Gorgias

Gorgias

(the man, not the character) • arrived in Athens in 427 B.C.E. from Sicily's tiny coastal town, Leontini • came on a diplomatic mission, seeking Athenian aid in the Saracusion war • known as a Sophist

How are myths related to morality?

A myth makes sense of reality, and are a way of discovering and relaying truth. If reality is too painful or confusing to comprehend, a myth puts a create twist on its facts, relating them to a deeper mean as proposed by the gods. A myth makes a moral meaning that is relatable to an reader/listener.

According to Connor, what are the characteristics of an Oral rhetoric? Cite examples.

According to Connor preliterate rhetoric was not technical, the ability to speak persuasively was considered a gift rather than a techne. Oral rhetoric differed from poetry in that poetry served entertainment purposes whereas oral rhetoric had to have a persuasive purpose, an agenda. In other words, press a point, gain adherence to a cause, and win a case.

Knowledge, Affection, and Candour

According to Plato's Socrates in Gorgias, these are the traits one must possess to qualify for the testing, by questioning, of whether another person's life is as it should be.

Why are potentates and dictators actually to be pitied, instead of revered, according to the platonic Socrates?

According to platonic Socrates, potentates and dictators are to be pitied because Socrates states two propositions, that a criminal is bound to be unhappy and he will be more unhappy if he is not caught and punished, and that wrongdoing is more contemptible than suffering wrong. Based off of these two propositions when Polus brings up Archelaus and other dictators, Socrates states "anyone who does wrong without paying the penalty is likely to be far worse off than others because doing wrong always makes people more miserable" due to an immoral life leads to an eternally wounded soul.

How does the uncertainty of life play a role in the usage of rhetoric?

Aristotle's study of rhetoric differed from Plato's and believed Plato's view of the world was impractical if humans were to survive. Aristotle taught his students that the world is thrust upon us constantly and we must often make decisions before we are ready to and must learn to deal with the contingent nature of the world. His Rhetoric situates rhetoric in the world of probability and pragmatics

In what specific ways does Craig Smith "mis-read" Plato's Gorgias?

Craig Smith mis-reads Gorgias by suggesting that Socrates finds no use for rhetoric whatsoever and that it should be abolished. Socrates actually outlines three uses for rhetoric 1. Rhetoric should be used for defending enemies 2. Rhetoric should be used to get friends and yourself to admit wrongdoings 3. Political rhetoric can be used to better the soul for healing if it has to be forced on the audience, not immediate gratification

Explain Aristotle's contention that the intensity of pathos is related to proximity?

Emotional intensity is a function of proximity, meaning that emotional intensity can be described in terms of the nearness or remoteness of the objects that trigger emotions. "It's the expectation associated with a mental picture of the nearness of what keeps us safe and the absence or remoteness of what is terrible." This also is in terms of closeness in terms of personal relationship.

Explain Aristotle's concept of the enthymeme. Why is it at the very "heart" of rhetoric?

Enthymemes are deductive arguments, syllogisms based on probable premises that are acceptable to the audience. Aristotle defined deductive syllogisms as categorical, hypothetical and disjunctive. The categorical syllogism draws a true conclusion from two true premises if a valid placement of categories is achieved. Ex. All women are mortal Angelina Jolie is a woman Therefore, Angelina Jolie is mortal The hypothetical deductive syllogism works differently, just as common. (if) Ex. If Brad Pitt is in Chicago, he is not in Los Angeles Brad Pitt is in Chicago Therefore, he is not in Los Angeles Built on these and other forms of argument, Aristotle fashioned a new logos around enthymeme, it is a syllogism based on probability wherein the audience usually supplies a suppressed premise by attempting to apply a general rule to a specific case. Enthymemes are government by four general lines of argument 1. What is possible and impossible 2. What is past fact 3. What is future fact 4. What is the size, greater or smaller

Why did the naturalists prefer to replace mythology with a new type of rhetoric?

For every school of thought, another school is established in reaction. Mythologizing gave way to explaining the world in scientific, objective ways. The naturalists reacted to mythology by establishing an empirical basis for knowledge. They believed that is the world could be reduced to substance, the need for mythology would be replaced with a more objective rhetoric, one that would be dedicated to explaining the world in terms of scientific evidence obtained from observation through seeing, smelling, hearing, touching, and tasting. • The naturalists shifted the concern of humans from mythology to questions of material reality. (Focus moved from "gods" to "matter"—to earthly externalities.) • In this way, rhetoric would explain what science discovered. • The naturalist world was a world of observable truths.

Rhetorically speaking, why are myths successful narratives?

Forces greater than humans and beyond their control inspire mythology. However humans can control the interpretation that is, put on these events. Interpretation allows comparison, which is sometimes figurative for clarification. Successful narratives, which often become myths, have two rhetorical dimensions: advance a moral and are subject to interpretation. The story's credibility was enhanced and its interpretation made easier if it met certain requirements: it must not abide contradiction; it must be inherently coherent and seamless; it must elicit meaning in its audience by relating to its culture; it must speak the audience's language; it must reinforce values, it must have credibility; it must be better than illusions spun by others.

Why is Aristotle's concept of "goodwill" imperative to politician's ethos?

Goodwill means demonstrating that you have the audience's best interests at heart. Aristotle equated goodwill to friendship. Though it is a difficult concept for politicians who are often more concerned about gaining political power, "wishing for someone things you believe to be good, for his sake and not your own, and being ready to do these things to the extent possible," is imperative to a politician's ethos. Speakers who possess wisdom, virtue, or goodwill are particularly persuasive, a necessary trait for politicians.

Why wasn't Gorgias concerned with finding truth?

Gorgias believed that there was "no permanent criterion" for anything, and rhetoric was necessary for survival, as it created sense in a chaotic world. From his view, we can't know any truth for sure; everything is only speculatory, at best. With that, we must create illusions to cope with our condition, and that requires rhetorical talent. If everyone learns rhetoric, the illusions of the speaker can compete, and the audience chooses the strongest illusion. • Gorgias wasn't worried about finding truth, "because it is not communicable; his object, like that of Protagoras, is to build the better illusion."

According to Gorgias, how is speech magical?

Gorgias claimed rhetoric to be "a powerful lord who by means of he finest and most invisible body affects the most divine works." Speech, unlike writing, is invisible to the audience, they hear it but do not see it. Thus, it has magical powers that writing does not possess. Words borrowed from songs (epoidai) can charm an audience and have a narcotic effect. Thus, speech can cause euphoria as do some drugs, but it can also heal, as do other drugs.

In what specific ways is the dialogue Gorgias principally about death? Why does it factor so prominently?

Gorgias ends with a myth regarding judgment from the gods in the afterlife, and the dialogue clearly shows Socrates ceaseless attempt to aid his counterparts by showing them their own ignorance, through rhetoric, such that when they face the finality of death, their souls will be as pure as possible, and they won't face punishment in the afterlife. It also is heavily allusive of Socrates trial and execution, and throughout, Socrates is well aware that he's opened the door for judgment from the people in his city. However, this is of no matter to him. Socrates states, "Let people despise you and abuse you as an idiot, if they like; yes, let them even strike you ignominiously in the face. Why should that worry you? Nothing terrible will happen to you as long as you really are a good and moral person, training yourself in the exercise of virtue." This is prominent because Socrates' mission in life was to improve the souls of others.

How does an oral culture inform the early stages of the Gorgias dialogue?

In Athens, oral culture was susceptible to the sound of voice, Gorgias had a voice that was deemed magical and the newly literate culture in Athens was still susceptible to poetry with interjected prose. According to the Conner's article, Gorgias's thought involve his belief in the powerful (magical-seeming) influence that the rhetor's discourse has on hearers and the claim that this manipulation of men's souls could be taught (techne). Plato agrees that rhetoric is magical and opposes the use of it saying rhetoric had the ability to "charm" and "enslave" men. These differing schools of thought explain why the Gorgias dialogue is dominated by Socrates trying to impose rules of a dialectic rather than letting Gorgias go on longwinded speeches because Socrates knows that he is susceptible to rhetoric as well.

How did the gods initially screw up judgment day? Further, what is the meaning of the clothing metaphor in this final myth?

Initially, living judges dealt with living people and passed judgment upon them on the day of their impending death. Since the souls were able to prepare for this and clothe themselves accordingly, people were getting sent to the wrong place in the afterlife; the judges were unable to administer justice properly, distracted by attractive bodies, noble birth, wealth, as well as by the witnesses who came forward to testify the to the exemplary lives the people had led. Not only that, but the judges themselves were caught in their bodies. All of this was a barrier to the encountering the souls in their raw form. The rules were changed: people were no longer told in advance when they were going to die, and they were to be judged only after death, when they were "naked," by "naked" judges. This way, the assessment was made fair, so a judge with an unhampered soul could scrutinize the unhampered soul of a freshly dead individual, one who has left "all those trappings behind in the world." Socrates later says, "Once the soul has been stripped of the body, all its features become obvious—its innate features and also the attributes the person has lodged in his soul through his behavior in particular situations." The meaning of the myth is that if a person chooses to live a life of self-indulgence, seeking pleasure through immediate gratification, with no concern for other's welfare, he must not assume that this will go unnoticed forever. Eventually, his wrongdoings will be blatant, having scarred his soul, and he will pay for his injustice eternally.

Explain how Matthew's gospel focused on a specific audience.

Matthew is known for his humanistic approach concerned the most with ethical questions. Matthew narrowed his rhetorical audience by eliminating the Pharisees, Sadducees, Herodians, chief priests, scribes and elders, solely focusing on a Jewish and Gentile audience. His main rhetorical problem was to persuade his audience that Jesus was the promised Messiah, did so by attempting to write a story in which Jesus fulfils the Old Testament scriptural predictions and specifications, performs miracles, resists temptation of Satan, exposes the corruption of Jewish leadership, dies to redeem sins, rises from the dead, and ascends into heaven. Provides a cohesive narrative that reinforces identification with the intended audience, and creates sermons that are appealing and catch the spirit of a strong religious leader. Matthew began his construction of the narrative using the pericope, which relates an incident or event, useful for reaching intended audience. Also used paroemia, proverbial expressions as intertextual support, made more accessible to audience. Playing on the Old Testament mythos increased the credibility of Jesus' character, stories the Jewish people knew well. Also strengthening Matthew's narrative was its stress on personality characteristics that induce identification with the Jewish audience. Matthew also grouped Jesus' sayings into coherent speeches that revolve around a set theme.

According to Aristotle, why is rhetoric more contingent upon the nature of humans than other arts?

More than any other art, rhetoric bases its generative principles on a close and definitive analysis of its audience; that's where potential strategies can be found. So, being tied to the moment, its art is the most contingent to the nature of humans. A speaker creates eloquence by meeting the expectations of the audience in terms of language level and occasion.

What is the relationship among myth, narrative, and metaphor?

Myth is a meta-language that crosses cultures as it makes sense of the non-rational. Myth imbues rules of society with moral force by transforming the unexplainable scientific theory into the understandable metaphor. "Narrative constitutes stories that we tell ourselves and each other to establish a meaningful life-world." "To derive a culture from a certain mythic ancestry is a way of stating that culture's essence in narrative terms." Successful narratives, which often become myths, have two rhetorical dimensions: advance a moral and are subject to interpretation. Metaphors help to group myths and help them to convey their morals because they are popular, show up frequently, last over time, easily accessible, grounded in major experiences, carry messages about humanity, and are passed along in the culture.

Smith states that "religion and rhetoric are inextricably bound together in the discourse of the non-rational." Explain what this means.

Myths are rhetorical fantasies that often have religious overtones. Though they are based on fictional characters, they always contain a kernel of truth and always teach a lesson. They are a way by which a society makes sense of the world and inculcates values, the guides for decision-making. Each work of mythology is inspired by force greater than humans and beyond their control. However, humans can control the interpretation put on these events. The interpretive functions rhetorically by allowing us to take something as something else, and also allows for comparison, which is sometimes figurative in order to make something clear.

Outline the concepts of Nomos and Physis and what is their relationship to rhetoric?

Nomas refers to the rules of polite society, meaning: social conventions which govern society. Physis is the opposite of nomas, and roughly translates to mean "nature." In regards to rhetoric, nomas and physis are mentioned in Gorgias when Callicles becomes angry with Socrates, claiming that Socrates has used nomus against Gorgias, in that Gorgias only agreed with Socrates, trapping himself in his own questions and subsequently looking foolish, because he was being polite (nomas). Callicles says that Socrates used physis questions, regarding nature, to change their minds and agree with him. Rhetorically, nomas is used when a person is polite in conversation, and doesn't state what they actually mean, so as to not offend others. Physis is the opposite, used when one makes clear the true nature of their meaning, without concern to offending others, remaining loyal to their true nature (physis).

How do Gorgias and Polus become victims of propriety or nomos?

Nomos refers to the social conventions that govern society. Gorgias and Polus become victims of propriety after ensnaring themselves in the trainer argument trap. Polus makes the point by complaining to Socrates that Socrates has "Exploited Gorgias' sense of propriety in order to win an argument." Basically Gorgias was too embarrassed not to accept an introduced idea and Socrates jumped on the inconsistency.

Through what steps does Plato arrive at the conclusion that oratory is a phantom art?

Phantom arts mimic true arts dealing with the body and soul. Rhetoric mimics the true art of administration of justice. Plato arrives at this conclusion by suggesting that rhetoric is concerned with the soul and works upon your soul, however when rhetoric is used to get out of punishment for wrongdoing it signifies ignorance and not knowing right from wrong. Thus, the consequences of the instant gratification of getting away with wrongdoing cauterize the soul eternally. Rhetoric is false art because it mimics the adminstration of justice's desire to punish wrongdoing to protect one's soul eternally. Socrates goes on to say that rhetoric is nothing more than a branch of flattery, a knack for bold and courageous people.

Explain Plato's argument that universal ideas are more real than the material world? (hint: noumenal world)

Plato constructed a truth found in another world. This "noumenal" world is where perfect forms exist permanently. The ideas and objects of the world that we experience through our senses are imperfect imitations of noumenal forms, but have sufficient resemblance to give an illusion of reality. Universal ideas embody rational thought: they are stable, permanent, and valid. Sense perceptions are mired in material experience, individual variables, transience, and appearance. Universal ideas are space-less, matter-less, and all particulars merely reflect them imperfectly. Universal ideas are more real because they have generative powers because they can reveal perfect potential for the form, are formal causes that allow things to come into existence in this world. Universal ideas are also the energia or life force of the entity and therefore are more real than the entity.

Argue that Gorgias represents a failed dialectic. What might Plato's message be?

Plato may be trying to show that Socrates had to break his own rules in the dialectic to exemplify the corruption of power in Athens. The "failure" within the dialectic clearly parallels the corrupt nature of the Athenian government, pointing out the sheer incompetency. Though the dialectic fails, rhetoric does not. "The 'bafflement' which Socrates produced in his interlocutors was the result of showing them the error of blind adherence to their conditioned moral views; this could be, and was, superficially interpreted as an attempt to undermine the prevailing moral code."

What did Protagoras mean when he said that humans "are the measure of all things?" and, "on any given issue there are at least two sides that oppose each other?"

Protagoras sought to reestablish human existence at the center of philosophical inquiry, arguing that subject determines thought and perceptions. He believed that humans, being human, had limited access to truth, so: • "only relative truth exists because humans are incapable of knowing absolute truth." • Therefore, humans are the measure of all things: we can educate ourselves, aiding the accuracy of our measurements by learning of probabilities and alternatives. 2nd point- Protagoras became known as the father of debate, enforcing his belief that when a matter is debated, its more likely to be examined carefully. Also, debate allows for an attack on established beliefs, which either strengthens them or reforms them such that society benefits.

What does the afterlife have to do with rhetoric as described in Gorgias?

Rhetoric is a species of flattery, and flattery, in all its guises, aims for short-term pleasure rather than the good. The problem with rhetoric is that it panders to its audience's short-term desires, and makes is difficult for them to actually think about what may or may not be better for them in the long-term. The dialogue concludes with a myth regarding the afterlife; we are to understand that it is good to avoid afterlife punishment, and proper rhetoric is aimed at perfecting one's soul for the afterlife while one is still alive, so that when they are judged, they will not receive punishment in the afterlife for that which they did not deal with in the present world.

What is the best method of proof for the Platonic Socrates in dialectic? And how does this method diverge from rhetoric's methods?

Socrates' argument technique is the elenchus, a search in which Socrates is an ignorant participant who lacks knowledge of the subject under investigation and is simply allowing the logic of the argument to guide him to an inescapable conclusion. The structure of the elenchus is as follows, 1. An interlocutor proposes a thesis (p) 2. Socrates gains his assent to other theses (q,r,s,...) 3. Socrates demonstrates that that (q,r,s,...) themselves, or their consequences contradict (p), faced with a choice between (p) and (not-p) the interlocutor gives up (p). Rhetoric, on the other hand, is the model activity concerned with arête, or success in the world, used to manipulate others to do one's bidding.

Argue that the soul is the key concept in understanding the Platonic Socrates' view of rhetoric?

The Platonic Socrates' view of rhetoric is concerned only with the perfecting of souls for the afterlife. Socrates' mission in life was to improve Athenian souls, and rhetoric was the tool he used to interrogate people and help them to see their faults, such that they could fix them, and thus, improve the state of their soul while still on earth.

How does Plato's view of rhetoric converge and diverge from the sophists?

The Sophists' view (and use) of rhetoric is a counterfeit imitation of Plato's. While Plato believes that rhetoric is, indeed, a type of persuasion, Plato's rhetoric has a particular aim, which is the concern for the state of other's souls, in respect to contentment, virtue, happiness, and in preparation for the next life. While the sophists' used flattery and beautifully-laced speech to persuade their audiences, the goals within their speeches were not concerned with the welfare of the listeners. They were concerned with personal gain in political power, propriety, and things that would serve for their own comforts. Plato's rhetoric deals with virtue, self-control, and the true differences between right and wrong. While the sophists rhetoric was based on pleasure, Plato's was based on happiness, which is not the same as pleasure.

What does the Platonic Socrates' "ideal rhetoric" look like?

The ideal rhetoric as outlined by Socrates' is the rhetoric that is designed to better people's souls. In a court of law ideal rhetoric should be used to condemn yourself, your friends and family, and defend your enemies against their wrongdoing. Opposes popular political rhetoric, which relies heavily on flattery and not bettering souls.

How might we reconcile the four very different views of rhetoric put forth in the Gorgias?

The narrowed down version of rhetoric as proposed by Gorgias is "an agent of the kind of persuasion which is designed to produced conviction, but not to educated people, about matters of right and wrong." Plato suggests that rhetoric is superficial and relies on persuasive ploys rather than on expert knowledge. Polus suggests in a positive light that rhetoric gives one power over others, which (in his words) is a route to happiness even if in the exercise of that power one behaves immortally or unjustly. Callicles argues that rhetoric is used to engage in self-indulgent behavior which is (in his words) better for a person than behavior that is self-controlled and takes others into consideration. Basically the differing view points can be narrowed down to adherence to outer, worldly goals and values, which gorgias, polus, and Callicles follow, and firm inner goals and values, a view held by Socrates.

Explain the important reforms of Solon and Cleisthenes. How did they influence the rise of the sophists?

The sophist position that the truth is relative was influenced by reforms of Solon and Cleisthenes. Solon refined laws into a civil code in 593 BC that become the model for western civilization. New code created the venue for litigation and thus persuasive speaking skills in courts. Solon clipped the power of the Athenian senate and opened the assembly to all free men and created Council of Four Hundred for propertied classes. Cleisthenes implemented governmental reforms between 510 and 502 BC putting a limited democracy in power. He also abolished the four tribe system and implemented Council of Five Hundred. Those who spoke before the council had to demonstrate persuasive prowess, especially knowledge of subject matter.

What is the Trainer argument, and how does Gorgias become ensnared in it?

The trainer argument referred to by Gorgias relates teachers to trainers, once you train someone to fight you cannot control their future actions. Gorgias uses the same analogy for teachers of rhetoric; once they are taught to speak the teacher cannot be held responsible for future action. Gorgias becomes ensnared in the argument after stating "don't blame me the teacher if the student is using rhetoric to act immorally" however Socrates contends that rhetoricians are moral experts and should act morally which disputes Gorgias' earlier statement that rhetoricians teach an unknowing student right from wrong. In other words, Gorgias said he will teach his students right from wrong, and those that know the difference are bound to act morally because according to socrates wrong always occurs out of ignorance. "Well I'd like to remind you of something you said not too long ago. You said that communities shouldn't hold trainers responsible and banish them for what a boxer does with his boxing, that is for any wrong doings he commits, and that by the same token it isn't the teacher who should be blamed if a rhetorician uses his rhetoric for immoral purposes, but the person who is actually using rhetoric wrongly and incorrectly. But now it turns out that a rhetorician can never do wrong and if you're to train someone as a rhetorician he must either understand right or wrong beforehand or gain an understanding under your direction, and a moral person behaves morally."

Describe the characteristics of an oral culture. What type of mindset does it endanger?

The way we read, write, learn, and speak heavily affects our consciousness. Our literate culture impresses passive learning, which opposes the Greek's oral culture of active learning. An oral culture listens, and relies heavily on its senses to absorb information. People speak, rather than write. They listen, rather than read. They watch people's actions and pay close attention to congruence (or the lack of) between people's words and what they do. An oral culture endangers concision in the passing of information, because nothing is "written in stone," literally. It endangers the people within the culture, because they are unable to strengthen their knowledge through being literate. In this type of culture, the people with power will remain in power, causing corruption, because the citizens have only limited access to knowledge. It endangers everyone, because there's no "cap" on the power of the elite, and the people below are without the literate tools to rise above their state of illiteracy.

Why is better to suffer wrong than to do wrong? What does rhetoric have to do with that claim?

Though it is ideal to avoid both, it is more contemptible to do wrong than to suffer wrong, because one who does wrong is a fool, and has a soul that can be described as a "leaky jar;" a fool's "leaky" soul is unreliable and forgetful, and unable to prevent from "spilling," meaning: doing wrong to others for immediate gratification. Anyone is prone to suffering wrong, but one who does wrong possesses an unrestrained soul, a soul that creates a "self-indulgent life of insatiable desire." Rhetoric, when used for the administration of justice, forces a person with such a disorderly soul to be punished, which is not actually punishment, but an opportunity for the person's soul to be corrected, learning discipline and restraint, which allows for a simpler way of life, one that is easy to maintain, preventative, and calming. Socrates attempts to use rhetoric to persuade Callicles to change his mind and "prefer and orderly life, in which one is content with whatever is at hand," rather than his present state of self-indulgence and aim for pleasure without concern for the welfare of others.

What are the implications of Socrates being Athens' only "true statesman"?

To clarify, when Socrates makes this self-assertion, he's not being cocky, and he does refer to himself as an "example," because he is not, in fact involved with politics, not at all- he means that there's a connection between moral knowledge and political expertise. He adheres strictly to moral improvement as the reason for saying anything, rather than gratification and pleasure, which, as was exemplified by Callicles in particular, was the aim of the actual statesmen of the time.

According to Aristotle, why does the dialectic require rhetorical skill?

When engaging with others, whether to inform or to argue, we must adjust to their level of understanding; audience adaptation is always necessary, even in the case of logical disputation.

In what specific ways does Gorgias portend Socrates' demise?

Written after Socrates' is sentenced and put to death, Plato foreshadows these events within Gorgias through dialogue of the character Callicles. In real life, Socrates is given the chance to escape, however he does what is "moral" and stays to be put to death. In Gorgias Callicles suggests to Socrates that Socrates must believe that he is immune and couldn't possibly end up in a court. Socrates refutes saying "if I do get taken to court it'll be a bad person who's taken me there, since no good person could take an innocent man to court, and it's quite possible that I'd be put to death." (Socrates) Exemplary of extreme foreshadowing because Socrates is put to jail for expressing his opinion and is viewed as a wrongfully jailed innocent man.

tekhne

area of expertise (Greek)

Sophist

one who questions the ideas of authority with new philosophies, or with ancient philosophies. Also called 'Wise Men.' They weren't philosophers or scientists, but professional itinerant teachers. Many had something valuable and positive to impart; others encouraged skepticism by stressing the two-sidedness of every question, or undermined faith in real values by preaching subjectivism, or relativism. On the whole, their outlook was at once superficial and practical, basically stating, Knowledge is impossible, but I can show you how to make the most of yourself. They aimed at producing cleverness and efficiency rather than widom and goodness, charging fees for their service.

Protagorus

the first sophist

Epistemology

the study of knowledge

What are the archetypal metaphors and how do they work?

• Archetypal metaphors arrange the world into acceptable stories and provide society with comparisons that are more accessible to an audience. • They play across our consciousness and give connotations to what we hear. • Archetypal metaphors ground myths and help them convey their morals, providing pathways toward ingrained expressions in the human psyche.

What are the rhetorical functions of myth?

• Creates order out of disorder • Myth creates community & common values • Common identity

Who is Isocrates and what is his contribution to rhetoric?

• Sophist with a wealthy father, who paid for him to study with Protagoras, Prodicus of Cheos, and Gorgias. • Had a gentle nature and stage fright- quickly realized that this would cripple any possibility of a political career, so he became a speechwriter, and then a prominent teacher. • Tried to persuade his fellow Sophists that rhetorical invention was ground in every part of speech, and word choice/style reflected the speaker's character. In this way, he felt that the speaker's presence through delivery is highly persuasive. • Tried to match meaning and rhythm. • From Isocrates, Aristotle derived theories that humans aren't animals b/c we use speech, ethos is most important in persuasion, and rhetoric is an art, not a science. • Isocrates implemented benefits of imitation to his students: "Understanding civic virtue gives on the ability to make good decisions; rhetoric allows one to justify these decisions.

What are the myths at work in Reagan's political advertisement, "Morning in America?"

• That the "American dream" is made of white people in comfortable financial situations, with happy, successful, growing families who don't have to worry about much. • America is looking at a better tomorrow. • Rebirth, dreamy- these are the things Americans can count on

The 4 elements of a true dialectic

• brief answers • truthful, absolute • capable and willing to confront one's own ignorance • must proceed in a spirit of friendship