Gilded Age Test Review

Disenfranchisement and anti-black violence

"Pitchfork" Ben Tillman, a Democrat, used his Southern Alliance influence to become governor of South Carolina and dominate the Democratic party in that state. Tillman succeeded in disenfranchising blacks in the state constitution. 2. Widespread southern fears of blacks in Farmers' Alliances led to a major push for disenfranchisement in the 1890s and Jim Crow laws. Following South Carolina's lead, southern states limited black suffrage in their state constitutions. 3. Voting restrictions were essentially a ruling-class campaign against lower-class voters in general, not just African Americans. Deliberate attempt by the New South's elite, who were threatened by the Populists, to destroy party opposition and widespread political participation. 4. In the 1890s white southern hatred toward blacks became almost genocidal; a huge increase in the number of lynchings resulted.

African-Americans in the West

1. 18% of the California population by 1890 2. Many were involved in the fur trade in 1820s and 1840s. 3. Over 500,000 lived west of Mississippi; many came west as slaves. 4. After 1877, about 200,000 blacks moved West, many began homesteading in Kansas or Oklahoma—the "exodusters" 5. As many as 1 in 4 cowboys were black.

Farming Results

1. About 500,000 pioneer families migrated west (20,000 by 1865). Yet, five times as many families purchased lands from railroads, land companies, or states, instead of under the Homestead Act. 2. Thousands of homesteaders, maybe 2/3, were forced to give up in the face of inadequate 160 acre plots and drought, hail, and ravage from insects. 3. Ten times more of the public domain belonged to promoters, not farmers. Corporations used "dummy" homesteaders to grab the best properties containing lumber, minerals, and oil. 4. The federal trend of "free land" lasted until 1934.

C. The 1890 census revealed that for the first time in U.S. history, a frontier line was no longer discernible.

1. All unsettled areas were now broken by isolated bodies of settlement. 2. Yet, more millions of acres were taken up after 1890 than between 1862 and 1890. 3. Once the frontier was gone, farmers could not move west in significant numbers. They had to stay and fight to improve their situation by organizing for political purposes.

Significance of mining

1. Attracted population and wealth to the "Wild West" 2. Helped finance the Civil War 3. Facilitated the building of railroads 4. Intensified conflict between whites and Amerindians 5. Enabled the U.S. gov't to resume specie payments in 1879 6. Introduced the silver issue into American politics 7. Added to American folklore and literature (e.g. Bret Harte and Mark Twain)

C. Development of the "Great American Desert"

1. Black prairie sod (e.g. Kansas) could now be developed with special plows. Rich land shattered the myth of the "Great American Desert." 2. Railroads played a role in taming the West. a. Profitable marketing of crops b. Induced Americans and European immigrants to buy cheap lands 3. Improved irrigation techniques helped deserts to bloom (e.g. Mormons in Utah) 4. Tough strains of wheat resistant to cold were imported from Russia. 5. Flour-milling process by John Pillsbury of Minneapolis, increased grain demand. 6. Barbed-wire gave farmers more protection against trespassing cattle.

C. Result of Indian Wars

1. By 1890, effectively all North American tribes were on reservations. a. The U.S. gov't felt it was cheaper to feed Indians than to fight them. b. Yet, many reservations were grossly ignored by the U.S. gov't. 2. Killing of buffalo resulted in the Plains Amerindians being subdued a. Buffalo had been used by Amerindians for food, clothing, shelter, tools, and religious icons. b. Originally about 50 million buffalo roamed the plains; reduced to 15 million in 1868 and less than 1,000 by 1885 c. Much of the food supply during railroad construction came from bison while U.S. Army and agents of the BIA also encouraged bison slaughter. 3. Railroads transported troops, farmers, cattlemen, sheepherders, and settlers Railroads also encouraged killing of buffalo as they sometimes would disrupt rail lines for days. o They hired hunters such as "Buffalo" Bill Cody. 4. White diseases ravaged Native Americans, as did alcohol.

Results of Industrialization

1. By 1900, southern manufacturing remained at just 10% of the national level (same as 1860). 2. Per capita income in the South was 60% of the national average 3. Average income in the South was only 40% of income in the North. 4. Sharecropping still dominated southern agriculture by 1900 (black and white tenant farmers accounted for 70% of southern farmers). 5. The South was still largely dependent on the North for banking resources and manufactured goods.

Railroad consolidation and corruption

1. Cornelius Vanderbilt (1794-1877) a. Popularized steel rails; he replaced the old iron tracks of the New York Central Railroad. Steel was safer and more economical since it could carry a heavier load. b. The "Commodore" had a near-monopoly of railroad traffic in the eastern U.S. c. He amassed a fortune of $100 million dollars. d. His monopolistic practices and considerable political influence led critics to call him a "robber baron"

Supreme Court decisions

1. Depression in the 1870s spurred farmers to complain about being forced into bankruptcy by unfair railroad policies. They organized agrarian groups such as the Grange (Patrons of Husbandry) that pressured many Midwestern legislatures to regulate the railroads. 2. Slaughterhouse Cases, 1873 - molded Court's interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment for decades. a. Court ruled protection of "labor" was not a federal responsibility under the Fourteenth Amendment but a state responsibility. b. Significance: Protected businesses from federal regulation if they engaged only in intrastate commerce (within a state).

Pike's Peak, Colorado

1. Gold was discovered in modern-day Colorado Springs in 1858 and thousands of prospectors rushed West. 2. Though only a few of the 100,000 "59-ers" profited, thousands stayed in the region to mine silver, or farm grain.

Challenges to the "long drive"

1. Homesteaders built barbed-wire fences that were too numerous to be cut down by the Cowboys. Barbed wire was invented by Joseph Glidden (1874) who made a fortune selling it (he produced about 600 miles per day). 2. Terrible winter of 1885-86 & 1886-1887 followed by scorching summer killed thousands of steer. 3. Overgrazing and overexpansion also took their toll. 4. Ranchers built heartier stock and fenced them into controlled lands where they could feed and water them to keep them healthy.

The "Long Drive"

1. Mexican ranchers had developed ranching techniques later used by Texans, then by Great Plains cattlemen and cowboys. Spanish words: rodeo, bronco, lasso 2. Texas cowboys included former Confederate soldiers, northern whites, blacks, and Mexicans. 3. Cowboys drove herds through the plains until they reached a railroad terminal (e.g. Abilene and Dodge City in Kansas, Ogallala in Nebraska, and Cheyenne in Wyoming).

D. By 1890, the entire area had been carved into states except for four territories.

1. Pioneers poured into the vast area in one of the most rapid settlements of such a vast area in all human history. 2. Expansion was spurred by the Homestead Act of 1862 and the transcontinental railroad E. Amerindians stood in the way of expansion on two fronts: westward from the trans-Mississippi East and eastward from the Pacific Coast.

D. Latino resistance to white ranching in the Southwest

1. Poor Mexican-American ranchers (Mexicanos) resisted the fencing in of lands in places such as New Mexico and Las Vegas as large landowners sought to take control of open lands, some of which remained public. a. In 1890, a secret organization called the White Caps (Los Gorras Blancas) destroyed fences in San Miguel County, New Mexico. b. Federal troops were called in to protect the fences. c. In response Mexican-American ranchers began running for office and controlled the balance of power between both the Republican and Democratic parties. 2. In Texas, the Anglo community dominated the older Latino communities through authorities such as the Texas Rangers.

National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry: The Grange organized in 1867

1. Provided farmers with social and educational activities (picnics, music, lectures) a. The initial purpose of the Grange was to help reduce the isolation many farmers felt in sparsely-populated areas. b. By 1875, the Grange had about 800,000 members, mostly in the Midwest and South. 2. Eventually, the Grange established cooperatives for both consumers and producers. a. Grain elevators (to store excess grain), dairies to store and process products, cooperative stores to purchase supplies (such as seed, plows, fertilizer, etc.)

B. Towns sprang up along railroad routes

1. Railroads were given land by the U.S. government in alternating squares miles, 10 miles-wide on each side of the railroad track in a checkerboard pattern. 2. Railroads sold much of this land to settlers. 3. More people bought land from the railroads than received land from the Homestead Act.

McKinley Tariff Bill (1890)

1. Republicans' reward for supporting the Sherman Silver Purchase Act 2. Raised tariffs to the highest peacetime level in U.S. history: 48% 3. Republicans lost the 1890 mid-term elections for Congress. a. The new Congress included 9 members of the Farmers' Alliances. b. The tariff issue was replaced by the silver issue as the main issue in 1890s.

D. Significance of America's railroad network

1. Spurred the industrialization of the post-Civil War years (especially steel) 2. The continent became united physically. 3. Created huge domestic market for US raw materials and manufactured goods. Perhaps the largest integrated market in the world. 4. Stimulated creation of 3 Western frontiers: mining, agriculture, and ranching 5. Led to great exodus to cities from rural areas in late 19th century Railways could feed huge cities; supply raw materials & markets 6. Facilitated large influx of immigrants. Railroads advertised in Europe free travel to new farms in the American West. 7. Spurred investment from abroad 8. Creation of distinct "time zones" from coast to coast. 9. Maker of millionaires; a new railroad aristocracy emerged 10. Native Americans were displaced and herded into ever-shrinking reservations.

"Safety valve" theory

1. Supposedly, during depressions, unemployed city-dwellers moved west to farm and prosper. 2. In reality, few urbanites in eastern centers migrated to the frontier during depressions. a. They did not know how to farm or could not raise necessary funds for transportation, livestock, and machinery. b. Most settlers who moved west came from farms on the older frontier. c. In fact, near century's end, many farmers moved to the city. 3. Free acreage did lure immigrant farmers who would otherwise have lived in overcrowded eastern slums. 4. The frontier did lure restless and adventurous spirits, mostly young men, who wanted to achieve the "American Dream" 5. The frontier did have a psychological impact on easterners who could, if they desired, flee to the frontier. May have had an impact in wage increases for eastern workers.

Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890 (system of bimetallism)

1. The Treasury would approximately double the minimum amount of silver purchased under the Bland-Allison Act of 1873. 2. Western pro-silver advocates agreed to support a protective tariff in return for eastern support for a silver bill. a. Mining states hated the "woefully limited" silver purchasing under the Bland-Allison Act. b. Easterners were eager to increase tariffs and increase profits but were concerned about inflation through increased silver purchases. c. Result: Not enough silver flooded the monetary system; thus, inflation did not occur significantly.

Oklahoma Land Rush, April 22, 1889

1. U.S. made available to settlers vast stretches of land formerly occupied by the Creeks and Seminoles in the district of Oklahoma. 2. Nearly 100, 000 "boomers" or "eighty-niners" poured in from the Oklahoma border. a. By day's end, nearly 2 million acres had been settled. b. "Sooners" were land-grabbers who claimed land illegally before the land rush began. 3. By year's end, Oklahoma had 60,000 inhabitants and Congress made it a territory. 4. In 1907, it became "the Sooner State."

Impact of the Second Industrial Revolution on America

A. Standard of living rose sharply and remained the highest in the world B. Urban centers mushroomed as factories increasingly demanded more labor. C. U.S. agriculture was eclipsed by industrialism: railroads, steel, oil, electricity D. Free-enterprise was eclipsed by monopoly. E. The work-place became regimented and impersonal. F. Women achieved social and economic independence in new careers as typing, stenography, and switchboard operating . Marriages delayed, smaller families resulted G. Social stratification was the most pronounced in U.S. history. 1. By 1900, about 10% controlled 90% of the nation's wealth. 2. Lower classes envious and resentful of the nouveau riche H. Foreign trade developed as high U.S. productivity resulted in overproduction.

VIII. Large-Scale Farming and the Mechanization of Agriculture

A. The Mississippi region experienced an agricultural revolution after the Civil War.

Ranching (second of the three frontiers)

A. The transcontinental railroad facilitated transportation of meat to cities. 1. Cattle were now driven to stockyards (e.g. Kansas City and Chicago). 2. Beef tycoons like the Swift's and Armour's emerged. 3. Refrigerator cars allowed transportation of fresh meat from western stockyards to the East.

Election of 1892

Democrats nominated Grover Cleveland (who had been president four years earlier) He was now more conservative than during his first term (1885-1889) as his law practice represented wealthy businessmen. Republicans renominated President Benjamin Harrison (1889-1893) who championed a new protective tariff. People's party (Populists) nominated General James B. Weaver 1. Delegates from Farmers Alliances, Knights of Labor, Nationalists (Bellamy Clubs) and Land and Labor parties met in Omaha, Nebraska.

3. Large-scale commercial agriculture run by entrepreneurial capitalists of the New South, spread beyond the plantations into white small farming regions.

For farmers, the post-war era represented one of most wrenching changes in American history.

Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA)

Government agency that manages and finances many of the schools on Native American Reservations.

Election of 1892 Results

Grover Cleveland defeated Harrison 277-145 Cleveland became the only president in U.S. history to serve two non-consecutive terms

6. Other Transcontinental lines

a. No subsequent railroad lines received gov't loans but all received generous land grants. b. The Northern Pacific Railroad completed in 1883 (Lake Superior to Seattle) c. Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad was completed in 1884. Connected those cities through the southwestern deserts to California. d. Southern Pacific Railroad: New Orleans to San Francisco via Los Angeles (1884) e. Great Northern Railroad: Duluth, Minnesota to Seattle; completed in 1893 James G. Hill probably was the greatest of all railroad builders. o Believed the prosperity of railroad was based on the prosperity of the area it served. o He ran agricultural demonstration trains along his lines and imported bulls from England that he distributed to farmers.

boomtowns

a town undergoing rapid growth due to sudden prosperity.

4. Eventually railroad barons ruled as an oligarchy instead of cut-throat competition.

a. "Pools" Formed defensive alliances to protect their profits from newer competitors Competing firms agreed to divide the market, establish comparable prices, place profits in a common fund, and pro-rate profits.

3. Railroad tycoons became America's most powerful people

a. Bribed judges and legislatures, employed effective lobbyists, and elected their own men to office. b. Gave free passes to journalists and politicians. c. Cornelius Vanderbilt: "Law! What do I care about the Law? Hain't I got the power?" He squashed his opponents economically rather than sue them legally.

Nez Perce (located in Idaho)

a. Chief Joseph was a noble and humane leader, who had earlier helped white settlers and explorers. b. Nez Perce ceded much land to the U.S. in 1855 in return for a large reservation in Oregon and Idaho. Later, the Nez Perce were forced to cede even more land after gold was discovered. c. In 1877, the U.S. gov't ordered the removal of the Nez Perce from the Wallowa Valley in Oregon by agreement or by force. d. War ensued and the Nez Perce won several battles before fleeing. e. The Nez Perce undertook a 75-day, 1,500 mile retreat to Canada. They sought out Sitting Bull's camp in Canada but were subdued only 30 miles from the border -- 1 day's trip) f. The Nez Perce were subsequently shipped south to a malaria- infested camp in Kansas, before their final relocation in Oklahoma. They had been promised a reservation in the Dakotas but the U.S. reneged. Over a third of the tribe died of disease. g. The Nez Perce were eventually allowed to return to the northwest but not to the Wallowa Valley.

Apache

a. Cochise led a successful 9-year guerrilla war from his base in the Rocky Mountains The U.S. offered the Apache a deal but later reneged. b. Apache were later led by Geronimo (Arizona, New Mexico) c. He was pursued by the U.S. into Mexico and finally induced to surrender. d. Many Apache became successful farmers in Oklahoma, where they also raised cattle.

3. Grangers were politically successful in Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota.

a. Granger Laws sought gov't control over big business to benefit the people. Regulated railroad rates and storage fees charged by railroads and operators of warehouses and grain elevators.

Wounded Knee (1890)

a. Last major clash between U.S. troops and American Indians b. The army was sent to end the practice of the sacred "Ghost Dance" performed by the Dakota Sioux. Believers of the cult expected buffalo to return and God's wrath to wipe the white man from the face of the earth. Fearful whites (many were Christian reformers on reservations) successfully urged the U.S. gov't to make it illegal. c. 300 Sioux men, women, and children were massacred; 60 U.S. soldiers were killed.

Redeemers/Bourbons

(391,2) Powerful, conservative oligarchy (Democrats...most of South fell under their control). Redeemers combined a defense of "home rule" and social conservatism with commitment to economic development. Bourbon govts were similar... diminished state services.

Postal savings banks

(a safe repository run by the gov't) f. Giving gov't land grants to settlers rather than railroads (influenced by Henry George)

C. Comstock Lode was discovered in Nevada in 1859 (gold and silver)

Copper mining developed in Colorado, Montana, Wyoming, and Utah. Increased demand for copper was due to the increased use of telegraph wires, electric wires, and telephone wires.

warfare

1868-1890, constant warfare raged in the West between Amerindians and whites. a. U.S. troops were largely composed of Civil War veterans. 20% of all soldiers assigned to the frontier were black (many served in the Buffalo Regiment and were known by the Amerindians as "Buffalo Soldiers"). U.S. forces were led by Generals Sherman, Sheridan ("the only good Indian is a dead Indian") and Custer. b. Plains Amerindians were expert fighters who often had state- of-the-art weapons supplied from fur traders (e.g. repeating rifles).

Wabash Case

1886 supreme court case that decreed that individual states had no power to regulate interstate commerce b. In effect, the decision nullified Munn v Illinois. An Illinois law had prohibited railroad short haul & long haul practices. Sparked public demand for the Interstate Commerce Act of

Mining in the West (first of three frontiers)

A. Mineral-rich areas of the West were the first to be extensively settled. 1. Following prospectors and commercial miners, ranchers and farmers migrated westward. 2. Copper, lead, tin, quartz, and zinc ultimately became more profitable than gold or silver.

"Great West"

A. Spanned from the Great Plains in the east to the California desert in the west B. A flood of whites to the area occurred after the Civil War. 1. In 1865, few white people lived in the area (except Mormons in Utah and scattered Spanish-Mexican settlements in Southwest). 2. Many who came west were Civil War veterans; some were black. C. Area inhabited by Plains Indians: Sioux and Comanche, southwestern Amerindians such as Apache and Navajo, and northwestern Amerindians including Nez Perce and Shoshoni.

Panic of 1893 cause

2. Causes a. Immediate cause: collapse of the stock market b. Long-term causes: Overbuilding of railroads, heavy loans to farmers, overspeculation Reduction of the money supply; Europeans gradually withdrew their capital from the U.S. o Free-silver agitation damaged U.S. credit abroad and European bankers called in their loans Numerous labor strikes disrupted economic activities. An agricultural depression had already existed prior to the panic.

Panic of 1873 (1873-1879)

A severe international economic depression triggered by overproduction of railroads, mines, factories and farm products. *Historical Significance:* Led to the *Railroad Strike of 1877*. 1. Western mining states and farmers sought the introduction of silver to the nation's monetary standard in order to create inflation. 2. Conservatives feared inflation and instituted deflationary policies, such as the Bland-Allison Act (1873), that actually caused the depression of the 1870s to worsen. 3. The money issue emerged as the biggest political issue of the 1870s. a. New political parties such as the Greenback Labor Party in the 1870s and the Populist party in the 1890s were dedicated to increasing the money supply by adding massive amounts of silver to the money supply. b. The climactic election of 1896 would ultimately decide the issue as those who advocated the unlimited coinage of silver were soundly defeated.

Impact of the Transcontinental Railroad on the Frontier

A. Established three western frontiers 1. Mining 2. Ranching 3. Farming

Farming (the third western frontier)

A. Homestead Act of 1862 1. Federal lands were effectively given away to encourage settlement of the West. 2. Settlers could acquire as much as 160 acres of land by living on it for 5 years, improving it, and paying a nominal fee averaging about $30 (as low as $10). Residency on land was required for ownership. 3. Or, land might be acquired after 6 months' residence at $1.25/acre. 4. The new policy was a departure from previous federal land policy of selling land for revenue.

VII. End of the Frontier

A. Incredible population growth occurred in the West from the 1870s to 1890s. 1. New states: Colorado (1876) North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Washington, Idaho, and Wyoming The Republican congress in 1889 admitted several new states to buttress their control in Congress over the Democrats. 2. Utah was admitted in 1896 after it banned polygamy in 1890.

New South

After the Civil War, southerners promoted a new vision for a self-sufficient southern economy built on modern capitalist values, industrial growth, and improved transportation. Henry Grady played an important role. To ensure its control, each southern state passed legislation taking voting rights away from blacks (e.g., literacy tests, poll taxes, "grandfather clauses.")

Sioux War of 1876-1877

Began when gold miners rushed to the Black Hills of South Dakota in1875 b. Warriors led by Sitting Bull attacked U.S. forces after treaties had been violated. c. U.S. Army led by Gen. George A. Custer who pursued the Sioux d. Battle of Little Big Horn (1876) Custer's forces clashed with 2,500 well-armed warriors in eastern Montana led by Crazy Horse. Custer and his 264 men were completely wiped out; about 150 Amerindians died as well. e. U.S. reinforcements chased Sitting Bull to Canada where he received political asylum; hunger forced the Sioux to return and surrender to the U.S.

Railroad building

By 1900, 192,556 miles of track had been built; more than all of Europe combined The U.S. gov't subsidized transcontinental railroad building since unpopulated areas were initially unprofitable. a. Railroad companies were given 155.5 million acres along rail lines (in a checkerboard pattern of alternating one-square-mile sections). b. The gov't received low rates for postal service and military traffic in return. 2. Cities grew where tracks were laid while bypassed cities became "ghost towns." 3. The growth of railroads sparked the Second Industrial Revolution. The steel and coal industries received a huge boost.

Rise of labor movement

Conditions for workers in the Second Industrial Revolution were tough. 1. Low-skilled jobs made workers expendable as workers were abundant. a. Automation created short-term losses of jobs; better in long-run b. Before mechanization, most manufacturing was done by skilled craft workers (such as shoemakers, saddle-makers); the earliest unions were trade unions. c. Working conditions were often dismal and impersonal. d. Recourse for workers was minimal in the face of the vast power of industrialists. Strikes were often nullified by the use of "scab" workers Conservative federal courts often ruled in favor of corporations. Corporations could also ask states to call in troops. Employers could lock-out workers and starve them into submission. Workers often were forced to sign "ironclad oaths" or "yellow dog contracts" which were agreements not to join a labor

Sand Creek Massacre (1864)

Event at which *Colonel John Chivington* and his troops attacked and destroyed a village of friendly Cheyenne and Arapaho encamped in southeastern Colorado Territory; killed over 150 inhabitants, about two-thirds of whom were women and children.

Economic problems plaguing farmers

Farmers were in perpetual debt; many lost their farms to foreclosure. 2. Deflated currency and low food prices were the chief worries among farmers. 3. Natural disasters caused by freezing temperatures, insects, and diseases compounded the problems farmers faced. 4. Government policies seemed to hurt farmers a. Farmers' land was often overvalued, making property taxes higher. b. Protective tariffs hurt the South as manufactured product prices increased Farmers' products were unprotected in the competitive world market. 5. Agricultural-related trusts gouged farmers: barbed-wire trust, fertilizer trust, harvester trust, and railroad trust (freight rates) 6. Farmers were underrepresented politically and poorly organized.

Growth of southern industry

Henry Grady,editor of the Atlanta Constitution (newspaper), challenged the South to industrialize and modernize. Urged the South to out-produce the North commercially and industrially.

The Central Pacific Railroad pushed east from Sacramento over the Sierra Nevadas

Led by four talented businessmen including Leland Stanford, ex- governor of California and future U.S. senator. b. The Central Pacific was more ethical in its practices compared to the Union Pacific c. The U.S. gov't provided the same subsidies as the Union Pacific. d. 10,000 Chinese laborers, "coolies," built the railroad. Hundreds lost their lives in premature explosions and other mishaps e. Sierra Nevada Mountains became the major challenge as workers could only chip through a few inches a day through rocky tunnels.

Crop Lien System

Merchants extended credit to tenants based on their future crops, but high interest rates and the uncertainties of farming often led to inescapable debts. agriculture. a. A planter or merchant extended a line of credit (at exorbitant interest rates) to a struggling farmer. It was virtually impossible for farmers to get out of debt. Resulted in many poor white and black farmers becoming landless tenant farmers or sharecroppers. b. Credit merchants who came to power in the post-Reconstruction South acquired much land at the expense of small farmers. 1870s: 20% of Southern farmers were tenants, mostly freed slaves. 1910s: 50% of farmers were tenants, many were newly landless whites.

The Transcontinental Railroad (completed in 1869)

Pacific Railway Act (1862): Passed by the Republican Congress during the Civil War. Connecting the Pacific states to the east was seen as urgent to the national security of the U.S. b. Construction began in 1865. Union Pacific Railroad: built west from Omaha, Nebraska a. The company was granted 20 square miles for each mile of track constructed b. The company was also granted federal loans for each mile: $16,000 for flat land, $32,000 for hilly country; and $48,000 for mountainous country. Irish "paddies" who fought in the Union armies worked at a frantic pace. Workers fended off attacks from hostile Indians; scores of workers lost their lives. "Hell on wheels": tented towns sprang up at rail's end; drinking and prostitution were rampant. Insiders of the Credit Mobilier construction company pocketed $73 million for some $50 million worth of work. They bribed congressmen who looked the other way.

The People's Party (Populist Party)

Party) emerged in the early 1890s through the Farmer's Alliances; born in Topeka, Kansas a. Attracted recruits from Farmer's Alliances and disenfranchised southern whites. b. Ignatius Donnelly was elected three times to Congress,

Americans vs. Amerindians

Plains Amerindians 1. The Spanish-introduced horse in 16th, 17th and 18th centuries made Amerindians more nomadic and war-like as they had more range and competed for resources. 2. By 1860, tens of thousands of buffalo-hunting Amerindians roamed the western plains. a. Their society was organized into tribes, which were usually subdivided into "bands" of about 500 men and women, each with a governing council. b. Women assumed domestic and artistic roles, while men hunted, traded, and supervised religious and military life. c. Each tribe's warrior class competed with others to demonstrate bravery. d. Western tribes never successfully united politically or militarily against white power, thus contributing to their defeat by the U.S.

Omaha Platform

Political agenda adopted by the populist party in 1892 at their Omaha, Nebraska convention. Called for unlimited coinage of silver (bimetallism), government regulation of railroads and industry, graduated income tax, and a number of election reforms.

Greenback Labor Party

Political party devoted to improving the lives of laborers and raising inflation, reaching its high point in 1878 when it polled over a million votes and elected fourteen members of Congress. The money issue (soft vs. hard) was perhaps the biggest political issue of the 1870s. 2. In the election of 1878, the Greenback-Labor party earned over a million votes and elected 14 members to Congress. 3. Election of 1880, the Greenback Party nominated General James B. Weaver, a Granger and Civil War veteran. a. Weaver received only 3% of the total popular vote. b. He would become the candidate of the Populist party in 1892.

what was the impact of the civil war on economic expansion

Republican legislation 1. Pacific Railway Act (1862) paved the way for the building of the transcontinental railroad 2. National Banking Act (1863) created a modern system that facilitated economic growth 3. The Morrill Tariff (1862) protected American companies from foreign competition 4. The Homestead Act (1862) facilitated westward expansion 5. The Morrill Land Grant Act (1862) provided federal land to create state agricultural colleges (land grant colleges) The Civil War economy foreshadowed the Second Industrial Revolution 1. Mass production techniques manufactured muskets, bullets, uniforms,etc. 2. A new class of millionaires was created and used their capital after the war to invest in industrial growth.

The "Lost Cause" and "Redemption"

Southerners remained proud of their defiance in defense of states' rights during the Civil War.

Panic of 1893

Serious economic depression beginning in 1893. Began due to rail road companies over-extending themselves, causing bank failures. Was the worst economic collapse in the history of the country until that point, and, some say, as bad as the Great Depression of the 1930s. b. 8,000 business collapsed within 6 months (including dozens of railroads.) 2. Causes a. Immediate cause: collapse of the stock market b. Long-term causes: Overbuilding of railroads, heavy loans to farmers, over speculation Reduction of the money supply; Europeans gradually withdrew their capital from the U.S. o Free-silver agitation damaged U.S. credit abroad and European bankers called in their loans Numerous labor strikes disrupted economic activities. An agricultural depression had already existed prior to the panic.

Helen Hunt Jackson, A Century of Dishonor (1881)

The book led to opposition to government treatment of Native Americans, however, the solution was to make the Indians white. This policy destroyed the Indians as a distinct nation.

Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)

This treaty created two large reservations for Plains Indian Territory (Oklahoma) and Dakotas; reaction due to Indian Warfare -> ended Sioux Wars; unsuccessful and violated

The Tobacco Trust

The tobacco industry grew dramatically after 1880 with the advent of machine-made cigarettes. b. James Buchanan Duke & family: American Tobacco Co. Mass-produced slim cigarettes at their North Carolina factory

1. Large-scale farmers invested heavily in machinery to produce food on an industrial scale.

They employed steam power for plowing, seeding and harrowing. b. The twine binder (1870s) and the combined reaper-thresher ("combine"—1880s) radically increased production. c. As large agricultural interests, these wealthy farmers became business people who were heavily dependent on the banking, railroad, and manufacturing interests. 2. Large-scale farmers concentrated on a single cash-crop such as wheat or corn. a. America became the world's breadbasket and meat producer. b. The farm attained the status of a factory. c. Some of the farms became enormous (e.g. Minnesota and North Dakota, and California's Central Valley)

Downside/challenges

Thousands of miles of rail lines were built, though half were dominated by northern interests. Southern industrialism was impaired by railroads charging higher rates for transporting southern manufactured goods than raw materials.

Social

White leadership adopted "Jim Crow" laws that required separation of whites and blacks in public facilities. Political/economic power remained in hands of a powerful white aristocracy.

Major challenges to southern industrialization

a. South remained a predominantly rural society b. Lack of capital c. Little technological innovation d. Northern dominance remained in banking and technology. 3. The cotton industry developed further. a. Mill towns emerged in the Carolinas and Georgia. b. Large wealthy southern interests vertically integrated the cotton industry. c. Textile factories were encouraged by southern governments who offered low taxes, a cheap labor supply, and an abundance of water power. Southern white workers earned wages 30-50 percent less than

Munn v. Illinois (1877)

a. The Court upheld one of the pro-farmer "Granger Laws" b. Decision: The public always has the right to regulate business operations in which the public has an interest; ruled against the railroads

3. Government policy toward Amerindians:

a. The federal gov't regarded tribes both as independent nations and as wards of the state and therefore negotiated treaties with them that required ratification by the Senate. b. Tribes were often victimized by corrupt white officials charged with protecting them. c. As white settlers moved west, more pressure existed for access to Amerindian lands. d. The gov't frequently violated treaties they made with Native Americans. Railroad companies were granted "right-of-way" lands where the transcontinental railroad was being built plus land grants near the railroads, thus intruding on Amerindian lands.

2. Jay Gould and Russell Sage by 1880 controlled much of the railroads in the West.

a. They hurt their railroads by stock watering and keeping profits rather than reinvesting b. Stock watering: Railroad stock promoters grossly inflated the value of stock. Railroad managers were forced to charge high rates and wage ruthless competition to pay off the exaggerated financial obligations. c. Gould had earlier tried to corner the gold market during Grant's presidency.

4. The railroad was completed at Promontory Point, Utah on May 10, 1869

a. Union Pacific built 1,086 miles of line b. Central Pacific built 689 miles 5. Significance: a. Linked the entire continent via railroad and by telegraph b. Paved the way for incredible growth of the Great West c. Facilitated a burgeoning trade with Asia d. Seen by Americans at the time as a monumental achievement along with the Declaration of Independence and the freeing of the slaves

Dawes Severalty Act (1887)

adopted by Congress in 1887, authorized the President of the United States to survey American Indian tribal land and divide it into allotments for individual Indians. Those who accepted allotments and lived separately from the tribe would be granted US citizenship. The act was an attempt to destroy Indian culture and the unity of the tribe and make each Native American head of household more like the White citizen/farmers. Results: Accelerated the destruction of traditional Amerindian culture. o Army-style boarding schools were set up where Amerindian children were prohibited from exercising any portion of their culture. 2/3 of Indians' remaining land was lost o 1889 and 1892 land rushes took Cherokee, Creek, and other lands The Dawes Act remained the U.S. government's official Indian policy until 1934 when the Indian Reorganization Act (the "Indian New Deal") tried to restore the tribal basis of Amerindian life. d. Amerindians finally received full citizenship in 1924.

b. Politically, the Grange sought to end monopolistic railroad practices that hurt farmers with high freight rates.

c. Its attempt to manufacture harvesting machinery ultimately failed.

b. Some gave secret rebates or kickbacks to large corporations.

c. Slashed rates on competing lines but made up the difference on other lines. d. Hurt farmers with long-haul, short-haul practices

Crop Lien System

in this system, Storekeepers granted credit until the farm was harvested. To protect the creditor, the storekeeper took a mortgage, or lien, on the tenant's share of the crop. The system was abused and uneducated blacks were taken advantage of. The result, for Blacks, was not unlike slavery.

e. Concentration policy: 1851, the U.S. gov't began a policy of inducing tribes to concentrate in areas to the north and south of intended white settlement.

f. Concentration was intensified in the 1860s when Amerindians were herded into still smaller areas - "relocation" Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868): Sioux were "guaranteed" the sanctuary of the Black Hills in Dakota Territory. Other tribes were relocated to "Indian Territory" (Oklahoma). Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) in the Department of the Interior was in charge of Indian reservations. 4. Amerindians surrendered ancestral lands so they would be left alone and given food, clothing and other supplies. a. Federal Indian agents were often corrupt, giving poor or damaged provisions. Some profited handsomely by embezzling funds. b. Treaties were often disregarded while lands were seized and game was killed. c. Corrupt BIA practices resulted in constant conflicts between tribes and nearby white settlers.

Ghost Towns

former mining towns full of empty buildings where no one lives Ghost towns emerged when mines petered out and towns were abandoned. F. Corporations gradually came to dominate mining which required large capitalization.

Populism

the political doctrine that supports the rights and powers of the common people in their struggle with the privileged elite Farmers' Alliances in the South (formed in 1877) and Midwest (1880) increasingly voiced discontent; the Colored Alliance formed in 1889. a. Like the Grangers, they sponsored social events, political action, cooperatives, and gov't regulation of railroads and manufacturers. b. The 3 Alliances met in 1889 and boasted over 3 million members Demanded free silver and a subtreasury plan for farmers (would provide cash advances on a farmer's future crop) A major demand of the Southern Alliance in 1880 had been a subtreasury plan. o Reason: farmers had poor cash flow during much of the year o Called for federal subtreasury offices alongside warehouses or grain elevators. o Farmers could store grain and the subtreasury would loan them up to 80% of the value of the crop at modest interest and fees. c. Many supported or joined the Knights of Labor; saw similar goals d. Defeat of the subtreasury scheme in Congress in 1890 led to the Alliances taking political matters into their own hands and forming a third party.