilizing one nation and spreading to others, the spread of communism also with it) --> General Draper and Draper Committee under Eisenhower (1958) stepping up economic aid and population programs -progressives criticizing Am ad as pouring $ into repressive govts while not helping the people, also seeing hunger as a way to unify the U.S. and USSR rather than divide (Ernest Gruening, Fairfield Osborn, etc)

"Multifunctional ag in the U.S." (Boody)

-2 study areas (Wells Creek and Chippewa River) in Minnesota, mostly corn and soy -4 scenarios analyzed: --A: continuation of current practices, continued decrease in # of farms and inc in corn/soy acreage --B: BMPs, conservation tillage (less intense and also crop residues), riparian buffers, less fertilizer --C: high diversity and profitability, B plus wetland restoration, crop diversity and organics, 5 year crop rotations and MIRG aka managed intensive rotational grazing, perennial crops --D: C plus extra perennial crop cover, riparian buffers 90m and MIRG

food industry corruption in Brazil (Jacobs and Richtel)

-50% of Brazil federal legislators elected with $ from the food industry as of 2014 (Brazilian meat JBS $112M, Coca Cola $6.5M, McDonald's $561K) -Lobbying legislation (Brazilian Assoc. Of Food Ind) -Industry resistance and lawsuits to Anvisa (Brazilian health regulatory agency) ad restrictions and Anvisa stripping most of them away -2012: Anvisa "Lose Weight Brazil" exhibit that promoted exercise as the way to tackle obesity, not the dangers of sugar/soda/processed food! SPONSORED BY COCA-COLA

livestock and meat production importance in current economy

-70% of all ag capital is oriented towards livestock production (FAO 2006) -2012 global value: Beef ($336B) > Pork ($306B) > Milk ($286B) > Chicken ($128B)

ag business and financial sector benefitting from one another (Hauter)

-Ag business needing financial sector (Wall St banks, financiers, hedge funds, private equity to pursue mergers, sell corporate bonds, get business advice, handle cash oversight/investment, currency abroad, etc) and banks etc benefit off FEES! -ex. Diamond-Pringles merger and Diamond debt restructuring deal: $millions in loan penalties and heightened interest rates etc to big banks like Bank of America

today's meat production

-Annual U.S. meat consumption, lbs/capita: Beef peaked in mid 70s; Chicken on the rise/ been increasing continually, has now overtaken beef since 2013 --Weren't used for meat production until relatively recently, have primarily been egg layers (% of their body weight that was edible meat= relatively small)... Now, 2 different varieties of chickens for market: egg-laying chicken and broiler chickens (designed by companies to be bulky and have higher % of body meat).. broilers not coming about until post WWII/ mostly 70s and 80s! --2015: 840 million lbs of chicken/week vs 2005: 706 AND top 1-3 firms capturing 46% of production -Today: 80% of all cattle in U.S. = Cargill, Tyson, JBS, National Beef; 66% of pork= Smithfield, Tyson, JBS, Excel -1992: 30% of hogs raised on factory farms vs 80% on 2004 and 2007 is 95%!!!! -Company (owns genetic patent, birds, feed, medicine, trucks, slaughterhouse facility, brand) vs grower (owns debt, barns, labor, cost of utilities, waste and dead birds)... so who are the real capitalists?!!! Farmers=cogs --Contract farming (production contracts for livestock, marketing for crops)

consequences of diversifying ag (Boody)

-B, C, and D decreasing N fertilizer/changes in inputs, conservation tillage increase -B, C, and D small grains > corn and soy (not necessarily a reduction of food going more directly to human consumption) -C and D with inc farmer incomes -water quality inc, fish inc, carbon sequestration inc, GHGs dec, soil erosion dec -social/human capital transition costs! need institutions to hop on board

"The Potential Role of CAFOs in Infectious Disease Epidemics and Antibiotic Resistance" (Gilchrist)

-CAFOs, mass intensification of animal production and possibility of diseases/pathogens -1.4million kg= antibiotics for human medical use vs 11.4MILLION kg for livestock as growth promoters in the U.S. -higher animal concentration, greater risk of zoonooses (diseases transmissible from animals to people) -as antibiotic use increases, resistant bacteria also inc (resistance genes can pass from one bacteria to another to form colonies)--> risk of passing from livestock to workers, and then to fam and friends etc -also genes can pass from benign to pathogenic bacteria!--> diseases formally treatable to ones that can cause illness/death

4 companies dominate seed, pesticide, and biotech industries!

-DowDupont -BASF -Bayer-Monsanto -Syngenta

Nestlé door to door vendors in Brazil ("How Big Business Got Brazil Hooked On Junk Food" (Jacobs and Richtel))

-Fortaleza, Brazil: door to door vendors for Nestlé, many of the customers visibly overweight! -Started in Brazil a decade ago and serves 700,000 low-income customers/month Pushing products under the guise of vitamins and minerals that are "good for you", total misconception about it -Mrs. da Silva and customers only interested in the most sugary items... "on one hand, Nestlé is a global leader in water and infant formula and a lot of dairy products. On the other hand, they are going into the backwoods of Brazil and selling their candy" -Barry Popkin (UNC) -$$$ talks! Nestlé employs 21,000 people in Brazil and vendors like Mrs. da Silva are able to provide for family and buy a proper home for kids.fix her missing teeth etc (feels "hope and independence")... tricky!!!

"Genetically Modified Herbicide-Tolerant Crops, Weeds, and Herbicides: Overview and Impact" (Bonny)

-GMOs and herbicide tolerant crops (esp glyphosate tolerant crops! patent expired in 2000--> glyphosate prices dec, inc in GM GT crops!) --> glyphosate applications in same fields without alteration leading to glyphosate resistant weeds! --> use even MORE glyphosate to compensate! -health and enviro risks, pesticide drift -herbicide resistance can travel through weed pollen, structures, and seeds! can travel long distances like pathogens! *initial decrease in pesticide use due to GMOs overshadowed by this increase in herbicides!

Grange Movement (1867)

-Nation Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry, a group of agrarian organizations that worked to increase the political and economic power of farmers -opposed corrupt business practices and monopolies, and supported relief for debtors -Although technically not a political party, local granges led to the creation of a number of political parties, which eventually joined with the growing labor movement to form the Progressive Party

growth in food corporation power and processed food ("Foodopoly" (Hauter))

-New Deal era and anti-trust→ Reagan administration/free market and deregulation (ex. Federal Trade Commission Chairman James C. Miller) --Approving of large mergers, lack of antitrust enforcement, no antitrust reporting, etc -Hourglass corporations (eaters ←→ small number of food corps ←→ producers) -Food companies and cheaper ingredients presented→ operationalize --Ex. HFCS switch when sugar prices increased in the 80s -Americans spend 90% of food budget's on processed food! --increase in cancer, obesity, diabetes --growth in eating outside the home and fast food/ "convenience food" (ex. McDonald's and dollar menu) -McDonald's= largest potato purchaser in U.S. ←→ 3 companies manufacture their fries ←→ use potatoes from United Fresh Potato Growers of Idaho ←→ and Monsanto seeds/pesticides for them!

"Weighing In: Obesity, Food Justice, and the Limits of Capitalism" (Guthman)

-Obesity increase (2016 increase across American adult population since 1980, and 1980-2008 inc in overweight children, teens, etc) -More women of color (53% Af Am, 51% Mex-Am) obese than white women (39%) -Size and exposures to chemicals/food substances! Exposure in 1950s/60s and "truly ubiquitous" in 1980s (need to look at production rather than consumption!) -Engel's Law: as individual income rises, people don't eat or buy more (generally), but just different food

Plenty in SF ("Is vertical farming really the future of ag?" (Holt, eater.com))

-Plenty (SF based indoor farming startup) grows greens hydroponically (no soil) and uses artificial lighting raised $200M in funding --350x produce per acre on 1% of water used by dirt farming --however, hydroponic issues of HUGE capital costs with starting large hydroponic farm, reliance on investor $, energy efficiency question (2016 study raising issues of carbon footprint in building facilities etc)

development decade (Robertson)

-Pres Kennedy and 1960s -Peace Corps, Alliance for Progress, idea of "new frontier" -diffusion of tech to modernize culture from being "traditional" -U.S. pouring lots of resources into India in particular ("megaprojects" of development), India seeing lots of mass famines -LBJ and "international war on hunger" declared, foreign aid and grain shipments, pushing LDCs to put resources into family planning (but rise in pessimism as famines persisted) -Ag Rev and GR with more inputs and tech, global ag development

why are fruits and vegetables more expensive? (Guthman)

-Processed food cheaper than fruits/veg because of the cost of growing! Subsidies play a role but not main driver -Processed = lack of human labor, much less costly on a mass scale and more intensified vs fruits and veg = specific, careful process/hand-picked etc

"The Chain: Farm, Factory, and the Fate of Our Food" (Genoways)

-Quality Pork Producers Inc (hogs butchered)--> Hormel Foods (packaging) -Matthew Garcia and "brain machine", last stop on the "head table" where 1300 pork heads travel to be taken apart, 1 head every 3 seconds! Garcia developing numbness, leg paralyzation, etc.. wheelchair bound! -undocumented immigrants= most of the workers (shift after Jay Hormel died in 1954 and replaced by new corporate leadership, Richard Knowlton to "gut long standing incentive programs and increase line speeds") -other cases of these same symptoms popping up! ALL young, Hispanic, and no previous illnesses AND worked for QPP at or near the head line! ("all he [the doctor] could say for certain was that the illness was somehow triggered by recent increased in the speed of the chain on QPP's production line" (19) *LINE NEVER STOPS AND ONLY GETTING FASTER WITH PRODUCTION INC!!! massive health implications for workers

origin story of meat production

-Railroads starting in 1820s and expansion through 1800: if you want to grow beef, it's not just about transporting the beef to the market, but also need large open spaces to produce the meat! --Railroads opened up E of Rockies and W of Mississippi land for cattle production (ex. Cattle trails 1870s), increasing industry for industrialized feed lots in railroad towns of the Midwest etc --Tons of cheap corn and cows coming in, cows fattened on the corn (marbled beef, more fatty less lean), feed lots being able to become larger and larger parts of the animals lives (not just spending a few weeks in them, but whole lives **SHIFT FROM COWS SPENDING LIVES ON THE RANGE (and then going to feed lots for just a couple weeks) TO MOST OF THEM IN FEED LOTS!!!... Lives shortened! And more of it spent on intensive feeding > nursing and growing -Refrigeration of railroad cars (ex. Swift corporation) and meat to market; growing consumer market in GB -Lowering costs of production and capturing larger market % (cheap), mechanized slaughterhouse to process/ship

what really causes/leads to obesity if not for an upset in energy balance? (Guthman)

-Role of environmental toxins, food inputs, and non-calorie related factors --EDC exposure (endocrine disrupting chemicals, ex. pesticides and synthetic estrogens) that alter hormones (adipose tissue secretes hormones that regulate appetite and metabolism, which EDCs can interfere with, can stimulate production of fat cells) --thyroid hormone disruptors (ex. women on farms in Iowa and NC experiencing 12.5% inc in thyroid disease) --Obesogens all along food supply chains! (Ex. DES given to beef as growth hormones on 80% of U.S. cattle), obesogens and fat cells active in own replication! --High fructose corn syrup and fructose fail to stimulate leptin, a hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells that acts as a satiety factor in regulating appetite and signals hypothalamus: alters feeding behavior and hunger, body temp, energy regulation deficiency= OBESITY! (bodies without it think they're in "starvation" and eat/take in more) --Trans fats > other fats

irresistible fatty diets and lifestyle changes/effects on children in Brazil (Jacobs and Richtel)

-Sao Paulo daycare and program to alleviate undernutrition→ many kids now fat with fatty livers/hypertension/trouble walking -Even babies! 9% obese in 2015 (270% inc since 1980) -In some neighborhoods, 30% of kids obese and another 30% malnourished quick/instant meals easier for parents with lots of kids to feed vs. cooking rice and beans -Also inc child sedentism! Rising political instability and violence keeping kids indoors watching TV all day etc -"Unlike cancer or other illnesses, this is a disability you can't see"-Juliana Calia --childhood malnutrition→ metabolic changes and can reprogram the body to more readily turn excess calories into fat ("it's the body's response to what's perceived as starvation")

acroecology

-analyzing how plants and animals work together -strip farming > monocropping (synergetic polycultures that reduce inputs) -explore existing genetic potential in plants -a less high tech way to change the system

animal agriculture additions to current food system ("Nutritional and GHG Impacts of removing animals for U.S. Ag", White and Hall)

-animal foods = 24% of total energy, 48% of protein, 23-100% of essential fatty acids, 34-67% of essential amino acids available for consumption in U.S. -U.S. livestock ind= $31.8B in exports, also provides non-food goods (adhesives, ceramics, cosmetics, fertilizers, glues, etc) -livestock making use of un-tillable pasture and consume inedible bi-products

is organic healthier for you? is organic food more nutritious?

-annals of internal medicine "are organic foods safer or healthier than conventional alternatives?": lacks strong evidence that organics are more nutritious, but may have reduced exposure to pesticide residues and antibiotic-resistant bacteria -"higher antioxidant and lower cadmium concentrations and lower incidence of pesticide residues in organically grown crops" (Baranski) ... aka, mixed evidence! depends on type of farm (ex. soil and crop nutrition), "organic" doesn't guarantee definitive results, lots of other differences that matter!

who would benefit and hurt from diversifying ag like in Boody article?

-benefit small struggling farmers, fish, enviro, everyone! -hurt seed/pesticide companies, large crop distributors/buyers, large farmers who are doing well in the current system

effects of tech on system

-big ag companies continue to get larger -literal factory of food? -consortium of extremely large farm owners? -precision sprayers possibly hurting Monsanto etc (anti-massive pesticide use) and tech companies benefitting/replacing them? (based on complete precision ag package, no longer $$ through volume!) also enviro benefits with less pesticides en masse -pressure for farm equipment companies to combine with chemical/seed companies -also tech going into restaurants etc, robots cooking fries and making pizzas! future of unskilled labor?

gabe's vision of the food system

-bigness/tech NOT fundamental issue! but rather the fact that all the companies are working to ensure that a "minuscule fraction" of humanity stays in power/control of the world's wealth...the increasing consolidation that ensures this small handful of human pop makes as much $ as possible rather than ensuring larger benefits to society! --> take over big and tech and let it be run democratically by consumers, producers, scientists (change how it's used/by whom and who for... democratic > private accumulation of wealth) --keep it big, make it automated, but let's support cheap nutritious and sustainable meals! reform eating out! ex. large scale food design, but roles of professional chefs or democratic preferences of consumers taken into account, etc -"we don't live in a small mom and pop world anymore, an we are kidding ourselves if it's going to go back there" **TECH CAN SET STAGE FOR NEW AND BETTER WORLD, BUT CHANGE IN SOCIAL RELATIONS IS REQUIRED TO MAKE IT SO!!!

marxist view on corporate consolidation

-capitalism in all industries naturally leads to greater and greater consolidation of capital as tech and automation develop (inevitable result!) -bad thing insofar as it remains subordinated to maximizing the private profit of a handful of billionaires, BUT potentially good if owned collectively by society as a whole! (large entities NOT inherently bad! more on their FUNCTION! issues can be corrected with shifting ownership) *the problem is NOT size, but capitalism! (different POV from Hauter)

artificial neuron network (ANN)

-computational model that represents a simplified model of structure of bio neural network, emulate patterns, cognition, learning, and decision making -considered nonlinear statistical data modeling tools where the complex relationships between inputs and outputs are modeled or patterns are found

issues in mobilizing public to choose organic

-cost -time -culture... to what extent is "organic" a culture rather than an objective standard? (ex. upper middle class white suburban project etc)

"The agricultural crisis as a crisis of culture" (Berry)

-death of farming communities ("farm people live less and less from their own produce, more and more from what they buy") -"bigness is totalitarian; it establishes an inevitable tendency toward the one that will be the biggest of all" (41) -need to protect "the source: seed, food species, breeding stock, old and wise, keepers of memories, the records"..."the live at the expense of the source of life is obviously suicidal. Though we have no choice but to live at the expense of other life, it is necessary to recognize the limits and dangers involved: past a certain point in a unified system, other life is our own" (47) -fragmentation--> destruction (ex. machines without looking at worker effects, losing small farmers without looking at cultural effects, monocultures without soil effects etc)... must look at the whole issue!!!

policy recommendations according to scenarios (Boody)

-diversification--> non-market ecosystem services > inc commodity production -incentives for pilot projects, safety nets for farmers -pasture beef, alter meat grading standards, less antibiotics etc -crop rotation and MIRG, CSPs, also wetland protection -broaden focus to enhance $ (ex. using perennial grasses for biomass energy, attracting birdwatching, etc) -deal with future food crises that PRODUCE ECOSYSTEM SERVICES RATHER THAN CONSUME!!!! *don't have to become "back to nature" agriculturalists to make these changes! doesn't have to be that hard/total systemic overhaul... changing $ flows through policy

Romantic Agrarianism

-emerged as a backlash to mechanization, rejection of industrialization and the "bigness" of modern lift (corporations, cities, consumption) -nostalgic yearning for the past, pastoralist return, maybe a cultural or spiritual yearning for something more pure -striving for independence and being own boss (kind of like "digital nomad" lifestyles and #vanlife... regaining control!) -Romantic agrarianism "appeals to that very American notion that the individual can escape the constraints of society and recapture a lost innocence, that he or she can reclaim a lost freedom in a lost Eden, a paradise almost always associated with nature and almost never with civilization"-Danbom, 1991

gabe's conclusions about local food

-experience of local food might be the greatest value! -upscaled 'local' food system would have unequal outcomes, not inherently more sustainable -local, largely unprocessed food is mostly upper-mid class experience (like organics) -find a way to boost local food, shouldn't be seen as a "fix" for the whole system

eco utopianism

-exploring the concept of a society based on perfect harmony with nature -1970s environmental concern, some ignore racial/class/gender cultural implications

other effects of scenarios (Boody)

-externality costs (reduced sedimentation and flooding, maximized by D) -contingent valuation and citizen WTP, wanting benefits consistent with C and D -needing social capital to support diversified scenarios like C and D, especially bridging (between people with different groups and interests)...investment costs! needing to link govt, universities, NGOs, businesses with farmers! -needing human capital, better farmer healthcare etc to keep people in farming

steps to take, according to gabe

-farm bill dramatically changed to promote nutritional, sustainable food -end system based on propping up cheap junk food (how to price goods and services to make this happen) -incentivize better food by recognizing health and enviro costs -$$$ to research for agri=science that is less about agri-business profits and more about sustainable, nutritious and diverse food

short term economic effects of scenarios (Boody)

-farm production costs (ex. inputs), most surveyed producers had equipment for transition to small grains/hay in crop rotation and also for conservational tillage, less overall inputs needed so variable costs decreased! also costs w/ small grains less than corn and soy -net farm income (function of output and prices and costs): decreased with A and B (A had more land for corn and soy, without government commodity program payments--> income dec; and B had dec yield due to land conversion/conservation tillage), while C and D increased net farm income (commodity payments dec and replacement with conservation reserve programs aka CRPs)

"Trending 2050: The Future of Farming" (Syngenta)

-food demand inc as pop and income inc (esp in LDCs with upgrading diets, so more animal product demand, however...rise in plant-based diets in DCs) -consolidation increase (2012: growers older than 65 outnumber farmers below 45) -robots > labor -drone technology (imagery, product application, transport of supplies, etc) -gene editing and variety increase -by-the-plant crop management (tech to deal with enviro effects/impacts) --ex. Phytech collaboration with Syngenta and monitoring system with plant growth sensors, soil moisture sensors, microclimate unit *overall message of "embracing innovation"

future challenges to food security (IPCC)

-food price spikes (extreme weather, food supply disruption) -less spare land so less buffers -affects trade and transportation -migration with displacement, also conflict with regional divides -ag dependent, low income communities with more conflict/violence, local land conflicts and poverty desperation, crop failure and resource struggle!

near future of tech in ag

-full automation: after set up of field, tractors can take directions from "the cloud" to plough/harrow plant/fertilize/spray/harvest/process and transport... don't ned a remote, just sets up path to follow and jobs to do! can also fuel itself -what happens to farmer?... decision-maker still...will simply own land? like a bank that owns money and gets more because of it

(certified) organics

-has increased its market share, but still only 5% -mostly fruits and vegetables growth -codified in U.S. in 2002, after long and contentious rule-making process -certification made by 3rd party contractors/NGOs -bans used of SYNTHETIC chemicals, fertilizers, and GMOs -generally requires multi-year transition period to achieve certification -costs $$$$

populism/rural radicalism

-if farmers become too poor--> rural radicalism -need for a not too poor, "middle" farming class (yeomen farmers aka small owners), helpful for social stability! (just rich enough to keep them satisfied, not wanting to rebel and risk what they have) --prevents peasant rebellions and too large/unruly of a working class

alternative techniques to improve animal livelihoods/lower risk of pathogens to transfer to food

-increased hygiene, air filtration, biosecurity, and disease surveillance, etc -Good sanitation and enough space, etc (overall better living conditions!)→ make animal immune systems less stressed -more research to identify strains, antibiotic tracking, etc -also need for phasing out antibiotics, establish minimum separation distances for swine and poultry facilities -better labelling and education for consumers to help encourage this shift! -vaccines as an alternative to antibiotics to reduce reliance

unproven demand of vertical farming (Holt)

-less "natural" POV, will consumers pay higher price? -can help inc veg supply with no seasons -risk of just hurting small local farms rather than big ind ones

"The local industrial complex? Questioning the link between local foods and energy use" (Mariola)

-local foods thought to be better because "less energy" with food traveling shorter distances BUT still fundamentally reliant on fossil fuels! --even with smaller vehicles and less miles, still using more vehicles on more roads (ex. smaller farmers traveling from multiple locations like farmers markets)...must take into account the energy of cars themselves/materials, maintenance of roads, and human energy! --also, VOLUME! farmers markets taking less items than fully loaded semi-trailers (so, each item has a higher % of energy/item)..."A few frozen chickens or a flat of strawberries account for far more energy per item when purchased on a farm than when purchased in a grocery store as part of a whole shopping list" -local food still only on the consumption side! would be more sustainable for people to grow own food *fault line in industrialization itself, not the food system! need to look at individual factors to increase energy efficiency rather than "what system is better?" (ex. inc biofuels, railways to transport food, distribution company to pick up food at individual farms, stores specializing in regional and local products, etc)

Support Vector Machine (SVM)

-machine learning algorithm that analyzes data for classification and regression analysis (probable change in one variable determining probable change in another), works by mapping data to a high-dimensional feature space so that data points can be categorized -binary classifiers (can predict yield, crop quality, livestock production, etc) that sort data into categories

smith's view on corporate consolidation

-machines/division of labor--> potentially greater wealth for society, depending on definition of society -danger of lack of competition, but would be argue it's the govt's job to prevent this?

corporations and farmers with GM GT crops (Bonny)

-market consolidation (market for other herbicides and # of agrochem companies dec) -Monsanto etc encouraging farmers to only use Roundup etc ("more simple", "less costly", "less labor" etc... they just want more $$$!) -lack of farmer awareness about GM crop systems but more understanding over time -growth of small % of organic market but need for "new paradigm" (ex. crop rotation, cover crops, reduced tillage, seed quality, monitoring and detection etc)

workers in gabe's system

-need wealth to be equally distributed and all workers evenly working less with improving living situations... need to make it so automation does NOT mean more income inequality! -farmers becoming inc educated and democratically involved in decision making process of big ag, farmland likely to be inc consolidated and end of small farmer

top ten largest U.S. farm subsidy recipients

-oriented towards top farms/conglomerates... 10s of millions$$$, indirect subsidies to largest ag companies as well

connection with our food in gabe's system

-programs to support smaller scale farms in urban and periphery settings, shared mission of education etc.. culturally complementary systems -public encouraged to know more about ind farming in intelligent food labelling that connect product to farm and open access -public all part owners too!

gabe's conclusions about organics

-reduces exposure to food ingested artificial pesticides -does not necessarily prevent exposure to organic pesticides -does not solve farmer inequality issues (organic is big ag) -potentially more nutritious practices, variance -$$ could be used to improve research, monitoring, healthier guidelines, etc -consumer interest has an impact, largely upper-middle class experience

change in mortality rate, urban vs rural

-rural crises!!!

high-tech farming now

-semi and fully automated tractors -large, high-tech combines which process harvests quickly in one pass -remote sensing, drones, imaging etc to measure health of plants throughout field, pests, weeds. data processed and farmer recommended what they should do -video and iPad collecting data ("precision ag") to analyze what inputs/yield was for given areas -weather forecasts, greenness of plants, soil comp, inputs applied, yields etc analyzed to survey what should be applied -issue of econ feasibility with more constant capital

lower total fertility rates and economic development

-urbanization (costs of living, education.. living on a farm and children contributing to family at a relatively younger age, having more kids doesn't necessarily raise costs of living that much vs modern city life) -education increasing female time until marriage etc -reduction in death rate, no "back up" children

tricky economics with vertical farming (Holt)

-vertically farmed greens much more expensive! large building costs (ex. $30K/sq ft=$4M, not even including labor costs!) -2016: Aerofarms spent $30M on aeroponic farm in Newark -energy usage and carbon footprint (however, dec with LEDs and also possibilities of energy cogeneration) -labor costs! need for human eye -inc interest in grocery stores shelving their products as the ind grows, but question of being able to scale/meet demand

is humanity itself the problem of the current issues in our food system? (ex. hunger, environmental degradation, global warming, corporate consolidation, poor nutrition/obesity, infertility, pesticide treadmill, etc)

-voices such as focusing on personal choices to reduce climate change, human population issues etc...ABSTRACTS HUMANITY as itself the problem which is problematic/ seductive, because there are real issues and humans are the prime movers of them! -not humanity (individuals) but the way we RELATE to each other! (political and economic issues that shape behavior, interests, etc) -talk of human population being the issue necessarily leads down the path of eliminating or casting out certain people.. slippery slope! -Malthus: wrong that food cannot develop exponentially, also ignores fact that people tend to have less children per person as world becomes more "developed"... is the world truly overpopulated? no

poverty and climate change pressures on women (IPCC)

-wage gap, power differential -household roles and food prep -exposure to domestic violence esp if poor/husbands unemployed -rural areas with ag-related livelihoods and women growing/preparing food -exposure and reliance on polluted water to use in the home! -even portioning more to men at the table -left out of climate change interventions (a lot of female activities not considered economically as "active employment") -need to change gender norms, improve nutrition, inc home gardens and control, reduce malnutrition in women and children, etc

enviro effects of scenarios (Boody)

-water quality: D greatest decrease in sediment and nutrient loading -fish pops: D best for stream restoration (ex. riparian areas and shade--> Wells Creek brook trout pop inc) -GHGs: pasture livestock--> N2O (nitrous oxide) and methane decrease (and scenario D having pastured grasslands using MIRG 2x) -carbon sequestration: tillage dec and perennial crops inc can hold more carbon as soil organic carbon (SOC), so D: SOC inc 86%, offsets GHGs with increase in cattle with grazing

problems with romantic agrarianism/ eco-utopianism

-who gets to live this utopian life and who doesn't? (land, capital, race, gender, etc) -self-sufficiency is an illusion! how do you get supplies? -not about moving forward or innovating to solve problems! opting out instead of finding and working towards truly scalable, sustainable solutions -fake progressive!

general approaches to fixing ag

1) consumers shape and reorganize markets through purchases (organic, local, veganism, etc) 2) govts and non-govt organizations work to rapidly reduce global population expansion to prevent enviro problems (neo-Malthusianism) 3) cultural and economic movement for urban classes to return to ag production, sometimes associated with rejection of industrialization (romantic agrarianism, eco-utopianism, etc) 4) citizens reshape ag policy to promote enviro, social, cultural benefits at expense of production of core commodity crops at extreme volumes --shift subsidies to produce more diverse, enviro sustainable products --reduce food waste at all parts of food chain --protect development of ag industry in 3rd world countries through protections and subsidies --encourage new consumer habits through greater regulation of addictive substances/toxic products, and education --none of these policy solutions suggest taking over or removing major ag companies!!! focus on politically altering incentives!!!!

two views on obesity

1. global processed foods industry (massive, "silent" pandemic associated with diabetes, heart disease, obesity, and cancers) 2. toxins, endocrine disruptors (global consumer environment with unsafe, under-regulated, under-researched chemicals which disrupt endocrine system)

metabolic syndrome

A syndrome marked by the presence of usually three or more of a group of factors (as high blood pressure, abdominal obesity, high triglyceride levels, low HDL levels, and high fasting levels of blood sugar) that are linked to increased risk of cardiovascular disease and Type 2 diabetes *obesity not the cause, just another symptom!!! marker of metabolic dysfunction *sugar is a hijacker of our metabolism! poor regulation of insulin, etc

advantages and disadvantages of a plant-based diet (White and Hall)

Advantages: -Would promote a massive decrease in cancers, heart disease, obesity, diabetes, etc -Decreases GHG emissions (but not fully counterbalancing GHGs under animal production→ need for changing systemic methods of ag as well) Disadvantages: -Livestock is an important industry to support our economy (generates $31.8B in exports, also provides goods more than just food!) (But... plant-based agriculture can boost exports as well with more corn and soy products) -Nutritional deficiencies (avoidable, but makes scaling plant-based diets more difficult), also need to eat more to gain the same amount of caloric intake

How do antibiotics lead to growth promotion? (Gilchrist)

Antibiotics altering and inhibiting the growth of microbes in the GI tract (gut microbiome), affect immune and hormone responses (antibiotics "give the immune system a break", so can divert more caloric energy to growth rather than immune system), can cause animals to grow faster and bigger -NOT simply because fewer animals die of disease! (ex. broiler chickens)

Grain Reaper

Cyrus McCormick Invented in 1834 Cut grains, wheat, oats, and other crops -grain being cut from the base more efficiently and then gets laid to the side to be collected

How did the Sugar Industry "shift the blame to fat"?

From slides: -USDA, AMA, AHA call for dietary fat reduction (dietary fat raising LDL) -The internal sugar industry documents, recently discovered by a researcher at the University of California, San Francisco, and published Monday in JAMA Internal Medicine, suggest that five decades of research into the role of nutrition and heart disease, including many of today's dietary recommendations, may have been largely shaped by the sugar industry. --"They were able to derail the discussion about sugar for decades,"-Stanton Glantz, a professor of medicine at U.C.S.F. and an author of the JAMA Internal Medicine paper. -Sugar Research Foundation, known today as the Sugar Association, paid three Harvard scientists $50,000 in today's dollars to publish a 1967 review of research on sugar, fat and heart disease. --The studies used in the review were handpicked by the sugar group, and the article (published in the prestigious New England Journal of Medicine) minimized the link between sugar and heart health and cast aspersions on the role of saturated fat

Walmart! (Hauter)

Groceries! 1) Walmart 2) Kroger 3) Costco 4) Target = 50% of all grocery sales! (Walmart has the biggest impact!) -$⅓ grocery dollars spent in U.S. goes to it, can pressure suppliers! -Biggest customer, so no choice to comply ("sucking $ out of the supply chain")...unequal relationship (even with big suppliers like General Mills, Kraft, Tyson, etc) -puts costs on suppliers to save itself costs (ex. They must use Walmart IT system, monitor supplies, use specified production design, non-negotiable contracts, "chargeback" fees if order discrepancies, RFID tags) -Demands volume→ encourages more consolidation in the supply chain! (ex. Buys 1B lbs beef/year) -Expansion into food deserts and also the promise of "going green" are economically motivated! Greater market share, image, and only if proven cost-effective!

obesity NOT a "too many calories" issue! (Guthman)

NO evidence that people eat more calories than they did a generation ago! Or that different socioeconomic statuses eat different amounts (a lot of people of color are the ones in hard physical labor jobs yet still overweight) -Average of 2100 calories across races, also more low fat/low-calorie foods available now more than ever!

flaws in development approaches (Robertson)

all of these solutions were BLIND to political and social causes/issues! using tech and decreasing pop growth as solutions, which narrows political vision (ex. ignoring how wealthiest 20% of people in India controlled 50+% of productive land and prioritizing rent over production, American food de-incentivizing grain production, etc) -US. needed to look more at wealth disparity and poor governance!

Land Grant University

an institution of higher education in the United States designated by a state to receive the benefits of the Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890.

what makes technology challenging to spread?

ex. France: 1855 reaper invented--> 1900 1 reaper/100 farms, only 50k total--> 1955, 1.5m/2.2m farms had reapers (took 100 years!) -France (less ind, larger peasantry, too many people being kicked off land risking revolution) vs England (abolished Corn Laws that that protected domestic farmers, big industrial capitalists leading the charge) and peasantry, cost/barriers to entry, land size, etc

3 anomalies explained by obesogens (Guthman)

increase in obesity since the 1980s, increases are fairly similar across racial/ethnic groups, and an increase in obese newborns

Oligopoly vs Oligopsony

oligopoly= few sellers vs oligopsony= few buyers *LARGE SECTIONS OF THE FOOD INDUSTRY, SUCH AS FOOD RETAILERS, ARE BOTH! ex. McDonald's, few buyers of potatoes and few sellers of potatoes at the same time!!

Milankovitch cycles

predictable variations in Earth's position in space relative to the Sun that affect climate (changes in the shape earth's orbit and tilt causing glacial periods and interglacial periods)

Haber-Bosch process

production of fertilizers by combining nitrogen and hydrogen to synthesize ammonia, which is the basis of nitrogen fertilizers -1% of all energy in the entire world goes to the HB process! --> fertilizers, explosives etc -needs a LOT of energy, high heat and pressure to combine them!

thresher

quickly separated the grain from the stalk and get the part of the wheat you want (renewing- separate grain from chaff aka husk)

Machine Learning

the extraction of knowledge from data based on algorithms created from training data -basic algorithms--> provide information about a data set without writing code to manually solve problems (provide data for basic alg--> forms own conclusions about it) --deep learning subset and draw conclusions from various sets of data (ex. decade of field data on how crops have performed in climates/inherited characteristics--> probability model)

The Population Bomb by Paul Ehrlich

warned of the mass starvation of humans in the 1970s and 1980s due to overpopulation

ag and GHG emissions

CO2, methane, nitrous oxide etc etc etc

impacts of pesticide/tech and bio treadmill

*DEPENDENCE INCREASING WITH TIME!!! system feeds itself (land consolidation/prod for market/ind--> monoculture--> pesticides/herbicides--> more need for $/greater power and reliance on ag companies--> back to more consolidation, prod for market, ind, etc)

GR as a geopolitical project

-Cold War era and fighting communism with LDC development

catastrophists vs cornucopians (Smil)

-Malthusians and pop growth as "unstoppable slide towards global demise" vs overly optimistic, food scarcity as "temporary aberrations" to be corrected -Malthus not actually true despair, but "cautious hope"

poor and obesity coinciding (Patel)

-"a perversity in the way our food comes to us is that it's now possible for people who can't afford enough to eat to be obese" (4) -Mex obesity rates inc with closer proximity to U.S. border, growing up malnourished and weak metabolism--> introduction of sugary/processed foods that their bodies can't handle as well

role of language/myths in hunger (Patel)

-"language of condemnation" towards poor people being hungry because lazy, etc or obese people just over-indulgent.. doesn't explain why "hunger, abundance, and obesity are more compatible on our planet than they've ever been" (3) (SYSTEMIC, repeated trend!)... also fat not equaling rich anymore, often the opposite! -traditional farming myths kept alive but inaccurate! (no "pastoral bliss", majority of farmers actually suffering, farmer suicide inc!

from old to modern ag (Mayozer and Roudart)

-"old ag" (diversified crops and stockbreeding, some earlier/more medieval equipment, large product variety for either self-supply or local markets, some specialization but limited)--> "modern ag" (specialized, large machines/heavy tractors, lots of inputs like fertilizers/feed/selected plants and animal breeds, products in multiregional and multinational markets) -series of GRADUAL transformations! -OVERALL, raw production of ag labor had increased by 100+ times (10x yield inc, 10+x hectare/worker inc)

Earl Butz interview

-16-17% of $ spent on food, less $ on food means more $ on other goods, so boost to consumerism! -but admitting that direct subsidies were "one of the stupidest things they ever did"

"Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930s" (Worster)

-1930s (urban centers, banks failing, 3 mil people out of work) and GD, drought (hit rural areas, intense heat and deaths, financial costs of 1934 drought was 1/2$ U.S. put into WWI) -Dust Bowl following drought, affecting morale/suicides, health effects, livestock and wildlife dying, property damages, etc ... "most severe enviro catastrophe in the entire history of the white man" -challenged society's capacity to think/ long held mindset of American spirit and belief in thing's working out/ only upward mobility

"Assessing the Impact of the Green Revolution: 1960-2000" (Evenson and Gollin)

-1960-2000 and international ag research centers (IARCs), collaboration with and boosting of national research programs (NARs) -Green Revolutions, transferring ind ag to LDCs -GR method: gather germplasm from gene-rich countries (ex. from West Central Asia and Latin Am), ship to U.S. and gene banks etc, study and hybridize/develop seeds, ship to farmers overseas -Subsaharan Africa and yield growth only minor contributions to production growth in both periods, mix of crops grown in region, difficulty in producing suitable MVs

early Green Revolution period (Evenson and Gollin)

-1961-1980 (according to Gabe's slides, 1950s-1970s) -increase in Asia and Latin Am

Great Grain Robbery (Pollan)

-1972, USSR buying grain from U.S. --> U.S. grain prices skyrocketed, helped Nixon win over farmers for reelection but consumers MAD (food becoming scarce at markets because farmers couldn't afford corn for feed, prices so high, etc)

late Green Revolution period (Evenson and Gollin)

-1981-2000 (according to Gabe's slides, 1970s-2000s) -production growth lower in places except Sub-Saharan Africa because of prices dec -MV (modern variety) contribution to yield growth HIGHER in late GR (50% yield inc and 40% inc prod in LDCs), gains more dependent on MVs

"The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World" (Skim: Food and Ag Organization, 2019)

-26.4% of total population, meaning 2 billion people, either suffer from moderate (uncertainty about food, reduced quality or quantity, additional 17.2% of world pop in 2018) or severe (run out of food/suffer from severe hunger, 9.2% of world pop in 2018) food insecurity -2018: Asia and Africa have the most malnutrition in ALL FORMS! (9/10 of all stunted children and wasted children, AND ¾ of all overweight children worldwide!!!)

"The Second Agricultural Revolution of Modern Times" (Mayozer and Roudart)

-2nd ag rev continued the 1st phase of mechanization (from end of 19th century, transportation and animal-drawn mechanical equipment) into 20th C *rested on development of 1) motorization (motorized tractors, engines) 2) large mechanization (machinery and complexity) and 3) chemicalization (fertilizers) as well as plant and animal selection!

Indian famine "solutions"? (Davis)

-Allan Octavian Hume (Lytton's sec of ag) sympathizing with elites and aware of revolutionary rumblings among poor--> need to counteract unrest! more liberal, wanting military $ cuts and progressive famine fund -Lytton famine relief, but costs on the poor! "famine insurance fund" that was a facade to raise taxes for redeeming cotton duties and financing Afghanistan invasion -famine commission: "political exercise to produce a favorable report" (blamed famine solely on the drought, NOT admitting GB blame)

"Shelved: How Wages and Working Conditions for California's Food Retail Workers have declined while the industry has thrived" (Saru)

-CA retail ind growth while wages dec (from 2000-2011, grocery store wages dropped by 12.6%) -Walmart, Target, Costco and low-quality, low-skill job model (few opportunities for job upgrading, people are replaceable) -Latinos are 44% of grocery store workers statewide and 46% in LA, higher chance than white workers to have shifts cancelled, sent home early with no pay, not offered breaks or promotions, etc -"financialization" bringing standards down... wages and benefits dec due to competitive pressure, ex. between Walmart (non-unionized) and Kroger, Safeway, Albertsons etc, and majority of free cash flow to paying investors instead of wages/labor compensation for inc productivity!

USDA seed collection and dissemination (Kloppenburg)

-FREE!!!! distribution by govt and most seeds produced by farmers with trading among them (national interest in ag growth) -growing urban market garden business among landless pop, growing seed production companies by 1860--> competition with govt distribution that was free -J Sterling Martin (sec of ag in 1893) advocating for private enterprise/profit opp of seed vs farmers liking govt seed because free and also better quality standards *tension of state "constraining private capital accumulation"

the Temple Wage (Davis)

-GB failure to act/relying on "invisible hand" while drought and famine in India increase -villagers fleeing to Hyderbad for assistance/relief works by lieutenant gov of Bengal (Sir Richard Temple), who was heavily criticized for his "extravagance" of importing rice from Burma to help alleviate the famine ("a mistake to spend so much money to save a lot of black fellows" 7)--> encouraged to make relief as "repugnant and ineffective as possible"/ put $ first! (cannot "save a life irrespective of cost") -requiring starving applicants for relief to travel to labor camps (build railroads, canals, etc) and lived on the "Temple Wage" diet (less sustenance than Buchenwald Nazi concentration camp diet and less than half modern caloric standard for adult males!) --work camps became EXTERMINATION camps! (Temple Wage + heavy labor + poor sanitation), yet blaming victims for their "idleness" and tendency towards crime

GD ag policy vs post-New Deal ag policy (Pollan)

-GD and govt policies to drive down supply and keep prices high (loans to farmers to keep corn off the market until prices rise again.. pay loans back in FUTURE food sales when prices increase)... farmers are PROTECTED here!!!*** -1950s and dismantling of New Deal programs rooted (rising ag prod, # of farmers dec, less farmers to fight big corps for price supports/inc incentive to promote production > farmer protection) -1972 and "Great Grain Robbery" making prices soar -Earl "Rusty" Butz (Nixon's second sec of ag) and policies to make a "plague of cheap corn" ("fencerow to fencerow", "get big or get out" 52)... transitioning to DIRECT PAYMENTS to farmers, price floor REMOVED! farmers encouraged to produce as much corn as they could and sell at any price, govt making up SOME of the difference (not all)... not really for the farmers, but the big companies who sell products to consumers! --> poor farmers, land degradation, pollution, govt $...subsidies go to the farmer but the govt is really subsidizing the BUYERS of the corn!!! Cargill and Coca Cola are the TRUE WINNERS!!!*

role of climate and human behavior (Davis)

-Great Drought of 1870s--> Age of Wheat after 1879 and plentiful rainfall pushed expansion of wheat cultivation everywhere! illusion of "rain follows the plough" --> overextended! -rainfall--> ag increase beyond "ecological boundaries of its long-term sustainability"--> drought -clustered El Nino (1888-89, 91-92) and La Nina (1886-87, 89-90) climate shocks on harvest--> prices and telegraph speed up speculations)

stages of motomechanization (Mayozer and Roudart)

-I: low power internal combustion engine tractors, 10--> 20/30 hectares/worker -II: medium power tractors with lifting power, 50 hectares/worker -III: 50-70 HP tractors, harvester threshers, 70-80 hectares) -IV: 80-120 HP tractors, 100+ hectares) -V: 4 wheel drive 120 HP tractors, 200+ hectares *fixed capital/worker at $50--> half million $ through them all, and surface area/worker went from 1--> 200+hectares/worker -increasing productivity/surface area per worker!

"Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño and the Making of the Third World" (Davis)

-India late 1870s and drought, peasants and laborers fleeing drying countryside -India exporting grain surpluses to England (poor harvests and high prices in England from 1876-77, desire to stabilize English grain prices, also grain profits from exports went to richer merchants/zamindars instead of direct producers, Indian peasants left with little hedge against drought) -merchants and grain hoarding ("futures markets"), plus telegraph and coordination of price increases regardless of supply -Lord Lytton as the former viceroy of India: anti-market intervention ("free market economics as a mask for colonial genocide" 37), week long ceremonial feast and most expensive meal in world history to proclaim Queen Victoria Empress of India (enhancing famine, etc), echoing Malthusian thought (mitigating famine="enhance evils of overpopulation") -peasants striking in relief camps, social disorder and rural mobs retaliating/ pillaging grain stores etc -Lytton visiting conditions in Madras, yet only felt more contempt towards the "demoralized masses", militarized campaign to collect taxes accumulated during the drought etc which exacerbated the effects by ruining smallholders

change in ag and farmer landscape (Pollan)

-Iowa and rich, fertile soil with tall prairie grasses but farmers in the late 1800s and inc soil loss/native grass replacement... Iowa is "DEVELOPED" even though "rural" (only 2% are rural native lands) -mechanization putting draft animals out of work, so that just means MORE CORN bc no need for fodder crops -George Naylor farmer and 1/4 Ams farmed when his grandpa arrived vs today less than 2mil Am farmers (most productive workers but also going broke!!! many farming towns having to import food) -classic corn belt rotation since 1970s! GMOs and "yield bumps" but a lot of that extra input $$ just lowers the extra cost of buying seed in the first place/companies reap more gain than the farmers do!

land expansion (Worster)

-Louisiana Purchase 1803 -1st wave of settlement were large ranches, Scottish and British capitalists investing in them with canned beef etc to be sent back overseas, but then harsh winters of 1885-86 causing mass die off ("beef bust") -by 1890: 6 mil people on Great Plains, lot of people buying land as speculation to be developed to get $$$ -land much cheaper in the Great Plains than Midwest! -farmers, still using draft animals (1880s-90s)

what caused the Dust Bowl? (Worster)

-MAN MADE!!! poor dryland practices, wind erosion of natural vegetation stripped (mass farming and profit driven).. rural land NEGLECT! "it will never fail us" mentality and blind optimism ("A failure in ecological adaptation - as an absence of of environmental realism") -"the ultimate meaning of the dust storms in the 1930s was that America as a whole, not just the plains, was badly out of balance with its natural environment. Unbounded optimism about the future, careless disregard of nature's limits and uncertainties, uncritical faith in Providence, devotion to self-aggrandizement- all these were national as well as regional characteristics" (43)

working conditions ("The Fruits of Mexico's Cheap Labor")

-NAFTA not improving working conditions, companies lying about improving wages, etc -workers sometimes living inside the fields, obliged to work there by owners in poor living conditions (and many workers not speaking Spanish so not understanding what they sign up for) -farms often in distant locations so workers can't buy from any other retailer other than the one on the farm -pay often withheld until after harvest is over -bathing in canal, filled with pesticides -"the vegetables are treated better than them" -farmworker families renting rooms in town and often locking kids inside all day!

global obesity and overweight rates (Skim)

-Obesity and overweight on the rise: 4 million deaths globally -Obesity rates up in countries where moderate food insecurity is also up!

pesticide origins (Romero)

-WWI= first time chemicals being used in human warfare, but pest warfare BEFORE it! -1886: cyanide fumigation discovered! tree tenting and gassing (response to pest problem with expansion of citrus monocropping in So Cal/"citrus belt", also foreign pests/pathogens traveling with expansion of transportation an communication networks, ex. white, red, and black scale.) --> development of fumigation apparatuses for faster/more efficient deployment -growth of private fumigation companies, practice expanding into 20th C to all satellite citrus regions in CA (more trees planted--> infection becoming more systemic--> need for more and more fertilizers, AKA PESTICIDE TREADMILL!!!) -economies of scale inc and cost of fumigation/tree dec (citrus cooperatives, buying chemical inputs in bulk etc)

removal of native vegetation, species, and people

-also killing off prairie dogs and buffalo! (mass exterminations by farmers etc into later 1800s, early 1900s who didn't want them on their land) -land/veg being torn up! by 1930s, 1/3 of Dust Bowl region was "naked, un-grassed, and vulnerable to the winds" (Worster 93) -replacing native grasses with wheat! not as suited to climate, removing well adapted species -genocide of Native Americans

"History of World Ag" (Mazoyer and Roudart) Selection 5

-animal and crop production: fixed capital inc, lots of input costs (better animal feed, selection, etc) and inc risk of animal disease/crop losses (need ALL the profits)--> pesticides, herbisides and vaccines, antibiotics livestock surgery etc -localization of processing units -vertical (upstream, ind of means of production, and downstream, processing etc) and horizontal (regional agrarian systems, complementary and independent) -ag relieved by a lot of tasks it once had to do!!! (other people designing means of production, tech, training and education, etc) while farming executing

diet changes as income increases (Smil)

-as countries get richer, more consumption in animal foods, as well as in sugar and sodium -legumes and carb staples decrease --> inc in diet related disease (ex. obesity, diabetes, cancer, heart disease) and enhanced with inc sedentism

plague of cheap corn (Pollan)

-cheap corn--> livestock raised on feed lots (OFF the farm!), as corn prices keep falling, more corn being planted to compensate -"CORN IS KING!!" (no animals, people (bigger farms and less farmers, low prices and inc mechanization putting farmers out of biz), or native plants anymore.. just corn!) -price of a bushel of corn is $1 beneath the true cost of growing it... so why keep doing it? SUBSIDIES!!! farmers caught in investment of growing corn and soy because that's what the market is demanding and what the govt pays for too! -corn "exempted from the usual rules of nature and economics" (56)... not exhausting or being checked by other species and/or supply and demand/prices falling etc!

"Climate Change and Agriculture: A Perfect Storm in Farm Country" (Union of Concerned Scientists on Climate Change)

-combo of climate change and vulnerable ind system= "perfect storm" for threat to farmers and food supply -climate change trends: intense periods of heavy rain and longer dry periods, extreme heat and more floods/droughts -more dangerous working conditions with inc heat -crop losses and farmer poverty inc -water supply depletion and pollution -inc food prices and food insecurity

domestic animal selection (Mayozer and Roudart)

-concentrated fed (highly nutritional)--> domestic animals and diets increased, also selecting breeds capable of this diet consumption and generate profitable returns -adapting to mechanization (ex. cow teats and sizes to milk machine!)

gold mining and pesticides (Romero)

-cyanide ability to separate gold from ore, maximizing mining outputs--> industrial mining growing alongside "chemicalized nature of second industrial revolution", also boosted agriculture! (bringing chemical input demand that was also used for pest control/intensification of citrus production) -mining (geological crisis) and ag/citrus (ecological crisis)--> industrial cyanide CRITICAL for intensification of BOTH -mining was what brought potassium cyanide to So Cal markets!

journaleros ("The Fruits of Mexico's Cheap Labor")

-day laborers, cannot afford own land, migrate to Sinaloa and also to Baja, some get to the U.S. -day labor goes to "highest bidder", whole families going to work (moms with babies even), which is normalized! nowhere else to leave their kids, always been done this way -laws in Mex ban children under 15 to work, but when authorities come, kids are hidden! (and smaller farms more successfully evading these rules because not inspected as much)

threshold of capitalization (Mayozer and Roudart)

-distribution of development UNEVEN! (farms that continued to invest/ advance had to be equipped and large/productive enough to have income/worker > market price of unskilled labor ("threshold of capitalization/renewal") -worker output > cost of reproducing that worker!!! otherwise, crisis! (Pnt aka net productivity > R aka market price of labor) -some farms being pushed out! especially as ag production increase and prices decrease while wages increase (threshold of renewal has increased with time)

problems/dangers with population bomb framing and hunger crisis

-doesn't address food distribution or waste, assumes we don't produce enough food already which is false -grain and energy--> livestock that could be used to feed people -could lead to a push for even more production without addressing distributional effects (which could worsen the already apparent discrepancies, as well as lead to inc resource and land use to worsen climate change) -also narrative of food insecurity being "other people" in LDCs needing food access, when a large % of the people who are food insecure are those that PROVIDE the food (poor farmers, etc)... and lots of food insecure people in wealthy countries!

scale of 2nd modern ag rev

-dwarfs anything before it!!! 1st modern ag rev doubles productivity and early mechanization doubled as well... but 2nd modern ag rev not just about doubling anymore! tenfold/hundredfold increases!!!

fertilizer development (Mayozer and Roudart)

-explosion post WWII, element extraction (ex. Peru guano, Chile nitrates) -increasing cereal yields! (same with seeds)

Dust Bowl as a crisis of culture (Worster)

-farmers not stupid/ not the first to overrun limits... more of the fault went to CULTURE! -man "confident that he is a sovereign creature, independent of the restraints that plague other species- not controlled as they are, but in control".. separation from nature and impact, shift from traditional sense of dependence on nature (ex. Native Ams) to an independence from it/free will -capitalist ethos! replaced attachment to the earth (subsistence to one for cash and wealth, no values of restraint or restoration JUST MORE!)

New Deal and Dust Bowl (Worster)

-federal $ as hope -some rural aversion to asking for help -drought relief, cattlemen provisions, emergency "listing" -still didn't address the deep rooted issue (no commercial farming reform/not altering the economic culture)

impacts to fisheries

-fish cannot thermo-regulate (warmer water--> higher metabolic rates, demanding more food and oxygen) -accelerates growth rates (provided food and oxygen are available) -results in SMALLER body sizes and shorter lifespans -warmer water holds LESS oxygen, algal blooms and dead zones -thermal stratification (separation of water layers by temp) increases as surface water warms--> less mixing, lower surface water nutrients, less food -higher temps--> growth inc of parasites and microbes -coral bleaching -fish provide >20% of protein for >2.6B people globally (and greater dependency in poorer regions)

regional formation (Mazoyer and Roudart)

-flat, good soil --> grain -hilly, wet, poorer soil--> livestock -wine regions -warm, light soil--> fruit, veg, flowers (preservation methods inc and delocalization) -but still cases of diversification!

global food insecurity solutions (Skim)

-food security and nutrition safeguards in economic and social policies to counteract economic crises (ex. health and education, social safety nets, etc) -tackle inequalities at all levels (ex. land, water, $, education, health, capital assets, etc) -short (protect incomes and strengthen saving) and long term (build stronger mechanisms for crises, invest to reduce vulnerability, health and social system, diversify economy, etc) responses! *not just about economic growth as the answer!!!

"Food Security: Executive Summary" (IPCC)

-food supply/capita inc 30% since 1961, also nitrogen fertilizer inc 800% and water resource use inc by 100% for irrigation -GHGs from ag due to "pull" from demand side, need for better production and supply chain practices, as well as demand changes! -climate change and negative impacts of four food security pillars (availability with dec supply, access dec with higher food prices, utilization aka nutrition dec, stability dec with extreme events)

"Stuffed and Starved" (Raj Patel)

-global hunger and obesity as "symptoms of the same problem" (linked by chain of production controlled by major corporations, NOT a caloric issue, but a distributional one!!!)... people are both "stuffed and starved", often at the same time and in the same place, and profits accruing to the few architects of the whole system! -U.S. (2005) and 35.1mil people not knowing where to get next meal but also more diet related diseases like obesity/diabetes than ever! -food system is a "compromise between different demands and anxieties, of corporations pushing for higher profit in food, of governments concerned with social unrest or drubbing at the polls, and of urban consumers" (15)

UN 2018 report (IPCC)

-global undernourishment increase (821 million, was 815 in 2017 and 784 in 2016) -⅓ people globally suffer from "hidden hunger" (ex. Iron, iodine, vitamin A, zinc deficiencies) -Obesity stagnating in high-income countries after rising and now beginning to rise in LDCs, Asia, etc with correlations in rise in heart disease, dementia, diabetes, etc -Poverty reducing access to nutritious diets (food insecurity and obesity are RELATED) **In total, more than half the world population are underweight or overweight!!!

social impacts of hybridization

-growth of seed companies -more reliant on access to capital ($ for inputs, sink or swim) -greater consolidation (larger farms) -more production--> cheaper prices (consumer access inc) *are the farmers still capitalists? or are the true capitalists the companies now selling the inputs to the farmers? transition of power/control!!! where's the $ at!

what to do with ag in face of climate change? (UCSCC)

-help farming communities (shelter for housing, food, investment in local infrastructure like transportation, water sanitation, communication, etc) -farm resilience inc (rebuild soils with cover crops, redesign for diversity without chemical dependence, new crop and livestock varieties to adapt) -address the ROOT! bring down emissions, and ag is a huge part of that!!! -policies: invest in public research (agroecology), conservation programs, safety nets (crop insurance farmer healthcare, disaster relief), NET ZERO EMISSIONS GOAL!!! rejoin Paris Agreement for starters!

why hybridization? effects? (Kloppenburg)

-hybrid corn and yield increase (esp by 1930s with commercial availability) -open-pollinated varieties--> hybridization (cross pollinating different inbred varieties)--> seed use-value turning to EXCHANGE value! (new seeds bought each year... HYBRIDS ARE A TAX ON FARM POPULATION!!!) -seed saving and yield reduction making it less profitable for the market--> greater profit possibility for hybrids!!! also, less variable so more suited for mechanization (which is also why hybridization is pursued even in crops that are autogamous, or self-pollinating, which are most crops other than corn!) --also harder for hand-cultivation! boosted mechanization, so richer farmers were the ones who could keep up! TECH TREADMILL! labor displacing -fertilizer increase and hybrids to incorporate higher fertility levels -also boosting livestock industry with feed increase! -farm consolidation and scale/tech--> specialization--> monocropping--> more pests/pesticides, dec biodiversity and fertility, etc

illusion of consumer choice (Patel)

-illusion of "choice" (ex. apple varieties because "pretty" and can travel large distances, respond well to pesticides, etc vs native forgotten varieties) -consumers blinded by "narrow abundance of the aisles, the apparently low prices... and the almost consistent availability of foods" (8) -corporate alibi= consumers ("consumer freedom" for cheap food and "choices")

"The Fruits of Mexico's Cheap Labor" video

-in Mex: $7-10/day (vs. in U.S., hopefully $7/hr) -Sinaloa state= "breadbasket of Mexico" (feeds most of Mexico but also exports 1/2 of its produce to the U.S.), ag workers in "modern day slavery", known for drug cartels ("people grow pot and poppy because agriculture pays so badly") -"change will come from the farmworkers themselves", not institutions -supermarkets and intermediaries reaping all profits from this labor!!!

role of country income level/inequality rates and food security (Skim)

-in poorer countries, food-insecure households have a lower likelihood of obesity vs in richer countries, food-insecure households have a higher likelihood of obesity -Depressed economy worsens poverty and inequality, but not always the case that economic growth helps reduce poverty and inequality, improve food security and nutrition... and food security and nutrition do not always move in tandem!!! -Income inequality increasing in nearly half of the countries globally -Severe food insecurity 3x higher in countries with high income inequality than those with low income inequality

The Harvest/ La Cosecha trailer

-in some countries, kids less than 12 years old pick crops and work 14 hrs/day, 7 days/wk (including America! and many consumers have no clue) -no protections (kids can't work in McDonald's but can work in the fields all day long! messed up) -kids working to help families get by, but making $60/wk or less.. working for pennies for such hard and dangerous work! -pesticides and health effects, developmental risks

"Commercializing chemical warfare: citrus, cyanide, and an endless war" (Romero)

-industrial pest control and chemical warfare (dev first cyanide gas chamber, tech and science efforts to "control ag and military enemies") coevolving! -with falling prices and increased global demand, cyanide fumigation becoming NECESSARY AND ORDINARY! modern dependence!!! -pesticides weren't necessary for U.S. food production sufficiency, but necessary for the production of goods and services ("critical NOT to the survival of the population but to the survival of a particular form of political economy")

impacts of MVs in GR (Evenson and Gollin)

-irrigated areas/rainfed lowlands vs slower diffusion of them in less favorable enviro's -without international research--> higher yields in DCs and 19.5-23.5% lower yields in LDCs (lower LDC prod--> inc prices by 35-66%--> DC intensification), also caloric intake in LDCs would've been 13.3-14.4% lower -making LDCs less dependent on imports -consumers benefitting from lower food prices and farmers benefitting from inc prod (when prod > prices) -BUT some farmers not capturing benefits and only feeling costs of lower prices... so # of farmers dec, reliance on new tech inc, urbanization, etc ***people who are stuck behind are facing HUGE economic pressures because competing with DC farmers with much higher access to inputs/assets etc!!!

shift in power (Patel)

-lack of farmer CHOICE! (need to grow what crops the market demands or else bankrupt!) -at same time, inc power of corporations and govts (deciding "safety" of pesticides, sourcing, who pays and what to pay, processing tech, additives, energy supply, cost of food, marketing, range of items, etc) -corporations prioritizing profit > nutrition (sugar content WAY exceeding recommendations, cheaper processing with more addictive sugar--> $$$$)

why did pesticides emerge when they did?

-larger production (no longer need local prod, goods for market bc of transportation etc) -more consolidated land, fewer farmers working on more land and no longer a PATCHWORK! which would better mitigate pests -focusing on single crop for market (specialization) -->MONOCULTURES!!! (increasingly larger tracks of land, single crops!!!--> pests--> pesticide demand increase!) -also role of war etc

farmer mechanization (Worster)

-machinery like tractors, one way disk plow, combine... expansion of ag at a much larger scale/ suited for Great Plains because large, flat, and largely unoccupied land!!! ("frontier"!!!) -machinery--> "land became nothing more than a farm of capital that must be made to pay as much as possible" 93) -transportation, telecommunication, delocalized markets, etc -WWI and destructive aftermath, but during war LUCRATIVE for farmers! demand for ag goods in Europe so prices went up, machinery and greater economies of scale, great time to be an american farmer

bottleneck corporations (Patel)

-manufacturers, supermarkets, and corporations having the most POWER!!! size, industry -capturing profits! by the time products get to consumers, prices are way higher than the $ captures on the farmer/producer end -poor farmers left with little choice but to comply with the rules and regs given from other side because of the power of major corporations and market control! -ALL CONNECTED! retail, seeds, agrochemicals, food processing... then theres' weight loss, pharma, food aid, oil, etc.. list is endless!!)

how contradictions of modern, ind, capitalist ag leads to partial solutions and more issues

-metabolic rift, separation of animals from farms--> chemical fertilizers--> waste problems, also more need for $$ and greater reliance on ag companies (creating greater dependence over time) -farmer with low prices (either sell farm or become a worker, OR just grow more food to compensate)--> grow more food through tech innovation (but, continually increasing supply and prices keep falling, tech treadmill and farm consolidation)--> inc tech innovation, consolidates farms and kicks out more farmers

ag industry amplifiers to climate change risks (UCSCC)

-monocultures and soil degradation (leaving soil bare, synthetic fertilizer reliance, overplowing, etc) --> inc erosion vulnerability, lack of water retention etc -farm treated as "crop factory" > "managed ecosystem" --> minimal biodiversity and risk inc -mass inputs, chemicals and pollution inc

"First the seed: the political economy of plant biotechnology, 1492-2000" (Kloppenburg 1988): the genetic foundation of American agriculture

-need for exotic plant introduction into Am--> ag societies/orgs and elite positions in obtaining germplasm from consuls worldwide -U.S. Patent office and germplasm (public commitment to ag research and seed collection, expeditions in 1800s) --Sec of Treasury William L Crawford and request of foreign consuls to send seeds etc --program to distribute seeds widely across U.S. (mass seed shipping to farmers, who would seed save and adapt them etc) -gentlemen farmers (pushed for instutionalized ag education and research) vs common farmers (wary of increased govt intervention and costly ag colleges when they already had the knowledge)

cultivated plant selection (Mayozer and Roudart)

-needed productive plant varieties that could absorb the growing quantities of fertilizers, make use profitable! -prices and input costs affecting profitability -pest resistance and pesticides

slack in the system (Smil)

-opportunities to improve exist! -fertilizer inefficiencies (ex nitrogen leaking) improved with green manure, weed control, less tillage, etc -water inefficiencies improved by changing irrigation methods (ex. to drip, sprinklers, lateral lines, center pivots from mass flooding and furrows), also optimize timing, water-efficient crop varieties, conservation, etc -feed inefficiencies improved by better use of organic waste, harvesting/processing of feed, better quality feed, animal breeding/management etc *farmland availability, water and plant nutrient supplies, photosynthetic efficiency etc will NOT pose early/unmanageable restrictions to good production... it's about management and inefficiencies in the system!!!!

Uganda coffee example (Patel)

-prices used to be higher and coffee farmers "slept without worries", but over time, price/kilo dropping dramatically -can't just "grow something else" (land unsuited, limited access to other options, etc), so it's either leave or keep growing coffee (--> trying to compensate by growing even MORE coffee but just hurting themselves and the land more) -growers--> middlemen--> mill for processing (and such small profit margins with high processing/energy costs, but can't do anything with mill except process coffee)--> bagged and exported (often cheaper to destroy the bags than transport them)--> coffee processing facility like Nestle in W. London, it will cost $1.64/kilo BUT on the other side the price will GO UP TO $26.40/kilo!!!! (200X COST OF A KILO IN UGANDA!) *brand brand brand and market dominance to "buy cheap, sell dear" (10), Nestle squeezing growers, millers, exporters and importers DRY! and if Uganda didn't work out, can find suppliers elsewhere! rural LDC farmers competing against one another for scraps while the MNCs take all the gains!

commodity dependence (Skim)

-primary products and price volatility, inc vulnerability of countries -LDCs = primary product exports and reliance on imports, less power in terms of trade with declining prices, also experience higher food insecurity and malnourishment -falling prices--> economy dec, unemployment inc, also threatens social security programs and development plans! (health and education spending dec) -depreciation of currencies in LDCs and difficulty of buying food domestically (more expensive comparatively)

public vs private research (Kloppenburg)

-public research agencies, market for hybrid corn growing and seed companies inc--> public researchers getting hired by private sector -tension! public varieties and problem or private industry, state as a barrier -private corn breeders arguing public funds are wasteful when blocking private effort/better for basic research--> capital assuming control over shape of commodity form--> control upstream state-subsidized research (farmers losing autonomy, corporate consolidation, public research withdrawing)

ecological ramifications of GR

-reduced crop and soil biodiversity due to monocultures, lack of rotations, and landscape scale homogeneity -inc pest and disease risk--> pesticides and herbicides -contamination of air, soil, food, water from run off, drift, etc -CO2 emissions from crop prod and ag inputs

population improvement vs hybridization (Kloppenburg)

-same success of hybrids could've been achieved with population improvement in open-pollinated varieties, but not commercially useful (subordination of population improvement wasn't scientific, but rather about political economy and PROFIT!) -hybrids "economically sterile" (loses desirable traits in subsequent generations, highest quality in first generation--> necessary to go back each year to the original combo--> purchase seeds each year > seed saving

effects of global warming on ag

-significant decreases in yield predicted over time -certain parts of the world more affected than others (esp significant in Africa and parts of Asia, with losses up to 30%) -different aspects of ag affected in dif ways -overall consensus that it will negatively impact ag! -worst scenario: some areas experience 8 degree C warming and 90% declines in precipitation by 2080 -increase in extreme events and uncertainty, variability in production and thus in price!!! -"the world, for the most part, appears to be able to continue to feed itself under the SRES scenarios during the rest of this century. However, this outcome is achieved through production in the developed countries (which mostly benefit from climate change) compensating for declines projected, for the most part, for developing nations." (Parry 2004)

why is it that the world's hungriest are those who live in rural, ag enviros?

-they are farmers competing in a food system where they are unable to successfully compete!!! -a lot of crops are commodity crops/not edible (corn and soy for livestock etc), also prices decreasing and not making enough $ to even pay for their own food -LDCs and rural poor need to grow food for living but confronted with other farmers with better capital endowments (greater tech investment and global farmer competition!!!) *pushing farmers out, fleeing to urban areas/cities! can't afford to be farmers anymore.. but what happens if no jobs in the cities? refugees, migration, etc...

causes of specialization (Mayozer and Roudart)

-transportation--> need for self supply dec--> specialization -tractor and not needing to grow fodder crops because no draft animals -pesticides and no need for crop rotation etc

1st ag rev/technology into 2nd major ag rev

-types of tech being used as late as the 1800s was not that differnt from those being used in medieval times! (horse, plow, etc) -during first ag rev, there were changes in how ag was produced (relation to tech under changing social pressures), but not necessarily new, big tech changing everything! -ex. winnowing, peasant removing kernel from chaff by hand as late as the 1800s--> machine/belt to pull kernel

"Feeding the World" (Smil)

-vast discrepancies in consumption globally (N Am per capita food supply, 40% of which gets wasted, would be unsustainable as a global norm) -WE HAVE ENOUGH FOOD TO FEED 10B PPL!!! it's about distribution and inefficiency that causes hunger -av food consumption/capita is between 2000-2300 calories/day BUT daily/capita food supply in wealthy countries is 3500 calories/day!!! (HUGE GAP in availability and consumption! and lots of waste) *MANTRA= "our response to higher demand should not be primarily the quest for higher supply through increased inputs, but rather the pursuit of higher efficiency"

policy recommendations for food retail (Saru)

-wages inc for food retail workers -reduce incentives for employers to cut wages/benefits (ex. require them to pay appropriate penalties for those on publicly assisted health care etc) -public organizing among food workers and govt support (ex. Cal Fresh fund and loans, tax breaks and support for stores with good practices) -minimum hours/wk legislation -job training program support -violation protections -7-9 job protected sick days/yr as a statewide standard -govt support and study of food retail discrimination to enhance dialogue

agriculture and global warming

1. changing relationship to food allows the industrialized world (global warming WOULDN'T have happened if these industrial transformations we have seen were unsuccessful!) 2. ag directly affects GHG emissions!!!

Naylor Curve (Pollan)

boosted yields--> falling farm prices--> farmers forced to increase production (racing to sell more corn to compensate for prices dec, but this inc in supply just makes prices fall faster! a TRAP!) -free market doesn't work for ag- cheap food doesn't make people buy more of it, and expensive doesn't mean eat less... food is food!

Atrazine

most widely used herbicide in US on corn and cereal grains, as well as golf courses, sugar cane, and Christmas trees. Endocrine disruptor. Found in rain and surface waters nearly everywhere in the US at levels that could cause abnormal development in frogs (prof Tyrone Hayes, male frogs losing fertility, growing ovaries, etc and being discredited by Syngenta after these findings)

suitcase farmers (Worster)

not having to live on land anymore... can drive machinery to another county or state and go back and forth, urban wheat speculators who put seed--> went back to work and wait to see prices/grain futures -inc teleconnection opportunity for dif relationship to farming (investment > living there, tending to the land)

do seeds themselves improve yield?

not just the seeds, but accommodating mechanization and increased fertilizer use! change plant genetics to benefit from fertilizer use, INCREASE DENSITY (pump out more plants) *FERTILIZERS ARE FUNDAMENTAL!!!! -reduction of non-productive parts of plant (ex. modern wheat having bigger kernels and shorter stalks)