Global 9 Midterm

Circle of Justice

"circle of justice." - In order for the kingdom to be prosperous and secure, the sultan required a strong army. In order to provide for this army, the state needed tax revenues from its citizens. In order for the citizens to pay their taxes, they had to receive security and justice from the sultan. Any of the sultan's subjects, could submit a petition to the palace asking redress of wrongs. Ottoman court records show many cases where peasants complained to the local judge that officials were extracting extra taxes or labor from them. These complaints were forwarded to the central government, which punished or replaced the offenders.

Basic Beliefs

- Human nature is good - Sin=forgetting Allah - Salvation=remembering Allah - Judgement: All stand before Allah after death - Intention is important - Garden and Fire - Allah is a just and forgiving judge

Judaism

- Jewish Law: Torah (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy) - Talmud: Teachings of wise and learned scholars - Reform, conservative and orthodox branches - Shabbat (Sabbath) - Rosh Hashanah (Jewish New Year) - Yom Kippur - Passover - Hanukkah

Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire

Allies occupy Istanbul in November 1918 Turkish War of Independence 1919-1923 Modern Turkey formed Democratic republic declared Sultanate and caliphate abolished Lands far to the south become part of Yemen and Saudi Arabia France and Britain get mandates from the League of Nations for in between land

Mandates

Arabs supported British, but were "betrayed"(?) after the war as Britain and France divided the Middle East into mandates. After WWI, League of Nations officially creates "mandates" in the Middle East. A "mandate" is an area that is governed by another nation until it is ready for independence. MANDATE System- made official by League of Nations British controlled Palestine, Transjordan (east of Jordan River), and Iraq. France had Syria and Lebanon.

WHAT DID ATATURK DO

Capital moved from Constantinople to Ankara. Secularism → Qur'an in Turkish translation. (the principle of separation of the state from religious institutions.) Republican constitution and a Swiss civil code. Westernization & nationalism: Compulsory, secular education. Banning the fez. Western [Roman] script. Western clothing. Women unveiled & given full citizenship and the right to vote.

HAMMURABI

Conquered and ruled Babylon. He was a great military and political leader. He wrote the Code of Hammurabi which was a law system explaining the punishments for many of the crimes committed. Punishments were different based on your economic status though he was the one who came up with the concept an eye for an eye Hammurabi (r. 1792-1750 BCE) & Law Code Hammurabi's Law Code 282 Laws Interest 20% Prices set minimum wage Debt slavery limited to 3 years Patrilineal Levirate Marriage The higher the guilty party on the social scale, the more severe the penalty

Constantinople

Constantinople was one of the largest and richest urban centers in the Eastern Mediterranean during the late Roman Empire, mostly due to its strategic position commanding the trade routes between the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea. It also provided a land bridge between Europe and Asia.

Cuneiform and Lugal

Cuneiform is a system of writing first developed by the ancient Sumerians of Mesopotamia c. 3500-3000 BCE. It is considered the most significant among the many cultural contributions of the Sumerians and the greatest among those of the Sumerian city of Uruk which advanced the writing of cuneiform c. 3200 BCE. In Sumerian, lu is "man" and gal is "great," or "big." It was one of several Sumerian titles that a ruler of a city-state could bear (alongside en and ensi, the exact difference being a subject of debate).

WOMEN & THE HAREM

Only women of elite classes could be fully veiled and secluded (Privileged honored position; "sacred space, protection/privacy of Islam/modesty) Hierarchy within harem and women had power Western literature has produced an exotic, erotic image of Ottoman sultan's harem, but this image is a myth produced by overactive imaginations or hostile attitudes of Europeans and their views of Ottomans. In fact, sexuality in the palace was strictly controlled. Most Ottoman women had to work in the fields and towns In palace, harem women often were from a slave origin, but were arranged in a rigid hierarchy much like that of men; each was paid according to her rank. Most of the women were not destined for the sultan's bed; instead they were married to the sultan's officers to create further ties of loyalty to the palace. A select few were chosen to bear the sultan's heirs. And so the harem women often were related to the Sultan's extended family. Harem women wielded power because of their wealth, connections, and proximity to the sultan. Most powerful among harem women was the sultan's mother (valide sultan) NOT his wife. She participated actively in court politics—many petitioners applied to her to intercede on their behalf with the sultan.

OSMAN I, 1258-1324

Osman I, 1258-1324: tribal leader who consolidated power in Anatolia (Asia Minor)

THE CREATION OF ISRAEL - 1948 Palestine Was Part of the

Ottoman Empire

Paleolithic

Paleolithic (Greek for old stone) - (2500000-10000 BCE) Basic distinguishing feature of humans was the ability to make tools Earliest tools were made of stone, which is how this period got its name Composed of Hunter/Gatherers who had a close relationship with the environment around them They didn't know how to grow crops or raise animals, so they gathered and hunted from around the world Nomadic people that lived in small bands of 20-30 people that traveled with animal migrations and vegetation cycles Tools became more refined over the years: bow, arrows, spears, harpoons, fish-hooks Equality existed between men and women Some people lived in caves, while others used wooden poles and sticks covered with animal hides, or bones covered with animal hides Used fire for heat and light and cooking food 2 MAIN ADVANCEMENTS: making of tools and fire Changing physical conditions posed a threat and their "technology" helped them survive Also had cultural activity because of paintings

Patriarchal, Patrilineal

Patrilineal: When the family property and name/hereditary position is transferred from the father to the son. The daughter takes her father's last name and the wife takes the husband's. Patriarchy: Following from patrilineal society - since the father owns the property/land - he is the head of the house. Generally, the males play a dominant role in such a society and the women are considered to be secondary. Patriarchy is a characteristic of society that emerges from having a patrilineal structure. There are matrilineal structures too - such societies are matriarchal.

Old Kingdom Pyramid Age 3rd - 6th dynasties (2700 - 2200 BCE)

Pharaoh - Considered a god - absolute devotion created security must maintain maat Pyramids - Mummification Act of fidelity Pharaoh Khufu, 4th dynasty

THE BLUE MOSQUE

The Blue Mosque, as it is popularly known, was constructed between 1609 and 1616 during the rule of Ahmed I. Its Külliye contains Ahmed's tomb, a madrasah and a hospice. Hand-painted blue tiles adorn the mosque's interior walls, and at night the mosque is bathed in blue as lights frame the mosque's five main domes, six minarets and eight secondary domes.[2] It sits next to the Hagia Sophia, another popular tourist site.

RISING

The First Rise The Assyrians first rose to power when the Akkadian Empire fell. The Babylonians had control of southern Mesopotamia and the Assyrians had the north. One of their strongest leaders during this time was King Shamshi-Adad. Under Shamshi-Adad the empire expanded to control much of the north and the Assyrians grew wealthy. However, after Shamshi-Adad's death in 1781 BC, the Assyrians grew weak and soon fell under control of the Babylonian Empire. Second Rise The Assyrians once again rose to power from 1360 BC to 1074 BC. This time they conquered all of Mesopotamia and expanded the empire to include much of the Middle East including Egypt, Babylonia, Israel, and Cypress. They reached their peak under the rule of King Tiglath-Pileser I. The neo-Assyrian Empire The final, and perhaps strongest, of the Assyrian Empires ruled from 744 BC to 612 BC. During this time Assyria had a string of powerful and capable rulers such as Tiglath-Pileser III, Sargon II, Sennacherib, and Ashurbanipal. These leaders built the empire into one of the most powerful empires in the world. They conquered much of the Middle East and Egypt. Once again, it was the Babylonians who brought down the Assyrian Empire in 612 BC.

Sinai Covenant and the Torah : A New covenant with Yahwek

The Mosaic Covenant is a conditional covenant made between God and the nation of Israel at Mount Sinai (Exodus 19-24). It is sometimes called the Sinai Covenant but is more often referred to as the Mosaic Covenant since Moses was God's chosen leader of Israel at that time. The pattern of the covenant is very similar to other ancient covenants of that time because it is between a sovereign king (God) and his people or subjects (Israel)

The Middle East in 1914

The Ottoman Empire is falling apart- "Sick Man of Europe". Armenian massacre 1915- first "Holocaust" of the 20th Century? 1916- British and French secretly plan to divide the Middle East after the war. British had a deal w/Hussein ibn Ali to gain Arab support. During WWI, British promised Arabs independence from Ottomans in return for support.

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 1280-1918

The Ottoman Empire: one of the Islamic gunpowder empires 1290-1918 Most powerful of the new Muslim empires; centered in Anatolia, by mid 16th century, Ottomans stretched from Hungary to Ethiopia and from Morocco to Arabia to Iraq.

Sykes-Picot Agreement, 1916

The Sykes-Picot Agreement /ˈsaɪks piˈkoʊ/, officially known as the Asia Minor Agreement, was a secret 1916 agreement between the United Kingdom and France,[1] to which the Russian Empire assented. The agreement defined their mutually agreed spheres of influence and control in Southwestern Asia.

Hebrews

a member of an ancient people living in what is now Israel and Palestine and, according to biblical tradition, descended from the patriarch Jacob, grandson of Abraham. After the Exodus ( c. 1300 BC) they established the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, and their scriptures and traditions form the basis of the Jewish religion.

TIME PERIOD AND DOCUMENTS RECORDING IT

c. 4 BCE-30 CE Jesus' Lifetime (NONE) c. 30-100 CE Jesus Movement (Epistles of Paul (c.50 CE), Gospels (c.70-100 CE), Act of the Apostles) c, 100-300 CE Definition of doctrine, persecution (Martyrdom testimonies, anti-gnostic texts) c. 300-500 Institutionalization (Jerome, Augustine)

Epic of Gilgamesh

http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/gilgamesh/summary.html

Osiris and Isis

*know story* Hieroglyphics "Alphabet" 24 letters and 700 phonetic symbols Egyptian Gods and Goddesses "The Sacred Trinity" Osiris Isis and Horus The final judgement - Anubis, Horis, and Osiris

Basic Facts

- 2000 yrs old- began in the ME, by the followers of Jesus Christ Beliefs - God sent his Son to earth to save humanity for the conseqeunces of its sins - Jesus was fully human - Jesus was tortured and gave his life on the Cross (At the Crucifixion - Good Friday( - Jesus rose from the dead on the third day after his Crucifixtion (the Resurrection - Easter Sunday) - Jesus was the Messiah promised in the Old Testament - Only one God, bus consists of 3 persons - God the Father, God the Son, The Holy Spirit Worships and Practice - Worship in churches, leaders are called priests or ministers - Christian holy book = Old and New Testaments of the Bible - Christian Holidays: Easter (Resurrection) and Xmas (Jesus' Birth)

The Spread of Christianity

- Founder is a real person - Teachings preserved in written record - Shared Jewish belief in one God - Upheld equality of all people - Liberating for women in early church - God, loving father, sent only Son to atone for human sins - born again

What do Hebrew Scriptures tell us?

- Genesis 14:13: Abraham, patriarchal clan leader - @1900 BCE, Abraham leads Jews out of Sumer to Mesoptamia - Abraham moves Jews to Egypt - Abraham's grandsom Jacob leads a migration into Canaan (Palestine) - Sinai Covenant and Ten Commandments (Torah) - What is the evidence of such migrations?

Society in Ancient Israel

- Genesis 1:27-28 describes 2 sexes as equal - Dangers led to monarchy - Patrilocal and Patrilineal - Polygamy and concubines - Peak 1000-900 BCE - Fall to Assyrians - Babylonian Captivity - 70 and 132 CE Romans destroy temple in Jerusalem ; Diaspora

From Hebrew Nomads to Israelite Nation

- Origins of Western History in Tanakh/Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament) - Torah - first 5 books - Abraham = father of all monotheism - Covenant between God (Yahweh) and Israelites (Abraham) - chosen people - What kind of source is the Torah/Hebrew Scriptures?

The Monotheistic Revolution

- Uniqueness of Judaism = uncompromising monotheism, moralistic understanding of human life and history - At Sinai, Moses received God's law - Torah - and promise of protection if obedient - Prophets - messengers of God - Prophets linked man's actions to the divine plan - The nature of God changed - a righteous God who demands righteousness - Only 1 God: transcendent, omnipotent, omnipresent, just

Paul of Tarsus

- Zealous Jew (Pharisee) - converted and emphasized evangelical mission of Christians - Question was: is Christianity a version of Judaism, or an entirely new religion? - Paul separated Judaism from Christianity - Second Founder of Christianity - Only faith in Christ necessary for salvation of Jews and non-Jews

Turkish Genocide Against the Armenians

1.5 million: A Portent of Future Horrors! In 1915, leaders of the Turkish government set in motion a plan to expel and massacre Armenians living in the Ottoman Empire. Though reports vary, most sources agree that there were about 2 million Armenians in the Ottoman Empire at the time of the massacre. By the early 1920s, when the massacres and deportations finally ended, some 1.5 million of Turkey's Armenians were dead, with many more forcibly removed from the country. Today, most historians call this event a genocide-a premeditated and systematic campaign to exterminate an entire people. However, the Turkish government does not acknowledge the enormity or scope of these events. Despite pressure from Armenians and social justice advocates throughout the world, it is still illegal in Turkey to talk about what happened to Armenians during this era. 3 Arguments made to justify the Armenian Massacre: The Armenians took up arms and joined the russians as soon as the latter crossed the Ottoman frontier. They battle usually cited is the Revolt of Vn. Deportations occurred only after this outbreak, is what the Ottomans said. All of this was, in reality, untrue. A group of revolutionary Armenians wanted to overthrow the Ottoman government and deliver them to the hands of the Allies. Disarming, imprisoning, executing, and deporting them was the only way to stop this movement is what the Ottomans said. Revenge is the main incentive here. The Armenians volunteering with the Russian army had no allegiance with the Turks, and Russia has taken over less than ½ of the Armenians by 1914. Turks disputing the term genocide: There were deaths on boths sides Armenians also revolted and sought revenge which caused the genocide It isn't important currently because it isn't going to helped Turkey become democratic. If they want to become democratic, they need to face their past and move on whether it was a genocide or not. IF WE DON'T FACE OUR PAST, NOTHING IS STOPPING IT FROM HAPPENING AGAIN Why has the US resisted calling this a genocide and resisted a Congressional resolution? Turkey is a key ally of the US and a member of NATO, so if they say no then no. They didn't recognise it until Turkey did, most likely to have stable relations.

Qur'an (recitation)

114 surahs (chapters) Qur'an is for Muslims what Jesus is for Christians People of the Book Emphasis on purity and intentions of believers Allah is a just and forgiving judge - Adam and Eve - Jews - Christians - Hajj Women Qur' an: holy text for Islam, they are the words of God (Allah) You must memorize it Melodious element when they recite it Significance in Islam. Muslims believe the Quran to be the book of divine guidance revealed from God to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel over a period of 23 years and view the Quran as God's final revelation to humanity. Women Mary is the ideal woman A lot of women's rights in the Qur' an You can have multiple wives

Western Responses to Islam

638: Muslim conquest of Jerusalem 1099-1291: Crusades c. 500-1500: Islam and Learning

WWI Mandates

A League of Nations mandate was a legal status for certain territories transferred from the control of one country to another following World War I, or the legal instruments that contained the internationally agreed-upon terms for administering the territory on behalf of the League of Nations.

Definition of "civilization" & characteristics

A civilization is a complex culture in which a large number of people share a variety of common elements. An urban focus - cities became the centers for political, economic, social, cultural, and religious development. The cities that emerged were much larger than the Neolithic towns that preceded them. New political and military structures - an organized government bureaucracy arose to meet the administrative demands of the growing population, and armies were organized to gain land and power for defense. A new social structure based on economic power - while kings and an upper class of priests, political leaders, and warriors dominated, there also existed large groups of free common people (farmers, artisans, craftspeople) and, at the very bottom of the social hierarchy, a class of slaves. The development of more complexity in a material sense - surpluses of agricultural crops freed some people to work in occupations other than farming. Demand among ruling elites for luxury items encouraged the creation of new products. And as urban populations exported finished goods in exchange for raw materials from neighboring populations, organized trade grew substantially. A distinct religious structure - the gods were deemed crucial to the community's success, and a professional priestly class, serving as stewards of the gods' property, regulated relations with the gods. The development of writing -kings, priests, merchants, and artisans used writing to keep records. New and significant artistic and intellectual activity - for example, monumental architectural structures, usually religious, occupied a prominent place in urban environments.

Abraham's Geneology

Abraham - Hagar and Sarah Hagar - Ishmael - 12 Arabian Tribes Sarah - Isaac - Jacob = Esau - 12 Tribes of Israel

The Main Players in WWI

Allied Powers- Nicholas II - Russia George V - GB Pres. Poincore - France Victor Emmanuel II - Italy Central Power- Whelm II - germany Franz Josef - A-H Enver Pasha - Turkey

Consequences of Neolithic Revolution

As people settled in they engaged in trade People began to specialize in certain crafts and a division of labor began to develop Change in roles with men and women Men primarily works outside the home and women tended to the kids at home This age was a turning point in human history Between 4000 and 300 BCE significant technology transformed Neolithic towns Invention of writing enabled people to keep records Use of metal gave a new level of human control Already before 4000 BCE artisans discovered they could melt metals in rocks to make molds, tools, and weapons along with other instruments After 4000 BCE metalworkers discovered combining tin and copper makes bronze. Its widespread use led historians to call the period after it from 3000 to 1200 BCE the Bronze Age After bronze was quickly replaced with iron

The Arab Revolt: 1916-1918 The Allied Advance Against the Ottoman Turks

Br. General Edmund Allenby

THE BRITISH IN PALESTINE 1919-47

British take over control of Palestine after the war. Both Britain and L of Nations endorsed Jewish state in Palestine. 1920s and 1930s was a time of intense migration of Jews to Palestine- went from 10% to 30% of total pop. Arabs are upset- feel promises have been broken. Holocaust in 1940s- Jews wanted to migrate to Palestine, but British barred immigration after 1936. "White Paper" is key document- shows British trying to appease both Jews and Arabs. British were trapped between Zionist and Arab demands and wanted out. Menachem Begin (future PM of Israel) led a group that bombed British headquarters. Jewish terrorism occurs at this time. 1947- British turn Palestinian question over to new United Nations. The Holocaust was the systematic, bureaucratic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators. (anti-semitism, the hostility towards jews)

Dome of Rock

Dome of the Rock, Arabic Qubbat al-Ṣakhrah , shrine in Jerusalem built by the Umayyad caliph ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Marwān in the late 7th century ce. It is the oldest extant Islamic monument. The rock over which the shrine was built is sacred to both Muslims and Jews. The Prophet Muhammad, founder of Islam, is traditionally believed to have ascended into heaven from the site. In Jewish tradition it is here that Abraham, the progenitor and first patriarch of the Hebrew people, is said to have prepared to sacrifice his son Isaac. Both the Dome and Al-Aqṣā Mosque are located on the Temple Mount, the site of Solomon's Temple and its successors, an area known to Muslims as Al-Ḥaram al-Sharīf. The Dome'sstructure and ornamentation are rooted in the Byzantine architectural tradition, yet its construction in the 7th century represents an early stage in the emergence of a distinct Islamic visual style.

Importance of Jesus

Evidence of life = Gospels Jesus was a teacher/prophet Prophets promised a Messiah (redeemer) as triumph of Israel, kingdom of God on earth Jesus taught - abandon sin, follow moral code (Sermon on the Mount - love, charity, humility, belief in Jesus) Followers among the poor - seemed revolutionary Jesus crucified (probably 300 CE) (Good Friday) , believers believe he was resurrected on the third day (Ester Sunday)

Muhammad - Founder of Islam (570-632 CE)

First Wife - Khadija 610 CE - Archangel Gabriel Quran - recitation Muhammad - seal of Prophets Other prophets - Adam, Abraham, Noah, Moses John the Babtist, Jesus Holy City - Mecca (Ka'ba in center) Jesus: Islam only sees him as a prophet, not divine (Christianity)

The Balfour Declaration

Foreign Office November 2nd, 1917 Dear Lord Rothschild, I have much pleasure in conveying to you, on behalf of His Majesty's Government, the following declaration of sympathy with Jewish Zionist aspirations which has been submitted to, and approved by, the Cabinet. "His Majesty's Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country." I should be grateful if you would bring this declaration to the knowledge of the Zionist Federation. Yours sincerely, Arthur James Balfour The Balfour Declaration was a public statement issued by the British government during World War I announcing support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine, then an Ottoman region with a minority Jewish population.

Zionism

GOALS: The spiritual and political renewal of the Jewish people in its ancestral homeland of Palestine. Freedom from Western anti- Semitism. First Zionist Conference, 1897 "Next Year in Jerusalem!" Herzl writes Der Judenstaat, or The Jewish State in 1896. Met in Basel, Switzerland. Becomes an international Jewish organization. Theodore Herzl 1860-1904 He was an Austro-Hungarian journalist, playwright, political activist, and writer who was one of the fathers of modern political Zionism

Great Warriors The Library at Nineveh

Great Warriors The Assyrians were perhaps most famous for their fearsome army. They were a warrior society where fighting was a part of life. It was how they survived. They were known throughout the land as cruel and ruthless warriors. Two things that made the Assyrians great warriors were their deadly chariots and their iron weapons. They made iron weapons that were stronger than the copper or tin weapons of some of their enemies. They were also skilled with their chariots which could strike fear in the hearts of their enemies. The Library at Nineveh The last great Assyrian king, Ashurbanipal, constructed a great library at the city of Nineveh. He collected clay tablets from all over Mesopotamia. These included the stories of Gilgamesh, the Code of Hammurabi, and more. Much of our knowledge of the Ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia comes from the remains of this library. According to the British Museum in London, just over 30,000 tablets have been recovered. These tablets make up around 10,000 different texts.

Hebrew Scriptures

Hebrew Bible, also called Hebrew Scriptures, Old Testament, or Tanakh, collection of writings that was first compiled and preserved as the sacred books of the Jewish people. It constitutes a large portion of the Christian Bible.

Hijab

Hijab is an Arabic word meaning barrier or partition. In Islam, however, it has a broader meaning. It is the principle of modesty and includes behaviour as well as dress for both males and females. It is a Muslim head covering that was meant to stop men from thinking "impure thoughts" or more plainly being lustful.

Hussein-McMahon Letters, 1915

Hussein ibn Ali, Sharif of Mecca ....Britain is prepared to recognize and uphold the independence of the Arabs in all regions lying within the frontiers proposed by the Sharif of Mecca.... The McMahon-Hussein Correspondence, or the Hussein-McMahon Correspondence, was a series of ten letters exchanged from July 1915 to March 1916,[2] during World War I, between Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca, and Lieutenant Colonel Sir Henry McMahon, British High Commissioner to Egypt, concerning the political status of lands under the Ottoman Empire. In the letters Britain agreed to recognize Arab independence after World War I "in the limits and boundaries proposed by the Sherif of Mecca", with the exception of "portions of Syria" lying to the west of "the districts of Damascus, Homs, Hama and Aleppo", in exchange for launching the Arab Revolt against the Ottomans[3]as a quid pro quo.[4]

Christian Bible

IS THE NEW TESTAMENT and is written AFTER the events described

Jews & Arabs in Palestine, 1920

In 1920, there was 1 Jew to every 10 Arabs in Palestine. By 1947, the ratio was 2 Arabs for every Jew. The Arabs felt that they were losing control of their "country!" British Mandate in Palestine Created July, 1922

Sinai Covenant

In the beginning, God did a whole bunch of stuff. That's the short version, at least. Basically, God created the world and then made an agreement with the people living in it: if they put their faith in him, he would be their God. It was a pretty sweet deal, but things weren't working out so well. The people didn't always trust in God...and God wasn't super psyched about that. Enter the New Testament. According to this collection of books, when God saw that his old covenant with the people was no good, he sent his one and only Son to Earth...where he was promptly put to death. On a cross. It was all part of God's plan, though: turns out that Jesus' death actually saved the world. Quick rewind: back in the day, people could make up for their sins and get right with God by offering animal sacrifices in the tabernacle. A high priest would go into the super special inner sanctuary of the tent and sprinkle animal blood on the Ark of the Covenant. (Yeah, the cleanup was a real pain.) But according to the New Testament, when Jesus came to Earth, he acted in the role of the high priest. He went into God's sanctuary (i.e., Heaven) to put in a good word for humanity. This time, he didn't bring any animal blood with him—he used his own blood because crucifixion is pretty darn gory. God was so thrilled that he totally forgave everyone's sins and decided to start over fresh. Now, says Hebrews, because of Jesus, human beings are living under a "new covenant" with God. Of course, that doesn't mean people are off the hook. Folks still need to put their faith in Jesus in order to get in good with God. That means keeping the faith even if it means being shunned, thrown in jail, or even killed.

Jihad

Jihad: a struggle of faith, an internal struggle within oneself Islamic Fundamentalists: terrorists, and they say Jihad is a holy war, which is inaccurate Jihad is an Islamic concept of spiritual (and sometimes physical) struggle. Though jihad is not considered to be a pillar of Islam, some scholars liken it to a sixth pillar of Islam after Shahadah, Salat, Zakaat, Sawm and Hajj.[1][2]. It is sometimes referred to as a duty or call and can be considered a form of worship. Jihad can be divided into four types: Jihad against one's self: this is directed against the evil side of one's self which is affected by Satan.[3] Jihad of the tongue: this is a form of jihad which involves spreading the message of Allah Jihad of the hand: this is the jihad of doing the right Jihad of the sword: this is form of jihad which involves a holy war and can be directed against the non-Muslims or unbelievers. Ironically, this is virtually the exact definition of "Crusade", which many Mujihadeen (people on Jihad) claim to be fighting against. Arguably the others can fall under the category of various forms of "moral crusades". In a religious sense, as described by the Quran and teachings of the Prophet Muhammad (s), "jihad" has many meanings. It can refer to internal as well as external efforts to be a good Muslims or believer, as well as working to inform people about the faith of Islam.

Christianity has its Origins in

Judaism

Comparison of views/place of women in Judaism, Christianity, Islam

Judaism: The role of women in traditional Judaism has been grossly misrepresented and misunderstood. The position of women is not nearly as lowly as many modern people think; in fact, the position of women in halakhah (Jewish Law) that dates back to the biblical period is in many ways better than the position of women under American civil law as recently as a century ago. Many of the important feminist leaders of the 20th century (Gloria Steinem, for example, and Betty Friedan) are Jewish women, and some commentators have suggested that this is no coincidence: the respect accorded to women in Jewish tradition was a part of their ethnic culture. In traditional Judaism, women are for the most part seen as separate but equal. Women's obligations and responsibilities are different from men's, but no less important (in fact, in some ways, women's responsibilities are considered more important, as we shall see). Christianity: Mother, child bearer, Mary the Mother of Jesus, Mary Magdalene, Mary of Bethany and her sister Martha have been among the women identified as having been key to the establishment of Christianity. Karen L. King, Harvard Professor of New Testament Studies and the History of Ancient Christianity, writes that the history of women in ancient Christianity has been almost completely revised in the last twenty years. Many more women are being added to the list of women who made very significant contributions in the early history of Christianity. The new history comes primarily from recent discoveries of biblical text that had been neglected through the ages Islam: At a time when female children were buried alive in Arabia and women were considered transferable property, Islam honored women in society by elevating them and protecting them with unprecedented rights. Islam gave women the right to education, to marry someone of their choice, to retain their identity after marriage, to divorce, to work, to own and sell property, to seek protection by the law, to vote, and to participate in civic and political engagement.

FLOOD STORIES

Know em Gilgamesh: Utnapishtim, the survivor of the flood that almost wiped out humankind: Once upon a time, he was king of Shuruppak, a beautiful, prosperous city on the banks of the Euphrates. Then the gods met in secret council—Anu, the god of the firmament; Ninurta, the god of war and wells; Enlil, the god of earth, wind, and air; Ennugi, the god of irrigation; and Ea, the cleverest of the gods, the god of wisdom and crafts. Enlil ordered a flood to destroy humankind.Ea had been sworn to secrecy, but he cleverly betrayed the gods' plans to Utnapishtim. Speaking to the walls of his house, he described the plans, while Utnapishtim heard everything on the other side of the walls. Ea warned him that the gods would be sending a terrible flood. He told him to build a boat of immense dimensions, ten dozen cubits in height (approximately 180 feet) with six decks and one acre of floor space, and load it up with the seed of each living thing and with his family and possessions. When Utnapishtim asked what he would tell the people of Shuruppak, who would have to help him build it, Ea suggested an artful lie. Tell them, he said, that you are leaving the city because Enlil hates you. Tell them that when you leave, the city will be showered with good fortune, that all manner of bread and wheat will rain down upon it, and that they will have more fish to eat than they can imagine. So Utnapishtim butchered bulls and sheep for the workers and gave them rivers of beer and wine to drink. It was like a festival. In seven days the boat was ready. With great difficulty, they launched it in the Euphrates. After Puzuramurri the caulker had sealed them inside, Utnapishtim gave him his house and everything in it. When the storm came, the gods clambered up as high as they could go and cringed in terror. Ishtar wept to see her children being destroyed. Eventually, the boat ran aground on a mountain peak. After seven days, Utnapishtim released a dove. When it couldn't find a dry place to alight, it returned to the boat. Utnapishtim released a swallow. It too returned. Then he released a raven, and it never came back. Upon reaching shore, Utnapishtim prepared a sacrifice. The gods of heaven were famished and gathered around the altar. Ishtar came down wearing a necklace of lapis lazuli made of beads shaped like flies. She said she would forget neither her necklace nor this calamity—nor would she forgive Enlil, since the flood was his idea and he never discussed it with the other gods. When Enlil arrived to partake of the sacrifice, he saw the boat and lost his temper. He demanded to know how anyone escaped the flood, since he intended it to destroy everyone. After Ninurta named the culprit, Ea himself spoke up. He chastised Enlil for creating the flood and said that if he wanted to punish someone, he should have made the punishment fit the crime. Not everyone deserved to die. He said that plagues, wolves, and famine could be used to kill some people instead of all people at once. Noah: God saw how great wickedness had become and decided to wipe humankind off the face of the earth. But one righteous man among all the people of that time, Noah, found favor in God's eyes. With very specific instructions, God told Noah to build an ark for him and his family in preparation for a catastrophic flood that would destroy every living thing on earth. God also instructed Noah to bring into the ark two of all living creatures, both male and female, and seven pairs of all the clean animals, along with every kind of food to be stored for the animals and his family while on the ark. Noah obeyed everything God commanded him to do. After they had entered the ark, rain fell for a period of forty days and nights. The waters flooded the earth for a hundred and fifty days, and every living thing was wiped out. As the waters receded, the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat. Noah and his family continued to wait for almost eight more months while the surface of the earth dried out. Finally after an entire year, God invited Noah to come out of the ark. Immediately, Noah built an altar and offered burnt sacrifices with some of the clean animals to give thanks to God for deliverance. God was pleased with the offerings and promised never again to destroy all the living creatures as he had just done. Later God established a covenant with Noah: "Never again will there be a flood to destroy the earth." As a sign of this everlasting covenant, God set a rainbow in the clouds.

Levirate Marriage

Levirate marriage is the obligation of a surviving brother to marry the widow of his brother if he died without having sired children (Deuteronomy 25:5-6). The corollary is that the widow must marry a brother-in-law rather than anyone outside the family. The oldest of the surviving brothers had the first obligation to perform this commandment, which also allowed him to inherit all of his dead brother's property

Catal Huyuk

Located in modern Turkey Walls enclosed 32 acres Population 6000 between 6700 to 5700 BCE Lived in simple mud brick houses People grew their own food and stored them in storerooms in their houses They domesticated animals They hunted but did not rely on it Some people were artisans and made weapons and jewelry Religious shrines housing figures of gods and goddesses have been found Statues of earth mothers have also been found Both these shrines and statues point to the growing role and religion in the lives of Neolithic people

Mesopotamia = refer to p. 11

Location? Place? Human-Environment Interaction? Movement? Region?

Maat

Maat, also known as Ma'at or Mayet, was a female goddess in the ancient Egyptian religion who represented truth, justice, balance and morality. The daughter of the Egyptian sun deity Ra and wife of the moon god Thoth, she served a kind of spirit of justice to the Egyptians. She decided whether a person would successfully reach the afterlife, by weighing their soul against her feather of truth, and was the personification of the cosmic order and a representation of the stability of the universe. The earliest writings where she is mentioned date back to the Old Kingdom of Egypt more than 2,300 years ago. Maat or Ma'at (Egyptian m3ˤt)[1] refers to both the ancient Egyptian concepts of truth, balance, order, harmony, law, morality, and justice, and the personification of these concepts as a goddess regulating the stars, seasons, and the actions of both mortals and the deities, who set the order of the universe from chaos at the moment of creation. Her ideological counterpart was Isfet. http://www.egyptianmyths.net/maat.htm

Mecca

Mecca is a place that is holy to all Muslims. It is so holy that no non-Muslim is allowed to enter. For Muslims, the Hajj is the fifth and final pillar of Islam. It occurs in the month of Dhul Hijjah which is the twelfth month of the Islamic lunar calendar. Hajj: pilgrimage to Mecca: should be done at least once in your lifetime

MEHMET II ("THE CONQUEROR"), R. 1451-1481 1453: CONQUERED CONSTANTINOPLE

Mehmed II (1451-1481): conquered Constantinople (now Istanbul) in 1453. Brought vast new wealth that increase population of Ottoman Empire. Signaled a catastrophe: the end of the Eastern Roman Empire (Second Rome/Byzantium) and a disruption in established commercial patterns. Preachers and writers in Europe depicted the Ottoman victory(ies) as a type of divine punishment for the sins of Christendom. The Ottomans symbolized a new Muslim world emerging between eastern Mediterranean and Southeast Asia.

Five Themes of Geography

More than just maps! 5 Themes Location Position on the Earth's surface Absolute: defined in relation to a grid (latitude and longitude) ∙ Different types of maps and globes, fx. thematic maps ∙ Map projections: often lead to distortion, Peterson projection ∙ Earth-Sun relations: determine climate, seasons, time zones Relative: defining a location in relation to another site ∙ Locations have geographical explanations ∙ Importance of a location can change with history Place Physical Characteristics (landforms, climate, soils, natural vegetation (flora), animal life (fauna), water, animals, etc.) Human Characteristics (religion, languages, population, settlement factors, economic activity, etc.) Human-Environment Interaction The Earth as an environmental system Humans and the Environment: Technology - role, problems hazards, limits of the environment Adaptation How have we adapted to our environment? Ethics and Values Cultural Attitudes about the environment and resources Environmental protection and management issues Examples of differences? Movement Humans interacting on the earth Why do people move? How do people move? Increasing global interdependence- examples? Regions How do they form and change? Uniform Region - An area in which everyone shares in one or more distinctive characteristics. Functional Region - An area organized around a node or focal point. Cultural Diversity- regions can help us to understand

Successors and Caliphates

Muhammad and the rightly guided caliphs - Abu Bakr (632-634 CE) - Umar (Omar) (634-644 CE) - Uthman (644-656 CE) - Ali (656-661 CE) Sunni and Shia Split

Neolithic

Neolithic (Greek for new stone) - (10000-4000 BCE) Began at the end of the last ice age Made new types of polished axes, though this was not the most significant change Shift towards producing food and agriculture and raising animals Known as an agricultural revolution Gave them greater control over their environment and helped them give up their nomadic ways to settle into a community Shift wasn't sudden, and the Mesolithic (middle stone age 10000-7000) was the gradual transition Systematic agriculture developed independently between 8000 to 5000 BCE From the ME, farming spread to the Balkan region of Europe by 6500 BCE. By 4000 BCE, it was established in the south of France, central Europe, and the coastal region of the Mediterranean. Cultivation of wheat and barley spread from western Asia to the Nile valley of Egypt by 6000 BCE and soon spread up the Nile to other areas of Africa like Sudan and Ethiopia. It moved eastward into the highlands of northwestern and central India between 7000 and 5000 BCE. By then rice was being cultivated. Neolithic farming villages - the growing of crops regularly gave rise to permanent settlements Oldest villages located in ME Jericho, in Palestine near the Dead Sea, was in existence by 8000 BCE and covered several acres by 7000 BCE Had houses made of mud bricks several feet thick

Ancient Egyptian History

Nile Culture Begins - 3900 BCE Archaic - 3100 - 2650 BCE Old Kingdom - 2650 - 2134 BCE Middle Kingdom - 2040 - 1640 BCE New Kingdom - 1550 - 1070 BCE Late Period - 750 - 332 BCE Greek ptolemaic Era - 332 - 30 BCE Roman Period - 30 BCE - 395 CE menes - Unifier of Upper and Lower Egypt - 3100 BCE

The New Kingdom or Empire 18th dynasty (1570-1090 BCE)

Pharaohs - Hatshepsut - female ruler - Amenhotep IV (akhenaton) - monotheist -Tutankhamun (king tut) Shortly after coming to power, the new pharaoh changed his name from Amenhotep IV to Akhenaten, meaning "He who is of service to the Aten", in honor of what he believed to be the one true god. Although he initially allowed the continued worship of traditional Egyptian gods, he eventually forbade worship of any deity other than the Aten. Akhenaten is believed to be the world's first monotheist by putting his faith in a single god (although other gods were still mentioned in inscriptions). His belief was so powerful that he moved his capitol city from Thebes, one of the largest cities in Egypt at the time, to the city of Akhetaten (modern-day Amarna). This city was to be a tribute to the sun disc god and roughly translates as "Horizon of Aten". Akhenaten began removing depictions of other gods as he pushed his people to follow his monotheistic view. Statues, carvings, and paintings of other deities were defaced or destroyed. Any tribute or economic gains offered to other gods were absorbed into the new belief system. During the first five years of Akhenaten's seventeen-year reign, he constructed a Temple to Aten in the Karnak Temple Complex. During the 18th dynasty, Karnak was a religious gathering place where most of the pharaohs contributed to the glories of Egypt. It stood as a beacon of religious expression and a historical database of sorts. Ordinary people were not permitted to worship the Aten directly. Instead they were obliged to worship their pharaoh who claimed to be the sole intermediary between the Aten and the people. The new directive gave the king absolute power over his people. His motives may have been political as it meant he was able to dispense with the services of his once overly powerful priests. A daughter of King Thutmose I, Hatshepsut became queen of Egypt when she married her half-brother, Thutmose II, around the age of 12. Upon his death, she began acting as regent for her stepson, the infant Thutmose III, but later took on the full powers of a pharaoh, becoming co-ruler of Egypt around 1473 B.C.

Reforms for Women

Polygamy banned Divorce & inherit property Vote & run for office in 1934 Education *Men still legal heads of households Nationalism - PATRIOTIC FEELING, PRINCIPLES, OR EFFORTS

monotheism vs. polytheism theocracy

Polytheistic - Polytheistic was the belief in multiple gods. The thought being that each thing had it's own god. The Egyptians and Indians were famous for their polytheistic beliefs Monotheism - has been defined as the belief in the existence of only one god that created the world, is all-powerful and intervenes in the world. THEOCRACY - a form of government in which God or a deity is recognized as the supreme civil ruler, the God's or deity's laws being interpreted by the ecclesiastical authorities. a system of government by priests claiming a divine commission. a commonwealth or state under such a form or system of government.

More on Islam

Qu'ran=the words of Allah Hadith= Prophet Muhammad's travels and teachings Recognizes Qu'ran, Hittite, Old and New Testaments, includes birth of Jesus at Bethlehem Place of worship= a mosque (Fridays most important in Islam) Has number of Sects= Sunni and Shi'a biggest two

Creation Stories in Genesis

Refer to Packet

People in ISLAM AND THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

Religious authorities subordinated to the state and the sultan Grand Mufti As in other Muslim lands, the religious authorities did not run the government, but were subordinated to the state and the sultan. The grand mufti, head of Islamic establishment, was chief religious and legal adviser to the sultan. Sultan approved religious appointments and could dismiss religious officers Corps of religious scholars represented sultan as judges, teachers, and dispensers of charities. Non-Muslim subjects were regarded as inferior but were granted a degree of legal and religious toleration through governmental arrangements with their religious leaders (rabbis and priests, etc.) who were responsible for their civil obedience. Non-Muslims lived under their own laws and customs within the limits imposed by Islamic law and Ottoman economic needs (millets).

The Ottoman Empire Summary

Rise - The foundation and rise of the Ottoman Empire is a period of history that started with the emergence of the Ottoman principality in c. 1299, and ended with the conquest of Constantinople on May 29, 1453. Height - During the 16th and 17th centuries, at the height of its power under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire was a multinational, multilingual empire controlling most of Southeast Europe, parts of Central Europe, Western Asia, parts of Eastern Europe and the Caucasus, North Africa, and the Horn of ... Reasons for the Decline of the Empire - Conquering of Istanbul Loss of the Empire's central position in Afro-Eurasian trade. Invasion of mongols Age of exploration and colonialism Loss of empire to Europe Loss of Wars Arab Revolt Losing resources and land Overpopulation

Characteristics of River Valley Civilizations

River Valley Civilizations were the earliest civilizations located in the Fertile Crescent surrounding Mesopotamia. All these were close to rivers. Rivers helped cultivation and navigation. There was surplus production, trade and contact with civilizations around. These were examples of large body of people living together and their problems led to organisation of civic administration and specialization of functions. In many of these, there were flood problems causing partial destruction or total destruction leading to rebuilding of houses etc.

Effect of Geography on Regional Development

Several factors affect regional development . Some factors affect directly while others influence indirectly but still they have an impact .Regional development is a complex situation and should be viewed with a multi- dimensional approach. Firstly , the strategic location has a big advantage , in terms of connectivity land ,air and water . Politicians at local , regional and national levels could play an important role in decisions related to regional development. Availability of natural resources could be a deciding factor , sometimes in terms of productivity and sustainability. Human resource availability depending on the skill level may influence the regional development . Industrial Clusters are widely known for certain region development . In 1990s , the success of Silicon Valley in California is a good example for IT cluster . Promotion of Industrial parks and Export Processing Zones with generous subsidies and tax exemptions could lead to regional development.

5 Pillars of Islam

Shahada: Profession of faith: There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his profit. Salat: ritual prayer 5 times daily Zakat: purification of intentions (almsgiving): they give 2.5 percent of their annual incoming to their Mosque. Sawm: fasting (during Ramadan which is the 9th month) during the day, but normal at night Hajj: pilgrimage to Mecca: should be done at least once in your lifetime

DEVSHIRME SYSTEM (SLAVE SYSTEM)

Slaves were non-Muslim (functioned as a type of "human tax" on the Balkan provinces) Converted to Islam and taught Turkish Most went to the janissaries, the famed elite Ottoman infantry corps that was armed with gunpowder weapons. They formed the backbone of the formidable Ottoman armies Some worked for palace--government positions based on merit Slaves were loyal to the sultan Controlled wealth & power in society When system ended in the mid-1600s, government and military declined The smartest & most talented were sent to the palace to be educated in literature, science, the arts, religion, and military skills. When mature, they were given the highest military and administrative posts in the state. Ideally, the devshirme system provided the state with a group of expert administrators who, because they had been separated from their families and homes, would remain loyal to the sultan, to whom they owed everything. These "slaves", rather than occupying the lowest level of the social order, controlled much of the wealth and power in Ottoman society. (more common domestic & agricultural slave also did exist) Until the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire was one of the greatest empires in the world. It has left a lasting legacy in the Balkans and the Middle East.

The Dreyfus Case, 1894

Stirrings of Anti-Semitism Capt. Alfred Dreyfus and Emile Zola A scandal that rocked France in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Dreyfus affair involved a Jewish artillery captain in the French army, Alfred Dreyfus (1859-1935), who was falsely convicted of passing military secrets to the Germans. Alfred Dreyfus, an obscure captain in the French army, came from a Jewish family that had left its native Alsace for Paris when Germany annexed that province in 1871. In 1894 papers discovered in a wastebasket in the office of a German military attaché made it appear that a French military officer was providing secret information to the German government. Dreyfus came under suspicion, probably because he was a Jew and also because he had access to the type of information that had been supplied to the German agent. The army authorities declared that Dreyfus' handwriting was similar to that on the papers. Despite his protestations of innocence he was found guilty of treason in a secret military court-martial, during which he was denied the right to examine the evidence against him. The army stripped him of his rank in a humiliating ceremony and shipped him off to [life imprisonment on] Devil's Island, a penal colony located off the coast of South America. The political right, whose strength was steadily increasing, cited Dreyfus' alleged espionage as further evidence of the failures of the Republic. Édouard Drumont's right-wing newspaper La Libre Parole intensified its attacks on the Jews, portraying this incident as further evidence of Jewish treachery. Dreyfus seemed destined to die in disgrace. He had few defenders, and anti-Semitism was rampant in the French army. An unlikely defender came to his rescue, motivated not by sympathy for Dreyfus but by the evidence that he had been "railroaded" and that the officer who had actually committed espionage remained in position to do further damage. Lieutenant Colonel Georges Picquart, an unapologetic anti-Semite, was appointed chief of army intelligence two years after Dreyfus was convicted. Picquart, after examining the evidence and investigating the affair in greater detail, concluded that the guilty officer was a Major named Walsin Esterhazy. Picquart soon discovered, however, that the army was more concerned about preserving its image than rectifying its error, and when he persisted in attempting to reopen the case the army transferred him to Tunisia. A military court then acquitted Esterhazy, ignoring the convincing evidence of his guilt. "The Affair" might have ended then but for the determined intervention of the novelist Émile Zola, who published his denunciation ("J'accuse!") of the army cover-up in a daily newspaper. At this point public passion became more aroused than ever, as the political right and the leadership of the Catholic Church — both of which were openly hostile to the Republic — declared the Dreyfus case to be a conspiracy of Jews and Freemasons designed to damage the prestige of the army and thereby destroy France. Sometime later another military officer discovered that additional documents had been added to the Dreyfus file. He determined that a lieutenant colonel (Hubert Henry) had forged the documents — which seemed to strengthen the case against Dreyfus — in anticipation that Dreyfus would be given a new trial. Immediately after an interrogation the lieutenant colonel committed suicide. In 1899 the army did in fact conduct a new court-martial which again found Dreyfus guilty and condenmed him to 10 years detention, although it observed that there were "extenuating circumstances." In September 1899, the president of France pardoned Dreyfus, thereby making it possible for him to return to Paris, but he had to wait until 1906 — twelve years after the case had begun — to be exonerated of the charges, after which he was restored to his former military rank. "The Affair" had inspired moderate republicans, Radicals, and socialists to work together, and the ultimate exoneration of Dreyfus strengthened the Republic, in no small part because of the conduct of its enemies, most notably the army and the Catholic hierarchy. In 1905 the Radical party, emphasizing the role of the Catholic leadership in the Dreyfus case, succeeded in passing legislation separating church and state.

SULEYMAN THE MAGNIFICENT ("THE LAW GIVER") R. 1520-1566 "CIRCLE OF JUSTICE"

Suleyman (1520-1566): extended all his borders, particularly those touching Habsburg lands in Europe in former Yugoslavia and Hungary. Although many were killed in war, Suleiman continued the Ottoman practice of integrating nobles and military men from the conquered territories into his own administration. If a governor submitted, he was allowed to retain his post, which helped to ensure the success of Ottoman conquests. Aspired to conquer more territory especially in Eastern Europe (for agricultural lands, timber, mines) and the Mediterranean (for rich commerce). Built the great wall around Jerusalem that is still standing today. He claimed to be "Lord of the two lands and two seas." His conquests provoked conflicts with the Portuguese in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean because the Portuguese hoped to chastise the "heathen" Ottomans (as I alluded to last time). Was the most feared ruler of a generation of monarchs including Henry VIII of Eng. And Charles V of Spain. Suleiman's court was renown for its intimidating aura where thousands of massed troops would stand for hours in absolute silence.

ISLAM AND THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

Sultan = caliph (head of Islam); Vezir=chief executive in Istanbul Divided the empire into Millets (religious communities or "nations" within the empire) Administered empire through pashas Divided the world into "the House of Islam" and the "House of War": where other meanings of "jihad" came from. Basically the part of the world ruled by Islam and Islamic Law and the part that wasn't (often substituted as the West). Sultan administered conquered regions through tribal leaders and delegated authority to local governors and top military-administrative officials (pashas), who collected taxes, maintained law and order and paid an annual tribute to the government. They were dependent on the sultan, who might suddenly change their assignments or revoked their land holdings. Conquered lands close to the capital were given Ottoman "fief" holders who were expected to bring cavalry contingents for military campaigns. At other times, they lived on their lands administering local affairs, collecting taxes, etc. They were different from European feudal lords in that they were not usually local residents and were often away fighting in wars. Conquered lands in distant provinces like Egypt were ruled flexibly.

Sumer, Cuneiform, Lugal

Sumer was the southernmost region of ancient Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq and Kuwait) which is generally considered the cradle of civilization. The name comes from Akkadian, the language of the north of Mesopotamia, and means "land of the civilized kings". The Sumerians called themselves "the black headed people" and their land, in cuneiform script, was simply "the land" or "the land of the black headed people". In the biblical Book of Genesis Sumer is known as Shinar. According to the Sumerian King List, when the gods first gave human beings the gifts necessary for cultivating society, they did so by establishing the city of Eridu in the region of Sumer. While the Sumerian city of Uruk is held to be the oldest city in the world, the ancient Mesopotamians believed that it was Eridu and that it was here that order was established and civilization began. The Sumerian civilization is the oldest form of civilization in Mesopotamia. They were the first that we know of to develop a complicated form of government, as well as a powerful city states full of professional trades with an agricultural society that supported this city state constituting a civilization. They created the first known writing system that has been discovered to date, and many of their Cuneiform Tablets still exist today to be studied and deciphered. They influenced the entire region in religion, law and government. Many civilizations after Sumer adopted their culture and way of life. There are many comparisons in the Bible and Genesis that I believed were influenced by the Sumerian Civilization. The Code of Hammurabi which is widely recognized for its archaeological importance was also influenced by the Sumerians.

Sunni and Shi'ite Split

Sunni and Shi'a Split Shi'a is 15 percent of Muslims today - 4th caliph only Ali was legit Sunni 85 percent of Muslims today - All caliphs The Shiites are concentrated in Iran, southern Iraq and southern Lebanon. But there are significant Shiite communities in Saudi Arabia and Syria, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India as well. Although the origins of the Sunni-Shiite split were violent, over the centuries Shiites and Sunnis lived peacefully together for long periods of time. But that appears to be giving way to a new period of spreading conflict in the Middle East between Shiites and Sunnis. The original split between Sunnis and Shiites occurred soon after the death of the Prophet Muhammad, in the year 632.

HAREM HALL, TOPKAPI PALACE

THE GATE OF THE TOPKAPI PALACE, THE OLDEST AND LARGEST OF THE REMAINING PALACES IN THE WORLD. The Topkapı Palace, or the Seraglio, is a large museum in Istanbul, Turkey. In the 15th century, it served as the main residence and administrative headquarters of the Ottoman sultans. It was built in between 1466 and 1478 by the sultan Mehmet II on top of a hill in a small peninsula, dominating the Golden Horn to the north, the Sea of Marmara to the south, and the Bosphorus strait to the north east, with great views of the Asian side as well. The palace was the political center of the Ottoman Empire between the 15th and 19th centuries, until they built Dolmabahce Palace by the waterside.

Places of Worship

Temple/Synagogue (Jewish) Church - Christian Mosque - muslim - Dome of the rock where muhammad rose to heaven

Assyrian Empire

The Assyrians were one of the major peoples to live in Mesopotamia during ancient times. They lived in northern Mesopotamia near the start of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The Assyrian Empire rose and fell several times throughout history. Map of the growth of the neo-Assyrian Empire by Ningyou. Interesting Facts About the Assyrians The great cities of the Assyrian Empire included Ashur, Nimrud, and Nineveh. Ashur was the capital of the original empire and also their main god. Tiglath-Pileser III built roads throughout the empire to enable his armies and messengers to travel quickly. The Assyrians were experts at siege warfare. They used battering rams, siege towers, and other tactics such as diverting water supplies in order to take a city. Their cities were strong and impressive. They had huge walls built to withstand a siege, many canals and aqueducts for water, and extravagant palaces for their kings

Turkish war of independence

The Turkish War of Independence was fought between the Turkish National Movement and the proxies of the Allies- namely Greece on the Western front, Armenia on the Eastern, France on the Southern and with them, the United Kingdom and Italy in Constantinople (now Istanbul)- after parts of the Ottoman Empire were occupied and partitioned following the Ottomans' defeat in World War I.[34][35][36] Few of the occupying British, French, and Italian troops had been deployed or engaged in combat. The Turkish National Movement in Anatolia culminated in the formation of a new Grand National Assembly by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and his colleagues. After the end of the Turkish-Armenian , Franco-Turkish , Greco-Turkish fronts (often referred to as the Eastern Front, the Southern Front, and the Western Front of the war, respectively), the Treaty of Sèvres was abandoned and the Treaties of Kars (October 1921) and Lausanne (July 1923) were signed. The Allies left Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, and the Grand National Assembly of Turkey decided on the establishment of a Republic in Turkey, which was declared on October 29, 1923. With the establishment of the Turkish National Movement, the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, and the abolition of the sultanate, the Ottoman era and the Empire came to an end, and with Atatürk's reforms, the Turks created the modern, secular nation-state of Turkey on the political front. On 3 March 1924, the Ottoman Caliphate was officially abolished and the last Caliph was exiled.

Causes for fall of Constantinople to Ottomans

The capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 was significant for a number of reasons. First, the capture of the city made the Ottomans the mostimportant power in southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean and began a long period of expansion for the Empire. It also ended the Eastern Roman Empire. The fall of Constantinople relates to the capture of the capital of the Byzantine Empire by the Ottoman Turks. The battle lasted from April 6 to May 29, 1453. This post recounts the causes which led to the war, as well as the effects on the rest of the European countries. The capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinoplewas conquered by the Ottoman Army, under the command Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II on 29th May 1453. With this conquest Ottomans became an Empire and one of the most powerful empires, The Eastern Roman Empire fell and lasted. Army and the military ranks mehter Campaigns Conquest of Constantinople was the conquest the conquest preparations after the conquest Mehmed the conqueror

Babylon

The city of Babylon makes its first appearance in our sources after the fall of the Empire of the Third Dynasty of Ur, which had ruled the city states of the alluvial plain between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris for more than a century (2112-2004?). An agricultural crisis meant the end of this centralized state, and several more or less nomadic tribes settled in southern Mesopotamia. One of these was the nation of the Amorites ("westerners"), which took over Isin, Larsa, and Babylon. Their kings are known as the First Dynasty of Babylon (1894-1595?). The area was reunited by Hammurabi, a king of Babylon of Amorite descent (1792-1750?). From his reign on, the alluvial plain of southern Iraq was called, with a deliberate archaism, Mât Akkadî, "the country of Akkad", after the city that had united the region centuries before. We call it Babylonia. It is one of the most fertile and rich parts of the ancient world.

People of the Book

The followers of Abrahamic religions, especially Jews and Christians, considered in Islamic theology and jurisprudence to practice monotheism, to share certain fundamental beliefs with Islam about life after death and the Day of Judgment, and to possess a revelation from God in a book. The People of the Book are usually entitled to the status of dhimmis in Muslim lands, and the term has at times been extended to include followers of non-Abrahamic religions, such as Zoroastrians and Sikhs.

Key Contributions of Mesopotamian Civilizations

The only things we know that people had in 1750 that the Sumerians did not have in 2500 BCE were: paper, the magnetic compass, iron smelting (they had meteoric iron) and gunpowder. The Sumerians had: writing (and printing in the form of stamps we call seals), arithmetic, astronomy, kings, priests, fabrics, drains, metals, glass, sailing boats, mass-produced bowls and long trading routes over sea and land (at least 2,500 miles over land to get lapis lazuli).

Book of the Dead

The text consists of a number of magic spells intended to assist a dead person's journey through the Duat, or underworld, and into the afterlife. REVIEW THE BOOK

Center of the Ottoman Empire - The Creation of Turkey and Women's Rights 1923-38 - Istanbul

Treaty of Lausanne, 1923 - TREATY THAT CONCLUDED WWI Modern Turkey Is Born.

Underground vs. Insitutional Religion

Undergrounds is obscure and not definite Institutional religion in which belief systems and rituals are systematically arranged and formally established.

Women in Israel

Women have held positions of respect in Judaism since biblical times. Their opinion is very important in traditional Judaism; women and men are equal. Women's obligations and responsabilities are different for men's, but not less important. According to Isaraeli people women are endowed with a greater degree of "BINAH" (intuition, understanding and intelligent). Althought there are many fields in which women are absent. One of them is politics. In Israel women's representation in politics is lower than their overall proportion in the population. Politics is perceived as a male domain while the domestics sphere is perceived as the natural province of women. Other field is education. Women in Isarel are discouraged from pursuing higher education , but this seems not to be effective because women give more priority to their duties as wives and mothers. Women's rigths are very similar to men's in their culture. Israeli women have the right to vote. Israeli women have the rigth to buy, sell and own property. Make their own contracts.They have the right to be consulted with regard to their marriage.Marital sex is regarded as the woman's right and no the man's. Women are protected by law from discrimination. In conclusion the primary role of a Israeli women is as wife and mother, "keeper of the household". But in this culture this role is not despise, however Judaism has great respect for the importance of that position and the spiritual influence that a woman has over her family.

Women in Egypt

Women's Roles. In general, men and women had different roles in the society of Ancient Egypt. However, unlike in many ancient civilizations, women were considered men's equals under the law. Just like men, women could run businesses, borrow money, and own property.

Atatürk's Reforms

republicanism, nationalism, secularism, populism, statism, reformism

Women in Mesopotamia

women who came from a sector of society that could afford to have statues made, placed their likenesses in temple shrines. This was done so that their images would stand in constant prayer while they continued to go about their daily chores. This female worshipper statue wears a standard fashion of the time, a simple draped dress with her right shoulder bare and hair done up in elaborate braided coils. The Mesopotamian woman's role was strictly defined. She was the daughter of her father or the wife of her husband. Women rarely acted as individuals outside the context of their families. Those who did so were usually royalty or the wives of men who had power and status. Most girls were trained from childhood for the traditional roles of wife, mother, and housekeeper. They learned how to grind grain, how to cook and make beverages, especially beer, and how to spin and weave cloth for clothing. If a woman worked outside of her home, her job usually grew out of her household tasks. She might sell the beer she brewed, or even become a tavern keeper. Childbearing and childcare roles led women to become midwives and also to create medicines that prevented pregnancy or produced abortions. Soon after puberty, a young girl was considered ready for marriage. The families of the future bride and groom arranged marriages. Ceremonies have been described where the future husband poured perfume on the head of the bride. He also gave her family money and other presents. Once a woman was engaged, she was considered part of her fiancé's family. If her husband-to-be died before the wedding, she was then married to one of his brothers or another male relative.