Global History 1: Last Unit of the Year Day 4

Effects of the Columbian Exchange

1. Different Foods: Exchange of foods, animals had dramatic impact on later societies. Over time crops native to Americas became staples in diets of Europeans. Foods provided substantial nutrition, helped people live longer 2. Economics and Gastronomics: Activities like Texas cattle ranching, Brazilian coffee growing not possible without Columbian Exchange; cows, coffee native to Old World. Traditional cuisines changed because of Columbian Exchange 3. Italian Food Without Tomatoes? Until contact with Americas, Europeans had never tried tomatoes. Most Europeans thought tomatoes poisonous. By late 1600s, tomatoes had begun to be included in Italian cookbooks 4.The Introduction of New Diseases: Native Americans had no natural resistance to European diseases. Smallpox, measles, influenza, malaria killed millions. Population of central Mexico may have decreased by more than 30 percent in the 10 years following first contact with Europeans 5. Devastating Impact: Native American population continued to decline for centuries. Inca Empire decreased from 13 million in 1492 to 2 million in 1600. North American population fell from 2 million in 1492 to 500,000 in 1900—but disease not only factor in decrease of population. Intermittent warfare, other violence also contributed

How did the Mayas contribute to their world (i.e. advancements)

1. Glyphs: Mayans created the most advanced pre-colonial writing in the Western Hemisphere. Over 800 different images were used to record their history 2. Language: The Maya developed an independent Hieroglyphic language. The Spanish destroyed most of the Mayan writings. They were not seen as having any value. Their language was not translated until the 20th century. 3. Calendar: The Maya developed a calendar that had two different parts. It had a solar calendar with 365 days, divided into 18 months with 20 days each with 5 extra days at the end. A Lunar calendar and a Calendar based on the movement of the Planet Venus. This was a sacred calendar with 260 days and 13 weeks of 20 days each. 4. Maya Counting System: The Mayans had a number system consisting of shells, dots, and lines. You could write up to nineteen with just these symbols. The Maya were one of the only ancient civilizations that understood the concept of zero. This allowed them to write very large numbers

How were Maya cities organized (socially, politically)

1. Halach Uinic: This was a hereditary position. It was passed down from father to son only. His powers were wide. He was almost an absolute ruler. 2. Batabs: There were all chosen from the noble class so this post was also hereditary. They were to see to it that the laws, taxes and policies were enforced. 3. Priesthood: Usually through the astronomers and astrologers and mathematicians were from this. 4. Ppolms: The merchants and traders. They were often used as and suspected of being spies who carried information from one city to another. 5. Peasants: Majority of Mayas were farmers who grew corn, beans and squash. Men cultivated while women made food. Paid taxes in food and helped build temples.

Why did the Aztecs live in such a challenging place? (hint: relate back to religion

1240's: The Valley of Mexico had different tribes fighting for power. When the Aztecs arrived (1248), they were a small tribe but much of the land had been taken, so they started offering their services as mercenaries. The Aztecs wanted to increase their power, so they arranged for a princess from another tribe to marry into their own. When she arrived, they killed her, took out her heart, and skinned her. When her family showed up for the "wedding" they saw what had happened. The Aztecs were chased out and had to retreat to the marshy island in the middle of Lake Texcoco. The Aztecs looked to their gods for advice as they roamed. They followed the saying of God. After seeing an eagle with a snake in its beak on the island, the Aztecs knew they had found the right place!

Why were the Aztecs considered to be naïve and how did this lead to theircdownfall?

1519-Cortes and his men land in Mexico with 600 men. Context of the time- Aztecs ruled the entire Valley of Mexico, ruling mostly through tribute system. When the Spanish landed, there was NOT immediate violence. The Aztecs thought that Cortes was the human form of one of their gods, Quetzalcoatl. Legend said that Quetzalcoatl would return to earth and had light skin, red hair and light eyes. Cortes happened to match this description. Cortes and his men will completely and quickly destroy the city by first tricking the Aztecs into thinking they are friends, and then using surprise attack methods. They will rename the city Mexico City. Also, the Aztecs had internal problems that made it easier for Spanish to conquer them: Areas forced to pay tributes to Aztecs felt resentment towards the Aztecs. So...tribute areas formed alliances with the Spanish. Famous example of such an alliance: Native girl, Malinche, who spoke both the native tongue and Spanish. She helped the Spanish by leading them to Tenochititlan and giving away Aztec tactics. Today her name in Mexico means traitor. Aztecs felt resentment for Moctezuma for allowing Cortes in (and seeing Tenochtitlan destroyed). Breakdown of Aztecs after this

How did the Spanish colonies forever alter the world and new world? o New trade networks? o New social structure in new world and cultural blending? o Which resource was highly sought after? How did this impact world economics.

As natives and foreigners started to intermarry, the actual "look" of the New World changed. Lead to the development of new social structure. Peninsulares- From Spain. Creoles: American born Spanish descendents. Mestizos- Mix of N.A. and European. Mulattoes- Mix ofEuropean. and black. Pure Native America or Black. Art and religion in the New World: Cultural blending with Native Americans. the Native become Christian(ish) Cultural blending even applied to architecture! When Columbus brought new foods back to Spain he started a world wide network of trade (of food, weapons, animals, and diseases) called the Columbian Exchange. New types of food! Ex. Chicken and rice! Ex. Argentinean Beef

How did the Spanish explorers think of the Aztecs? (Find evidence to support that they thought they were barbaric and the argument that they thought they were advanced)

Aztec Cities: Magnificent architecture. Buildings made out of durable materials: stone and cedar wood. Cities contained orchards and gardens. Markets for trading; multiple types of goods. Cities contained high populations (40,000-50,000) But cities were tightly controlled by the government; strict officers to keep the peace and collect taxes. Evidence of a judicial system (12 judges!) however, they thought the rituals for religion and human sacrifice were barbaric

How did the Aztec culture of war help them build an empire?

Aztec growth: Main Mechanism- War. 1400's: height of Aztec power. The people were told that they were chosen by the gods. The men were taught to be warriors but were also highly religious. War was a central part of the culture b/c one of the main Aztec gods was Huitzilopochtili (god of war, sun god) and the Aztecs wanted to please him; this therefore led to the use of human sacrifice. Aztecs fought often with Tlaxcala. Tlaxcala shared the language and culture of the Aztecs. They participated in "flower wars" with the Aztecs in order to give prisoners for sacrifice. Flower wars were not about land/killing. It was more like "capture the sacrifice victim!"

Flower Wars

Aztecs fought often with Tlaxcala. Tlaxcala shared the language and culture of the Aztecs. They participated in "flower wars" with the Aztecs in order to give prisoners for sacrifice. Flower wars were not about land/killing. It was more like "capture the sacrifice victim!"

How did other nations react to Spanish colonization?

Because Spain and Portugal had colonies and trade posts in Africa and Asia, "New World" foods like peppers, tomatoes, potatoes, and corn became staples there too. These new foods led to an increase in population in Europe and Asia! Portugal will establish colonies in Brazil but will not find as much gold/silver as the Spanish. England, France were also establishing colonies along the USA's coast and in Canada (13 colonies)...but...there was no gold there "I'd like to see Adam's will, wherein he divided the Earth between Spain and Portugal." - French King Francis I. The Dutch and English- try to defy the mercantilist policies. Encouraged pirates to raid Spanish ships. Queen Elizabeth sent many fleets to steal from Spanish colonies and ships (remember...Spain does not like her...)Pirates targeted Spanish transport ships and settlements, hoping to steal their gold and silver. England, France, and Holland supported these efforts. English Colonists also killed & displaced Indians

What were the benefits/detriments of Incas ruling style?

Benefits of Inca ruling style: organized: everyone had a role. Steady industry. The poor were taken care of. Good living conditions for all. Little gap between the rich and the poor (which prevents other types of problems) peaceful. Detriments of Inca ruling style: One couldn't "better his condition" or move up! No freedom to make own choices (strict gov't) People could easily be manipulated. People were forced to move if the gov't wanted that. Motivation- hard to instill (this can inhibit development) Don't be fooled. "Equality" among the community had grey areas Common People Had No Freedom. The Incas were very class conscious and were divided into nobles and common people. The nobles pretty much did what they wanted, while the common people were tightly controlled by the government. Commoners could not own or run businesses. They could only do their assigned jobs. The law did not allow them to be idle. Even the amount of time they had to sleep and bathe was controlled by a government official. Take home point: Due to the unique terrain of the Andes/Chilean Coastline, the Inca MUST develop a strong centralized government!

What geographic features/characteristics existed in the Inca region? o Which feature(s) is/are unique compared to other cultures we studied?

By mid 1400's: conquered 2500 miles (running north to south) It was the largest empire of the Americas! Stretched from modern day Peru to Chile. High altitude. Varying weather climates (snow peaked mountains, desert terrain, lush warm climates too!) Tall mountains (Andes Mountains) Rainforest. access to Pacific Ocean (but a narrow coastline) Limited farm land. Located on the "ring of fire"- prone to earthquakes. Located on the N-S axis. The Andes run north to south! Unique features produced: 1. Over 100 Different Types of Potatoes Cultivated by the Incans 2. Produce from a Typical Incan Market 3. Also produced- corn and quinoa 4. Region of Latin America: Meso America (Mexico-Central America)- Domesticated Plants: Corns, beans, squash, Domesticated Animals: turkey. South America (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, etc)- Potatoes, corn, peppers, tomatoes, Llama, alpaca, guinea pig. llamas- can maneuver the land; pack animals

Creole

Colonies are not allowed to trade with other nations. Preview to Sophomore Year: This REALLY bothers the Creoles.

Moctezuma

Cortes will face the Aztec leader Motecuhzoma.

Why were these geographic features challenging? - High altitude/ Andes mountains

Develop in isolation/hard to unify. Hard to trade. Limited movement

Peninsulares

Enslaved persons- brought from Africa and the Caribbean (Why distinguish between the Peninsulares and the Creoles?? Those born in Spain were thought to be more loyal to the Spanish) Solution #2:Spain divided the land into territories and had viceroys (gov't representatives) rule in each region. They were ALWAYS the Peninsulares. Church leaders were often officials in the land and helped to regulate activities (mixing of religion and gov't to reinforce Christianity) Solution

What immediate threat faced the natives?

Europeans carried measles, small pox. Became a "survival of fittest" scenario. Europeans genes had developed a resistance/immunity to some of these diseases. In some areas, native population declined 90% However "survival of fittest" mentality also lead to violence (Christopher Colombus)

Lake Texcoco

Even though their empire will grow to be this large, the Aztecs will initially settle near Lake Texcoco

Why were these geographic features challenging? - Limited farmland

Food was difficult to produce

Know the general order: Which society came first, second, third in Mesoamerican history

Formative or Pre-classic - 2000 B.C. until A.D. 300 Classic - 300 until 900. Post-classic - 900 until the Spanish Inquisition in the 1400s

Edict of Nantes

French royal decree establishing toleration for Huguenots (Protestants). It granted freedom of worship and legal equality for Huguenots within limits, and ended the Wars of Religion.

Huitzilopochtili

God of War/Sun God. The Aztecs men were taught to be warriors but were also highly religious. War was a central part of the culture b/c one of the main Aztec gods was Huitzilopochtili (god of war, sun god) and the Aztecs wanted to please him; this therefore led to the use of human sacrifice.

Oliver Cromwell

He was elected to Short and Long Parliaments of 1640 and became known as a radical Puritan. During the English Civil Wars he served as a general on the parliamentarian side.

What are some indicators of social class (hint: think about what the skeletal structures reveal)

High class ( nobles, priests, and royalty) had jade embedded into their teeth. Seem strange? Keep in mind—it was jewelry to them! The Mayas did not have domesticated animals so people had to do all the manual labor. In order to effectively carry large stones the Mayas had to reshape the structure of their skulls. This was done to low class people who did manual labor, farming, etc. The skeletal structure was reshaped when the person was a baby. Each city state had its own king, but they all followed the same basic social class structure. Warfare was common between city states (so not a whole lot of unity) A trade system existed through which salt, obsidian, jade, cacao, animal pelts, tropical bird feathers, luxury ceramics and other goods flowed. Goods from the highlands were trade with those of the lowlands. People bartered goods (no money economy)

Cortes (Cortez)

In 1519- Hernando Cortes arrives in Mexico. Cortes will face the Aztec leader Motecuhzoma.

Pizarro

In 1533- Francisco Pizarro invades Peru. Pizarro and Cortes are called conquistadors (Spanish leaders who conquered the new world) Pizarro will face the Inca leader Atahuallapa

What was Aztec government structure like? How were tributary states ruled?

In Aztec society, there was one king that ruled the whole empire, compared to Mayan society which had a separate king for each city state. New emperors were elected by a high council of four nobles who were related to the previous ruler. Emperors were usually chosen from among the brothers or sons of the deceased ruler. They were required to be nobles, to be over the age of 30, to have been educated at one of the elite schools, to be experienced warriors and military leaders, and to be just. Although the emperor had absolute power and was believed to be a representative of the gods, he governed with the assistance of four advisers and one senior adviser who were elected by the nobility. Many of the tributary states worked against each other to capture humans to give the Aztecs, decreasing any chance for them to form an alliance against the Aztecs.

Cuzco

Inca Architecture (place: Cusco):walls were built without mortar between the stones and have withstood centuries of earthquakes.

Why were these geographic features challenging? - Rainforest

Limit movement; hard to live in; hard to expand

Why were these geographic features challenging? - Pacific Ocean nearby, but it's a narrow coastline

Limits movement/expansion

Machu Picchu

MACHU PICCHU was a city built high in the Andes Mountains. It had no defense system, but it was high up in the mountains. We don't really know what it was used for. It could only house about 1000 people. Religious purposes? It was built out of granite rock which could withstand earthquakes better. The Incas built over 14,000 miles of roads. It reached heights of 16,000 feet. Some of the roads are still in use-able condition. The Incas did not have use of the wheel, so mostly the roads were used by people to relay messages and to transport troops. There were lodges and places for supplies stationed along the way. The roads also connected the main capital Cuzco to other major cities. Incan Innovations! Inca Roads near Machu Picchu: This road is built along the side of a cliff. The engineering is awe-inspiring.Inca Bridge and Road near Machu Picchu. The road is built on the cliff side and the bridge is made of a few wood beams. The road continues up the cliff side to the right.

How did religion influence behavior/life of the Mayas? What were their beliefs?

Mayan Religious Beliefs: 1. Believed that Gods controlled everything; there was an underworld. Polytheism = Belief in many Gods. 2. Food and animal sacrifices common; humans (such as defeated tribes) sometimes. 3. Priests had great influence because Mayans thought priests could talk to the Gods. 4. Gods symbolized as animals: Rain God = snake, Sun God = Jaguar, Death God= bat. 5. Human sacrifice: It did happen. Religion: Bloodletting Rituals: Mayans believed the shedding of human blood would prompt the gods to send rain to water the maize. Bloodletting involved both war captives and Mayan royals. A popular bloodletting ritual was for a Maya to pierce his own tongue and thread a thin rope through the hole, thus letting the blood run down the rope. Religion: The Ball Game: Mayans inherited a ball game, Pok-A-Tok, from the Olmecs that was an important part of Mayan political and religious festivals. The object of the game was to move a hard rubber ball without the use of hands or feet through a hoop. There is debate whether it was the losing team or the winning team that was sacrificed.

How did their society decline? and their early history in the valley)

Mayan towns randomly abandoned by 900 A.D. Possible causes: Overpopulation, Depleting resources, Wars, High taxes?

Mercantilism

Mercantilism: Mercantilism: Economic policy to strengthen national power; Use colonies to benefit the mother country by having colonies send products over. Colonies are not allowed to trade with other nations. Preview to Sophomore Year: This REALLY bothers the Creoles.

Mestizo

Mestizos- born of Spanish and Native American Indian parents. Mestizos- Mix of N.A. and European.

Mulatto

Mulattoes- Mix ofEuropean. and black. Pure Native America or Black

Why were these geographic features challenging? - Located on the North/South Axis and prone to earthquakes

Only certain types of crops can grow; hard to trade; communication difficult

Versailles

Palace of Versailles, which was built by King Louis xiv in the seventeenth century and was the royal residence for over one hundred years.

The fate of the Inca after the Battle of Cajamarca

Pizarro captured Atallhuapa and promised to let him go if the Inca paid in gold. They acquiesced, but Pizarro murdered him anyways. From there, the Inca were leaderless and their weapon technology was no match for the Spanish. So, to use Diamond's book title, the Spanish won using "Guns, Germs, and Steel" (and the element of surprise)

Atahualpa

Pizarro will face the Inca leader Atahuallapa

Clash at Cajamarca

Pizarro will lead expeditions into South America. He was part of Balbo's expedition to central America and he heard rumors about a powerful empire to the south. He convinced the Spanish government to fund an expedition for him to further explore. 1526- he came across an Inca trading post, captured the people and forced them to be his interpreters. 1531- he led a group of 180 soldiers to Cajamarca, where he heard the Inca king would be, and that he would be vulnerable from just fighting a civil war.

Why were the Incas so easy to conquer?

Pizarro will lead expeditions into South America. He was part of Balbo's expedition to central America and he heard rumors about a powerful empire to the south. He convinced the Spanish government to fund an expedition for him to further explore. 1526- he came across an Inca trading post, captured the people and forced them to be his interpreters. 1531- he led a group of 180 soldiers to Cajamarca, where he heard the Inca king would be, and that he would be vulnerable from just fighting a civil war. Pizarro learned about strategies (surprise attack and capture the leader) used by past conquistadors (Cortes) Incas did not have a writing system where they could record strategies. "Geographic no luck:" Ideas, technologies hard to pass from north to south (so Inca's couldn't benefit from Mayan or Aztec ideas or learn from their mistakes) Spanish had better weapons: horses and steel the natives were terrified of this and thought the gods were angry

Aztec Punishments

Punishments included restitution, loss of office, destruction of the offender's home, prison sentences, slavery, and shaving the offender's head. For certain crimes, punishment could extend to the family of the guilty party. The Aztecs had a prison system, which included death row the (a debtors' prison, the petlacalli (a prison for individuals who were found guilty of minor crimes), and a fourth type of prison which involved a judge drawing lines or placing sticks on the ground and ordering the prisoner not to cross them. Conditions in the petlacalli were so harsh that many prisoners died while in custody. Numerous offenses were punishable by death, including homicide, perjury, rape, abortion, highway robbery, moving boundary markers, serious defamation of character, destruction of crops, selling stolen property, weight and measure fraud, witchcraft, incest, official graft, pederasty, inciting a public disturbance, sedition, treason, desertion or insubordination by soldiers, use of the emperor's insignia, and serious judicial misconduct. Capital punishment could be carried out through hanging, drowning, stoning, strangulation, beheading, beating, disembowelment, burning, quartering, and opening the chest to remove the perpetrator's heart.

Quipu

Quipu was a system of knots used to keep tax records, census records, military information, etc. The knots were based on a system of 10. The Inca didn't have a writing system until the Spanish arrived, so this was the only way to keep records.

Spanish arrival in the New World

Remember, certain Spanish explorers laid the groundwork for colonization (1492)Columbus- discovered the new world/natives in Caribbean (1513) Balboa explores central America and is the first to see the pacific ocean. In 1519- Hernando Cortes arrives in Mexico. In 1533- Francisco Pizarro invades Peru. Pizarro and Cortes are called conquistadors (Spanish leaders who conquered the new world) Cortes will face the Aztec leader Motecuhzoma. Pizarro will face the Inca leader Atahuallapa

How did the practice of human sacrifice help the Aztecs build an empire?

Sacrifice was used as a political tool (not just a religious one). It evoked fear in their tributary states and in the Spanish.

How did Christianity subdue the Natives?

Shock and Awe! The Spaniards built impressive churches of gold to show dominance. The message is "Our God beat yours. Submit!" If you don't submit we will torture you. The Spanish Inquisition came to the Americas to root out Native heresy!

Encomienda

The Encomenienda System: Sugar cane became a valuable product and was grown on plantations (large estates) and required a large labor force. The Spanish were allowed to force Natives to work on the land b/c Spanish kings granted them encomiendas (right to demand labor from natives and kill any rebels) The Encomienda System: Queen Isabella decreed that the Natives should NOT be enslaved. However, the Natives should work the land of the Spanish colonists AND pay tribute. In exchange, the Encomienderos would protect the Natives from other tribes, pirates, and help them to convert to Christianity.

How did the Spanish maintain control in the new world? o Know the top 5 solutions/policies they enacted in the new world!

Solution #1- Establish a Social Hierarchy: 1. Peninsulares- Spaniards born in Spain, Born in Spain, Has all the privileged positions. 2. Creoles- born in New Spain of Spanish parents, Born in the Americas but descended from the Spanish, Is excluded from positions of power. 3. Mestizos- born of Spanish and Native American Indian parents 4. Enslaved persons- brought from Africa and the Caribbean (Why distinguish between the Peninsulares and the Creoles?? Those born in Spain were thought to be more loyal to the Spanish) Solution #2:Spain divided the land into territories and had viceroys (gov't representatives) rule in each region. They were ALWAYS the Peninsulares. Church leaders were often officials in the land and helped to regulate activities (mixing of religion and gov't to reinforce Christianity) Solution #3- Mercantilism: Mercantilism: Economic policy to strengthen national power; Use colonies to benefit the mother country by having colonies send products over. Colonies are not allowed to trade with other nations. Preview to Sophomore Year: This REALLY bothers the Creoles. Solution #4- The Encomenienda System: Sugar cane became a valuable product and was grown on plantations (large estates) and required a large labor force. The Spanish were allowed to force Natives to work on the land b/c Spanish kings granted them encomiendas (right to demand labor from natives and kill any rebels) The Encomienda System: Queen Isabella decreed that the Natives should NOT be enslaved. However, the Natives should work the land of the Spanish colonists AND pay tribute. In exchange, the Encomienderos would protect the Natives from other tribes, pirates, and help them to convert to Christianity. Solution #5- Christianity: golden churches

What tactics/strategies did the Aztecs use to rule their empire?

Strategy #1: Tributary state rule. Aztecs conquered territory by forcing areas to become tributary states. By 1500, the empire included 30 million people. Tributary states were expected to give taxes (goods) and if needed, humans for sacrifice. But...not all societies were conquered. There were pockets that were strong enough to resist Aztec military. Strategy #2: Aztec human sacrifice. Aztecs believed that their gods sacrificed themselves for the human race/ universe; therefore, humans had to also make sacrifices to sustain the universe. Sacrifice ceremonies helped to unite the people and enforce religious concepts. So a human sacrifice was a "donation" of blood to the gods. Just like the Mayans! It was typical to take out the heart b/c that was thought to be a fragment of the sun. Sacrifices took place on the top of a temple with priests conducting the ceremony. The abdomen was slit open, and the still beating human heart ripped out. The heart was placed in a sacred bowl. The body was thrown down the stairs. Sometimes the audience would start to stab themselves too! It was considered a honor to be sacrificed and very few people tried to escape (unless you were a prisoner)

Toyotomi Hideyoshi

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How did Teotihuacan help the Aztecs lay the groundwork for a civilization?

Teotihuacan was a city that existed before the Aztecs (150 B.C.- 750 A.D.) perhaps built by a culture called the Toltecs. It had a population of 125,000-200,000 people! It was 30 miles away and the Aztecs used it as a model to build their own city. They also believed the world was started by the gods in that city. The city was laid out in a grid like structure based on a north-south axis. It housed many craft shops, and markets for trade, and assembly halls for government. Giant temples influenced Aztec builidng making- giant stones were used and frescoes to decorate. Religious rituals and traditions also influenced Aztecs. Quetzalcoatl was the god of the Dawn (light) worshipped by the people in Teotihuacan. The Aztecs adopted this god as one of the main gods in their city —Tenochtitlan. Quetzalcoatl was a mix of a bird and a rattle snake (sound familiar?)

Teotihuacan

Teotihuacan was a city that existed before the Aztecs (150 B.C.- 750 A.D.) perhaps built by a culture called the Toltecs. It had a population of 125,000-200,000 people! It was 30 miles away and the Aztecs used it as a model to build their own city. They also believed the world was started by the gods in that city. The city was laid out in a grid like structure based on a north-south axis. It housed many craft shops, and markets for trade, and assembly halls for government. Giant temples influenced Aztec builidng making- giant stones were used and frescoes to decorate. Religious rituals and traditions also influenced Aztecs. Quetzalcoatl was the god of the Dawn (light) worshipped by the people in Teotihuacan. The Aztecs adopted this god as one of the main gods in their city —Tenochtitlan. Quetzalcoatl was a mix of a bird and a rattle snake (sound familiar?)

Andes mountains

The Andes run north to south! - Incas

Tenochtitlan

The Aztec City.

What were Aztec laws like? Who did they usually favor? o What are some similarities/differences from the US legal system?

The Aztecs had a legal system! The Aztec word for justice was Tlamelahuacachinali, which meant straight line, or straighten that which is twisted. There were courts with judges; judges were appointed by the emperor. The accused was given a chance to confront accuser in court. No lawyers but you could bring a friend/relative to help you state your case. The judge came to a conclusion by questioning witnesses, defendants and plantiffs. Witnesses had to swear strict oaths in the name of Huitzilopochtili to tell the truth. They then had to kiss the ground. Perjury- punishable by death. Unfortunately the Aztecs didn't really record any of their laws. They were passed down by word of mouth or recorded in poems and stories. They were in the process of writing them down when the Spanish arrived. What we know comes from oral accounts and any accounts the Spanish referenced.

allyus

The Inca were organized into ayllus (close knit communities) Farmers worked on their own land, emperor's land and temple plots too. All products belonged to the Inca community—not to one man. Everyone worked for the state! People didn't really have "fixed property" Laziness was not tolerated, and was seen as a crime

How did the Incas overcome and adapt to their geographic challenges?

The Incas built over 14,000 miles of roads. It reached heights of 16,000 feet. Some of the roads are still in use-able condition. The Incas did not have use of the wheel, so mostly the roads were used by people to relay messages and to transport troops. There were lodges and places for supplies stationed along the way. The roads also connected the main capital Cuzco to other major cities. Incan Innovations! Inca Roads near Machu Picchu: This road is built along the side of a cliff. The engineering is awe-inspiring. Inca Terraces and food storerooms (place: Winay Wayna)The Incas used terrace farming to grow crops. Quipu was a system of knots used to keep tax records, census records, military information, etc. The knots were based on a system of 10. The Inca didn't have a writing system until the Spanish arrived, so this was the only way to keep records. Inca rope bridges were made of mountain grass and could support a large amount of weight. Inca Bridge and Road near Machu Picchu. The road is built on the cliff side and the bridge is made of a few wood beams. The road continues up the cliff side to the right. Inca Architecture (place: Cusco):walls were built without mortar between the stones and have withstood centuries of earthquakes.

Mesoamerica

The Mayans were influenced by the Olmecs (mother culture) Olmecs 1500 B.C.- 900 B.C. They were inspired by basic ideas about religion, writing (although the language isn't the same) and architecture/art forms. They developed in an area called Mesoamerica

Middle Passage

The Middle Passage: It was apart of the Triangular Trade network; it refers to the journey Africans experienced in getting to the Americas. Conditions were cramped, dirty and overcrowded. It was also dark (disorienting) Slaves endured violence and were treated as cargo. Dehumanization: Chained together, Forced to be naked. Equiano's description reflects hopeless and helpless feeling; loss of trust; low self esteem. Slaves tried to adapt by bringing over their own cultural customs (dance, food, music)

How did they treat the natives and how did they justify this?

The Spanish were allowed to force Natives to work on the land b/c Spanish kings granted them encomiendas (right to demand labor from natives and kill any rebels) The Encomienda System: Queen Isabella decreed that the Natives should NOT be enslaved. However, the Natives should work the land of the Spanish colonists AND pay tribute. In exchange, the Encomienderos would protect the Natives from other tribes, pirates, and help them to convert to Christianity. Violent actions were used against the natives. But some people felt it was necessary in order to introduce Christianity to them. Some Europeans felt the natives were also hostile against them too. Europeans definitely had an ethnocentric/arrogant attitude

How did the Inca govern so many diverse cultures?

The empire was diverse! It was made up of 100 different cultures. They practiced a polytheistic religion; the main god was Inti (the Sun God) Inca technically refers to the ruling family, but nowadays we use it to describe the 100+ cultures that the Inca ruled

Inti

The empire was diverse! It was made up of 100 different cultures. They practiced a polytheistic religion; the main god was Inti (the Sun God) Inca technically refers to the ruling family, but nowadays we use it to describe the 100+ cultures that the Inca ruled

Triangular trade

The slave trade was a triangular network: Goods were sent to Africa from Europe and to the colonies. Africa sent over slaves to the new world to fill labor needs. The new world sent back new types of crops (Columbian exchange network!) African leaders motivated by economic needs (trade) and political needs (power) African leaders saw this an opportunity to compete with one another for power

Who were the Mayans?

Their main influence lasted around 300-850 A.D.. Maya refers to an ethnic group/culture that existed long ago AND continued to exist even after the cities'/civilization main collapse So Maya people exist today! Maya= culture/ethnic group. Mayan= the language they speak. The Mayans were influenced by the Olmecs (mother culture) Olmecs 1500 B.C.- 900 B.C. They were inspired by basic ideas about religion, writing (although the language isn't the same) and architecture/art forms. They developed in an area called Mesoamerica. Mayans: ~250 A.D.- 900 A.D Although there were Mayan people before this too (just not a civilization yet). Existed on Yucatan Peninsula. Existed BEFORE the Spanish ever arrived. Existed at same time as: Ancient Rome—Middle Ages. Han dynasty—Song/Tang. Byzantium. Spread of religions of Christianity, Islam, Buddhism. Gupta dynasty. Early Southeast Asia kingdoms. Umyyad and Abbasid dynasty. Influenced the cultures of the Aztecs and Incas (they will come later)

Pachacuti

There was one ruler; he was referred to as the sapa Inca. Had a capital city Cuzco that was the richest city in this part of the world. One ruler in particular, Pachacuti, helped to strengthen the empire by focusing on conquest.

What was unique about how the Inca were governed?

There was one ruler; he was referred to as the sapa Inca. Had a capital city Cuzco that was the richest city in this part of the world. One ruler in particular, Pachacuti, helped to strengthen the empire by focusing on conquest. The empire was diverse! It was made up of 100 different cultures. They practiced a polytheistic religion; the main god was Inti (the Sun God) Inca technically refers to the ruling family, but nowadays we use it to describe the 100+ cultures that the Inca ruled. The Sapa Inca, as ruler of the people, claimed divine heritage and direct descent from the Sun; they were literally the living son of Inti. Sapa Inca was the ruler of the Kingdom of Cusco and later, the Emperor of the Inca Empire. Incan Governing Approaches: They did not engage in war with conquered people. When expanding, they did not use violence against enemy's homes/property. The gov't provided food during shortages. Conquered society could keep their own religion. Representatives in each capital of the province helped the sapa inca rule (collect taxes, conduct census, etc) The King would make personal visits and enforced a fair legal code. Used quipu to keep records. Uniform language of Cuzco was enforced. The Inca were organized into ayllus (close knit communities) Farmers worked on their own land, emperor's land and temple plots too. All products belonged to the Inca community—not to one man. Everyone worked for the state! People didn't really have "fixed property" Laziness was not tolerated, and was seen as a crime

Sapa inca

There was one ruler; he was referred to as the sapa Inca. The Sapa Inca, as ruler of the people, claimed divine heritage and direct descent from the Sun; they were literally the living son of Inti. Sapa Inca was the ruler of the Kingdom of Cusco and later, the Emperor of the Inca Empire.

How did the Aztecs overcome the geographic challenges of living in this area? (worksheet too)

They created pillars filled with rock/sand to keep structures from sinking. They built causeways to connect them to the mainland chinampas: "floating gardens" small rectangular areas of fertile land used to grow crops in shallow lake area. Made of wet mud and reeds. Canals connected each segment and also allowed for irrigation produced high yield of crop

Why was living in the Yucatan region geographically challenging for the Mayans?

Thick, dense jungles. Periods of high heat and drought (Nov-April) Also have wet seasons but rainfall is extreme and can cause flooding (May- Oct) Mountainous regions to the south and jungles to the north→ separate city states. These features made it difficult for people to farm, expand and unify their territories! And instead, jungle cities developed!

Why were these geographic features challenging?

Top Problems for the Inca: Building space/stability of buildings. Ability to produce enough food. Expansion. Trade opportunities (mountains blockade, difficult region to travel through) Unity

Tributary states

Tributary state rule. Aztecs conquered territory by forcing areas to become tributary states. By 1500, the empire included 30 million people. Tributary states were expected to give taxes (goods) and if needed, humans for sacrifice. But...not all societies were conquered. There were pockets that were strong enough to resist Aztec military.

Why were these geographic features challenging? - Varying weather conditions

Types of resources needed will greatly vary by region

Olaudah Equiano

a writer and abolitionist from the Igbo region of what is today southeastern Nigeria

Louis XIV

france king

Viceroy

gov officials

Chinampas

hey built causeways to connect them to the mainland chinampas: "floating gardens" small rectangular areas of fertile land used to grow crops in shallow lake area. Made of wet mud and reeds. Canals connected each segment and also allowed for irrigation produced high yield of crop

Immunity

immune to disease

Absolute ruler/monarch

monarch has full authority and power

Divine right

monarch receives the right to rule directly from God and not from the people

What were some of the geographic challenges of the Aztec settlement location?

not much fresh water, divided, flooding, really flat land

Be able to label on a map where the Maya, Aztecs and Inca lived

reference

Conquistador

spanish explorers

Bartolome de las Casas

spanish, protector of Indians, bishop

Plantation

to produce sugar canes

Malinche

tribute areas formed alliances with the Spanish. Famous example of such an alliance: Native girl, Malinche, who spoke both the native tongue and Spanish. She helped the Spanish by leading them to Tenochititlan and giving away Aztec tactics. Today her name in Mexico means traitor. Aztecs felt resentment for Moctezuma for allowing Cortes in (and seeing Tenochtitlan destroyed). Breakdown of Aztecs after this

Why were chinampas beneficial?

used to grow crops in shallow lake area. Made of wet mud and reeds. Canals connected each segment and also allowed for irrigation produced high yield of crop