GRE PSYCH COMPLETE

Leon Festinger

Cognitive dissonance theory

(DSM-V) Chapter- Neurocognitive disorders

Cognitive outcomes of these disorders blur boundaries among psychiatry, neurology, and neuropsychology, both in assessment and treatment DSM recognizes that other disorders (e.g. schiz) produce profound distortions of cognition, but disorders in this category (e.g. Alzheimer's) are primarily distinguished by cognitive correlates

dichotomous thinking

Cognitive-maladaptive cognition -black and white thinking (If I don't do well on GRE, I have no future) (no details, 2 colors/parts-black and white. one cause, one effect)

arbitrary inference

Cognitive-maladaptive cognition -drawing conclusions w/out solid evidence (he's stupid for liking golf) (arbitrary reason to draw conclusion)

personalizing

Cognitive-maladaptive cognition -inappropriately taking responsibility (team lost because of me)

magnifying/minimizing

Cognitive-maladaptive cognition -making too much/too little of something (luck is why i did well)

overgeneralization

Cognitive-maladaptive cognition -mistaking isolated incidents for the norm (no one will ever want to date me)

Beck-Cognitive Triad

Cognitive-negative views about: self, world, future (cognition=you, everything else, future) causes depression (Beck-Bad CKognition-->depression)

Bleuler

Coined the term schiz

Sequential cohort studies

Combine cross-sectional and longitudinal research methods; several groups of different ages are studied over several years

Twin studies

Compare monozygotic (genetically identical - 100) and dizygotic twins (50% of genes) Researchers compared personality characteristics in twins who were raised together (in the same family) to twins raised apart (in different families) - MZ twins raised in the same family are most similar personality is somewhat heritable

Genie

Completely isolated from human contact from age 2-13yo After training she was able to learn some aspects of syntax, but she was unable to master other aspects of syntax this demonstrates that instead of a critical period in language development, there may be a sensitive period in language development

Foot in the door effect

Compliance with a small request increases the likelihood of compliance with a larger request ex: sign a petition -> sign in front lawn

Endomorphy

Component characterized by roundness and softness of the body soft and spherical

Validity

Concerned with the extent to which a test actually measurees what it purports to measure

Fritz Heider's Balance Theory

Concerned with the way three elements are related: the person whom we're talking about (Symbolized as P), some other person (O), and a thing, idea, or some other person (X) (triangular relationship) - balance = when all three fit together harmoniously - Balance will exist in a triad if there are one or three positives - imbalances occur when someone agrees with someone he or she dislikes, or disagrees with someone he or she likes

concurrent validity

Concurrent validity measures how well a new test compares to an well-established test. It can also refer to the practice of concurrently testing two groups at the same time, or asking two different groups of people to take the same test.

Jerome Kagan

Conducted a seminal study of temperament on children's behaviors Examined human temperament in children from infancy to adolescence to distinguish if early signs of inhibited or uninhibited behavior in infancy predict future temperament profiles conclusion: temperament is a strong predictor of adult behavior

Seligman's learned helplessness theory of depression

Conducted experiments in the 1960's on helplessness Placed dogs in a cage surrounded by a high fence. Then he the floor would shock. The dogs would try to jump and eventually, they gave up. Then he changed the high fence to a low fence and administered the shocks. Even though the dogs could escape the fence, they learned to be helpless individuals who consistently face difficult situations from which they cannot escape learn to feel powerless to overcome their problems. Over time, this kind of environment can result in learned helplessness, an external locus of control, and depression

SS Steven's power law

Conducted experiments that suggested that Fechner might be wrong another equation

Kagan

Conducted landmark longitudinal study to examine developmental trajectories of children's temperament

Construct validity

Construct validity refers to the degree to which inferences can legitimately be made from the operationalizations in your study to the theoretical constructs on which those operationalizations were based

R. Rescorla and Wagner

Contiguity vs contingency and blocking effect

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Contrary to Locke, society was not only unnecessary but also a detriment to optimal development

Structure of eye

Cornea Pupil Iris Lens Retina

Level's of processing theory/depth of processing theory

Craik and Lockhart and suggests that what determines how long you will remember material is not what memory system it gets into, but the way which you process the material. three ways/levels in which info can be processed: physical (visual) - appearance, size, and shape of information acoustical - sound combinations words have semantic - focusing on the meaning of the word

Mischel

Criticv of trait theories of personality

Edward Hall and Proxemics

Cultural norms that govern how far away we stand from the people we're speaking to the study of how individuals space themselves in relation to others

nAch

D. McClelland: need for achievement-goals to feel successful

Chromosomes

DNA strands, together with proteins 46 chromosomes 23 homologous pairs, 22 pairs are autosomes the last pair of chromosomes determines the sex of the child XX - female XY - male During reproduction, the mother always contributes an X; the father, whose sperm cell contains either the X or the Y chromosome, can therefore contribute either an X or Y

Freud psychodynamic theory - Instinct: Thanatos

Death instincts Represent an unconscious wish for the ultimate, absolute state of quiescence (being at rest; motionless)

Symptoms of Schiz

Delusions: false beliefs, discordant with reality, that are maintained in spite of strong evidence to the contrary common:delusions of reference, persecution, and grandeur may be a belief that others are talking about him or her may believe that common elements int he environment are directed at him

Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

Depolarization, ions pushed inside cell; incr chance cell will fire

Developmental Psychology

Describe and explain changes in human behavior over time

Two types of statistic

Descriptives: concerned with organizing, describing, quantifying, and summarizing a collection of actual observations Inferential: concerned with making an inference from the sample involved in the research to the population of interest, and providing an estimate of popular characteristics

Physical attractiveness

Determinant of attraction

Fechner

Developed Fechner's law, which expresses the relationship between the intensity of the stimulus and the intensity of the sensation The law states that the difference in perceptual sensitivity to a stimulus is inversely proportional to the actual difference. In other words, if a person lifts objects of differing weights, his or her perception of the difference in weight show a uniform ratio as the weight is increased or decreased

Steven's

Developed Steven's power law as an alternative to Fechner's law, which associates the intensity of the stimulus and the intensity of the sensation proposed relationship between the magnitude of a physical stimulus and its perceived intensity or strength.

Yerkes and Dodson

Developed Yerkes-Dodson Law which states that performance is best at intermediate levels of arousal.

Heider

Developed balance theory to explain why attitudes change;also developed attribution theory and divided attributions into: dispositional and situational

L. Festinger

Developed cognitive dissonance theory; also developed social comparison theory (mentalities fester; socially compare those "fast in gym"--fest in ger)

Festinger

Developed cognitive dissonance theory; and social comparison theory

Petty and Cacioppo

Developed elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (central and peripheral routes to persuasion) central: thoughtful consideration of the arguments (ideas, content) of the message peripheral: when the listener decides whether to agree with the message based on other cues besides the strength of the arguments or ideas in the message. (e.g., the source may be an expert, or attractive)

Wolp

Developed methods of systematic desensitzation to eliminate phobias

Skinner

Developed principles of operant conditioning

fREUD, S

Developed psychoanalysis

Bem

Developed self-perception theory, as an alternative to cognitive dissonance theory

Wilson

Developed sociobio

Kraepelin

Developed systems in the 19th century - DSM-5

Janis

Developed the concept of groupthink to explain how group decision-making can sometimes go awry

Craik and Lockhart

Developed the levels of processing theory of memory as an alternative to the stage theory of memory

Bandura

Developed the social learning theory, which focuses on learning through social contexts

Gibson e and Walk

Developed the visual cliff apparatus, which is used to study the development of depth perception

Kohler

Developed theory of isomorphism

Helmholtz

Developed trichromatic theory of color vision; developed place-resonance theory of pitch perception

Rogers

Developoed client-centered therapy, a therapt that was based upon the concept of unconditional positive regard

Guilford

Devised divergent thinking test to measure creativity

Ainsworth

Devised the 'strange situation' to study attachment

Collins and Loftus

Devised the spreading activation model of semantic memory

DSM-5

Diagnostic Manual of Mental Disorders published in 2013 classificaiton of disorders - atheoretical descirptions of symptoms of the various disorders 18 classifications of disorders manual also catalogoues other factors that may influence a patient's prognosis

DSM-V.....what does DSM stand for?

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

depressive vs dysthymic disorders

Differences: levels of severity, duration, and persistence dysthymia: less severe symptoms -diagnosed after 2 years (symptoms on more days than not) depression: more severe symptoms -diagnosed after 2 weeks (5-9 symptoms throughout) (depressive=worse; dysthymic=lighter)

Somatic cells

Diploid - chromosomes they contain always exist in pairs any cell other than a gamete, germ cell, gametocyte or undifferentiated stem cell

Breland and Breland

Discovered and studied instinctual drift

Pavlov

Discovered the basic principles of classical conditioning

General paresis

Disorder characterized by delusions of grandeur, mental deterioration, eventual paralysis, and death then disocvered that it was caused by brain deterioration caused by syphilis and that themental disorder seen in the syndrome was caused by organic brain pathology ( established notion that physiological factors could underlie mental disorders

Symptoms of Schiz

Disorganized thought: characterized by the loosening of associations when speach shifts from one subject to another on an unrelated subject in a way that the listener wasn't able to follow their thought

(DSM-V) Chapter- Sleep-wake disorders

Disruption in quality, amount, or timing of sleep

(DSM-V) Chapter- Sexual dysfunction

Disruptions in individual's ability to perform or enjoy sexual behaviors

(DSM-V) Dissociative identity disorder (formally multiple personality disorder)

Dissociative disorder psychologists believe this is impossible for multiple personalities to coexist within the same person without the person's conscious awareness

Dissociative fugue

Dissociative disorder amnesia that accompanies a sudden, unexpected move away from one's home or location of usual daily activities

Dissociative amnesia

Dissociative disorder inability to recall pass experiences

Chomsky

Distinguished between the surface structure and deep structure of a sentence; studied transformational rules that could be used to transform one sentence into another

T scores

Distribution has a mean of 50 and an SD of 10. So for instance, a t-score is 1 standard deviation above the mean the mean median and mode are idential in a normal distribution; in skewed distributions, the mean median and mode are not identical

Symptoms of Schiz

Disturbance of affect, or the expression of emotion blunting (severe reduction in the intensity of affect expression) flat affect (there are virtually no signs of affective) inappropriate affect (affect is clearly discordant with the content of the individual's speech or ideation

Cattell

Divided intelligence into fluid intelligence and crystalized intelligence and looked at how they change throughout them

Lewin

Divided leadership styles into three categories: autocratic, democratic, and laisses faire

Etiology of Schizo

Double-blind hypothesis as a child, the person with schiz received contradictory and mutually incompatible messeges from his or her primary caregiver (usually the mother) the child may begin to feel anxious, and these disorganized messages become internalized. From this point,the child begins to see his perceptions of reality as unreliable

opponent-color/opponent-process

E. Hering-2 types of color-sensitive cells exist: cones for blue/yellow; cones for red/green (when one color active, other inhibited. explains afterimage) occurs in lateral geniculate nucleus (in brain) (opponent-color; Hering-->opponents Hiring)

equipotentiality principle

Early theory (proven wrong through biological preparedness) -any CS can be paired with any CR; or any response with any reinforcer

Bulimia nervosa

Eating disorder binge-eating accompanied by excessive attempts to compensate for it by purging, fasting, or excessive excercising the teens to maintain a minimally normal body weight; at least 90% are female

Anorexia nervosa

Eating disorder refusal to maintain a minimal body weight distorted body image, and believe he or she is overweight even when emaciated in females, amenorrhea (the cessation of menstruation) is usually present 90% women; 10% of these are hospitalized

Expectancy-value theory

Edward Tolman Expectations and personal values affect behavior BI = (AB)V1 + (SN)V2 behavioral intention= a value of attitude toward performing the behavior + a subjective norm to perform a behavior/a value of an expectation to perform the behavior (expectancy to do a behavior=how you feel about attitude + if you usually do the behavior) (later developed into Theory of Reasoned Action; same equation)

Rational-Emotive theory goal

Effective rational beliefs (E) to replace previous self-defeating ones; client's thoughts, feelings, behaviors can coexist

Erikson

Ego psychologicst whose psychosocial stages of development encompass across life spani

Rational-Emotive theory (RET)/REBT (rational emotive behavior theory)

Ellis-HUMANISTIC-includes elements of cognitive, behavioral, emotion theory; psychological tension is created when Active event occurs (A) and a client applies certain Beliefs about the event (B), and this leads to Consequence of emotional disruption (C) (fix poor cognition (I MUST do __; I didn't so I suck) (RET: ABC-->D-->E) Rational Ellis's humanistic theory; combines all

Rational-Emotive theory therapy

Ellis-highly directive-therapist leads client to Dispute (D) the previously applied irrational beliefs (dispute cognition-only part you could easily change)

Humanistic-Existential Therapies

Emphasize the process of finding meaning in one's life by making one's own choices mental disorders tend to be viewed as stemming from problems of alienation, depersonalization, loneliness, and a lack of a meaningful existence

Hathaway and McKinley

Empirical criterion-keying approach tested thousands of questions and retained those that differentiated between patient and nonpatient populations - examined the responses of patient groups with different diagnoses n 1937, Starke R. Hathaway, a clinical psychologist, and J. Charnley McKinley, a neuropsychiatrist, began to develop an instrument for use in the Department of Psychiatry at the University of Minnesota Hospital that they described "as an objective aid in the routine psychiatric case work-up of adult patients and as a method of determining the severity of the conditions"

Berkesy

Empiricalstudies led to traveling wave theory of pitch perception which at least partially supported helmholtz place-resonance theory

Three mental processes or stages of memory

Encoding Storage Retrieval

Encoding

Encoding for verbal material in short-term memory differs from that of long-term memory encoding in short-term (acoustic): phonological or acoustic, rather than visual (ex: confusion tends to occur with letters that sound alike, D and T, rather than letters which look alike, D and O. ; phonology encoding in long-term (semantic): more likely encoded on the basis of their meaning Semantic priming - the subject has to decide whether a stimulus is a word or a nonword. The response was quicker if the two words were semantically related (subejcts had to press a button YES if the two words were real words. ; meaning

Gilligan's criticism of Kohlberg

Especially the postconventional Males and females adopt different perspectives on moral issues and that these differences stem from the different ways in which boys and girls are raised Points out that Kohl. research was done solely with males and therefore should not be used for women

Tinbergen

Ethologist who introduced experimental menthods into field situations

von Frisch

Ethologists who studied communication in honeybees

Lorenz

Ethologists who studied unlearned, instinctual behaviors in their natural environment

Muzzier Sherif and conformity

Evaluated the concept of norm formation Conformity study: had each person estimate number of flickers they saw and then brought them together as a group; many individuals changed their estimates so that the group agreed upon the amount of movement - individuals conformed to the group; their judgements converged on some group norm

Random sample

Every population member has an equal chance to be selected for the sample

Charles Darwin

Evolution importance of studying the mind as it functioned to help the individual adapt to the environment - functionalist system of thought

(DSM-V) Chapter- Anxiety disorders

Exaggerated responses to objects or situations that can be disabling

"Will to meaning"

Existential theory-individual is constantly striving to rise above simple behavioral existence (toward meaningful existence) (it's exactly what it sounds like)

Erik Erickson

Expanded and reworked Freud's stages to cover the entire lifespan, and in doing so, showed how even negative events or conflicts could have positive effects on adult personality

Theodore Newcomb

Experiment demonstrating the influence of group norms on an all-girl college campus Found: over time, students increasingly accepted the norms of their community - U.S. presidential election

phrenology

F. Gall-skull/head discerned personality types (gall...skull)

Gender differences in parental behavior

Fathers tend to play more vigorously with their children than mothers do Mothers tend to stress verbal over physical interactions

Erickson - Intimacy versus isolation

Fav: love, the ability to have intimate relationships with others, and the ability to commit oneself to another person and to one's own goals Unfav: avoidance of commitment

Erickson - Integrity versus despair

Fav: see wisdom Unfav: feeling of bitterness about one's ;life, worthless

(DSM-V) Anorexia nervosa

Feeding and eating disorder Person does not maintain healthy body weight, has a distorted body image leading to belief that they are overweight when actually abnormally thin one of few disorders that can lead to death

Bowlby stages of attachment

First (pre-attachment) - lasts several weeks- infants reacts identically to every adult and smiling phase Second - at about 3 months infant discriminates between familiar and unfamiliar faces at 6 months, infant seeking out and responding specifically to the mother from 9 to 12 months bonding intensifies and the child begins expressing stranger anxiety - fear of strangers

Freud's theory of personality

First comprehensive theory on personality and abnormal psychology

Kohlberg - Gender labeling

First stage (2-3yo) children achieve gender identity (realize they are a member of a particular sex and accept that they are a boy or a girl and are able to label themselves)

Erickson - Trust versus mistrust

First year of life If resolved successfully, child will come to trust his or her environment as well as himself; if not, sense of doubt and lack of control

Raymond Cattel

Fluid intelligence (ability to quickly grasp relationships in novel situations and make correct deductions form them) (ex: solving analogies requires fluid intelligence); increases throughout childhood and adolescence, levels off in young adulthood, and begins a steady decline with advanced age Crystalyzed intelligence (an ability to understand relationships or solve problems that depend on knowledge acquired as a result of schooling or other life expereinces; increases through lifespan but fluid generally decreases

Alfred Adler theory of personality

Focused on immediate social imperatives of family and society and their effects on unconscious factors it is striving toward superiority that drives the personality (this striving enhances the personality when it is socially oriented, that is, when the striving leads to endeavors that benefit all people

Unconditioned stimulus

Food - pavlov

Alfred Adler theory of personality: Creative self

Force by which each individual shapes his or her uniqueness and makes his or her own personality

Zygote/fertilized egg

Forms when the sperm cell fertilizes the ovum/egg cell shortly after fertilization, the zygote divided in two the cell continues to divide in halves so thatr their numbers increase from two to four to 8 to 16 and so on. During this cell division phase, the cellular mass travels down the fallopian tube into the uterus where it is implanted into the uterine wall

Seligman

Formulated helplessness theory of depression

Maccoby and Jacklin

Found support for gender differences in verbal ability

Pavlov

Founder of basic principles of classical conditioning through experience, stimuli that previously had no relation to a specific reflex could come to trigger that reflex dog experiements and salivation reflex and a stimulus

Hall

Founder of developmental psychology

Freud, A

Founder of ego psychology

Rousseau

French philosopher who suggested that development could unfold without help from society

J. Rousseau

French philosopher who suggested that development could unfold without help from society (liberal; people good/noble savages) (opposite of Locke)

Differences between Freud, Jung, and Adler

Freud - major assumption is that behavior is motivated by inborn instincts, Jung - principle axiom is that a person's conduct is governed by inborn archetypes Adler - people are primarily motivated by striving for superiority these are theories on the formation of personality

Secondary Gains (DSM-V)

Gains relating to mental illness obtained through external motivators These are gains that are given to a patient in addition to the illness - Missing work that you don't like due to illness - Getting medications that feel fun - Avoid jail sentence

Primary Gains (DSM-V)

Gains relating to mental illness obtained through internal motivators produces positive internal motivations A person will feel less guilty knowing they have a mental disorder causing them to not work efficiently (Primary gains-->motivation improved because not your fault that bad)

Garcia effect

Garcia-preparedness humans can become sick from a food one time and never eat the food again (immediate classical conditioning/ one trial learning; taste aversion learning) (Garcia="gutsick" effect)

Type theory: Type B

Generally laid-back and relaxed

pragnanz

Gestalt idea experience will be organized as meaningful, symmetrical, and SIMPLEST when possible (pragnanz=prego nuns-what's the SIMPLEST reason for this experience?)

disturbances of awareness

Gestalt-client may not have insight or client may not fully experience his present situation (not acknowledge certain good parts of experience)

Scatterplot

Graphical representation of correlational data

Existential Theory

Greatest struggles are of being vs non-being and meaningfulness vs. nonmeaningfulness -"Will to meaning" -response to perceived meaninglessness=neurosis/neurotic anxiety (not normal anxiety)

Hormones affecting gender biology

H-Y antigen (causes fetus to be male; lack of=female); androgens (e.g. testosterone) in males; estrogens in females

Solomon Asch's Conformity Study

Had a classroom look at two lines; they had to distinguish which line was straight and which was curved - it was obvious which one but people began to say the wrong answer to conform and fit in with everyone

Symptoms of Schiz

Hallucinations: perceptions that are not due to the external stimuli but have a compelling sense of reality occur in all sensory modalities most common: auditory

Gametes (sperm and egg cell)

Haploid - contain 23 single chromosomes (the sperm and egg cell eventually combine to become a diploud - 23 pairs) each parent contributes one gene for each trait all other cells are dipoloid

social isolation (rhesus monkeys)

Harlow-isolated monkeys hampered social development; when finally brought with other monkeys, males lacked normal sexual functioning, females lacked maternal behaviors

contact comfort (rhesus monkeys)

Harlow-monkeys attached to comforting/cloth mother rather than feeding mother; stayed with cloth monkey, ran to it when feared; only went to wire one with food to feed, then left

learning to learn (rhesus monkeys)

Harlow-monkeys better at learning tasks as acquired different learning experiences; monkeys could eventually learn after one trial

Additive color mixture

Has to do with lights primary color are blue, green, and red if you were to mix red and green lights, you would get yellow)

D. Rosenhan

He did an experiment where he and 7 other "sane" people got admitted and labeled "mentally ill" Being labeled this makes people interpret any action of yours as ill

Attribution theory

Heider- how people infer the cause of other's behavior (dispositional vs situational) (HideR--hidden reason-why behavior?)

Balance theory

Heider- people change feelings/actions to be consistent to maintain homeostasis (HideR--hidden reason-why behavior?)

place-resonance theory

Helmholtz-different parts of basilar membrane responds to different frequencies/sounds (place-resonance=places on the basil membrane resonate diff frequencies)

Major Jungian archetypes: Anima (feminine) and Animus (masculine)

Helps us understand gender, the feminine behaviors in males, the masculine behaviors in females

Kahneman and Tversky

Heuristics - shortcuts or rules of thumb, to make decisions availability heuristics - used when we try to decide how likely something is; we make our decisions based upon how easily similar instances can be imagined we use the most readily information - doesn't always lead us to a correct decision

High self-monitors vs Low self-monitors

High self-monitors-easier to modify their behavior based on the situation; more likely to change their beliefs and opinions depending on who they're talking to Low self-monitors consistent throughout all situations. High self-monitors will have more dating and sexual partners; more likely to choose a romantic partner who is attractive but unsociable Low self-monitors are more likely to choose a partner who is unattractive but sociable High self-monitors more likely to take on leadership positions than low self-monitors

Range

Highest score minus minim score

Functionalist system of thought

How the mind functioned in adapting to the env.

Criterion validity

How well the test can predict an individual's performance on an established test of the same skill or knowledge area when a test is used to predict future performance, such as a GPA, that is considered predictive validity when a test is given at the same time as the criterion measure, such as a written driving test and a road test, that is considered concurrent validity cross-validation - testing the criterion validity of a test on a second sample, after you demonstrated using an initial sample

drive-reduction theory

Hull A Reinforcer is anything that reduces a drive for a biological need (thirst, hunger)

Mischel's Criticism

Human behavior is largely determined by the characteristic of the situation rather than by those of the person

DSM-V 3 Major Sections

I. Introduction and clear information on how to use the DSM II. Provides information and categorical diagnoses III. Section III provides self-assessment tools, as well as categories that require more research

Intelligence Quotient

IQ mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100 An IQ of 100 indicates that a person's mental age is equal to his or her chronological age - known as concept ratio William Stern problem: after a certain age, chronological age increases while mental age does not; therefore, even if your mental age remains constant, your IQ will decrease with age - Stanford-Binet used deviation quotients: tells us how far away a person's score is from the average score for the particular age group the subject is a member of. Therefore, the deviation IQ represents the individual's standing among his or her same-aged cohort.

IQ correlates most positively with

IQ of biological parents and socio-eco status of parents

Correlation study

IV not manipulated

Schiz

If development is slow and insidious, it is referred to as process schizophrenia and prognosis for recovery is especially poor If onset of symptoms is intenseand sudden, it is referred to as reactive schiz. Recovery is better for this

Patient protection under businesses (no gov't involvement)

If no government involvement/funding, there are no gov't regulations not necessarily any protection for patient data, ethical guidelines, etc.

Overjustification effect

If you reward people for something they already like doing, they may just stop doing it - mistakenly attributes the behavior now to external causes rather than to dispositional cues

Auto kinetic effect

If you stare at a point of light in a room that is otherwise completely dark, the light will appear to move

(DSM-V) Chapter- Feeding and eating disorders

Includes anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and now binge-eating disorder

confabulation

Incorrect memories (completely made up or small details changed) Caused by psychological or neurological disorders No conscious intention to deceive

Temperament

Individual differences as well as an individual's pattern of responding to the environment somewhat heritable emerge early in life (during infancy) stable over time pervasive across situations

Hawthorne effect

Industrial/Organizational Psychology -subjects alter behavior because being observed -->anything they did at company increased productivity (HA! effect-get paid for doing nothing, see difference in company)

Ainsworth Insecure/avoidant attachment

Infant not distressed when left alone with the stranger

Grasping

Infants automatically close their fingers around objects placed in their hands

Rooting

Infants automatically turn their heads in the direction of stimuli applied to the cheek (ex: nipple during feeding)

Moro

Infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms, extending their fingers, bringing their arms back to their body essentially hugging themselves ex: may have developed when our ancestors lived on trees and this may have saved their lives disappears after 4-5 months of age

External threats to prenatal development

Infants whose mothers contract rubella, or German measles, before the end of the second month run a high risk of cataracts, deafness, heart defects, and ID many drugs that aide the mother have deleterious effects on the fetus Maternal malnutrition Protein deficiency Maternal narcotic addiction Prenatal exposure to X-rays

Babinski

Infants' toes automatically spread apart when the soles of their feet are stimulated

Paivio's dual-code hypothesis

Information can be stored (or encoded) in two ways: visually and verbally abstract information - encoded verbally concrete information - encoded visually (as an image) ex: virtue would be encoded verbally while the word elephant would be encoded both visually and verbally

Language acquisition devide (LAD)

Innate capacity for language acquisition triggered by exposure to language this device enables infants to listen to and process sounds

Superordinate goals

Intergroup cooperation; joing effort on these superordinate goals dramatically improved intergroup relations. when people have to cooperate to solve problems (ex: pooling your own money, tugging the rope)

Julian Rotter

Internal and external locus of control internal: they can control their own destiny external: outside events and chance control their destiny locus of control and esteem are related; people who have a high sense of internal locus control (ability) tend to have a high self esteem

Off-line measurement of sentence processing

Interrupt people as reading, ask to write down what they remember (reading becomes off-line/interrupted)

Cattell

Introduced mental testing tot he U.S.

Bartlett

Investigated te role of schemata in memory; concluded that memory is largely a recognstructive process While exploring the recall of Native American folktales, Bartlett noticed that many recalls were not accurate and involved the replacement of unfamiliar information with facts already known. In order to categorize this class of memory errors, Bartlett suggested that human beings apparently possess generic knowledge in the form of unconscious mental structures (schemata) and that these structures produce schematized errors in recall when they interact with incoming information. Thus, it is through schemata that old knowledge influences new information. So, basically, schemata (plural of schema) are psychological concepts that were proposed as a form of mental representation for selected chunks of complex knowledge, which are then stored in the long-term memory.

Rosenhan

Investigated the effect of being labeled mentall ill

Kahneman and Tversky

Investigated the use of heuristics in decision making; studied the availability heuristic and the representativeness heuristic

(DSM-V) Chapter- Disruptive, impulse-control, and conduct disorders

Involve externalizing, acting-out behaviors that are often harmful to other people DSM recognizes a conduct disorder in children often transitions to a diagnosis of antisocial personality (anti-society; manipulating/disregard for others for own games) disorder in adulthood

Rats

It takes longer to extinguish the lever press for the rat who aquired the response while receiving only occasional reinforcement - partial reinforcement effect gambling is another example: once you sit down and began gambling, it's hard to stop, even though your behavior is reinforced by only an occasional win

Analytical Theory

Jung-similar to psychonalytic (stems from Freud) -human psyche directed to life/awareness (not sex) -psyche (ego) has personal quest for wholeness -ANALYZE personal unconscious and Collective unconscious-ARCHETYPES -psychopathology is signal that something's wrong in makeup of psyche; provides clues about how one can become more aware (psychoanalytic-psycho. Freud's student=just analytic) -ANALYZE cross cultural stories/consistencies; Jung-->Jesus ideal

field theory

K. Lewin-people are functions of their entire environment/life space (SOCIAL) -->life space=collection of entire environmental forces upon the individual (Field=top/general-->Gestalt)

Weber's Law

K=∆I JUST NOTICEABLE DIFFERENCE for all senses (constant fraction=increase in intensity needed for just noticeable difference/original intensity) a stimulus needs to be increased by a constant fraction of its original value in order to be noticeable different -3 bowl experiment (cold, room temp, hot) (derived from Fechner's law)

Maslow

Known for hierarchy of human motives and for his views on self-actualization needs were organized hierarchically, ascending from basic needs to complex psychological needs bottom: physiological and safety needs then: belongingness and love needs last: self-actualization,

Carl Rogers

Known for his psychotherapy technique known as client-centered therapy, person-centered therapy, or nondirective therapy people have the freedom to control their own behavior, and are neither slaves to the unconscious, nor subjects of faulty learning

Heinz dilemma

Kohlberg's most famous moral problem; answers used to create his stages ((expensive drug for wife-steal or let her die?) Kholberg moral problem (not stealing ketchup, stealing medicine for wife)

Embryonic period

Lasts approx 8 weeks; the embryo increases in size by about 2 million percent grows to about an inch and begins to develop human appearance (limbs appear and the tail begins to recede, fingers, toes, and external genitals appear) male embryo begins to produce androgen in the testes

Germinal period

Lasts approx. two weeks from the time of conception

Semantics

Learning of word meanings; how words are put together to form sentences ex: child must learnt hat certain combinations of phonemes represent certain physical objects or events, and that certain words refer to certain categories (women) while others refer to specific members of categories (mommy)

Blocking effect

Learning one association between a CS and UCS will block the subject from learning any other CS to predict UCS (hard to create multiple associations for UCS after one already made) (the irony in confusing this with backward masking-associating definition to masking instead of blocking effect is kind of a blocking effect)

just world bias

Lerner-believe in karma; if good person has bad happen, he must've done bad **often used as "blaming the victim" in court-->blame the victim because he deserved it so defendant is innocent Lerner-learn life's tough-just world bias

Freud psychodynamic theory - Instinct: Eros

Life instincts Serves the purpose of survival (hunger, thirst, and sex) form of energy by which the life instincts perform their work is called libido (sex drive)

Chomsky

Linguistic who suggested that children have an innate capacity for language acquisition

Gordon Allport

Listed three basic types of traits or dispositions Cardinal: self-sacrific; not everyone develops these Central: major characteristics of the personality that are easier to infer, such as honesty and fatalism Secondary: more personal characteristics that are more limited in occurrence functional autonomy - given activity or form of behavior may become an end or goal in itself, regardless of its original reason for existence distinguished between idiographic approach to personality (focusing on individual case studies) and nomothetic approach (focus on groups of individuals and tries to find the commonalities between individuals)

(DSM-V) Chapter- Substance-related and addictive disorders

Long list of substances that can lead to substance-use problems or problems that are induced by substances, such as withdrawal syndromes

drive-reduction theory proved false by who? and how?

M.E. Olds-electrical stimulation of pleasure center in brain as positive reinforcement (M.y E.lectrical O.verride for pleasure)

(DSM-V) Chapter- Depressive disorders

Major depressive disorder, Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

Wechsler tests

Major group of intelligence tests David Wechsler (1896 - 1981) was an American psychologist whose work frequently specialized in intelligence testing. He developed two intelligence scales - the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) - that still remained use, although in updated versions. He was also an influential theorist whose research regarding the human intellect remains important and relevant, especially in the later development of theory of multiple intelligences by Howard Gardner in the 1980's Has all items of a given type grouped into subjects (not organized by age levels). These items are arranged in order of increasing difficulty within each subtest. two broad sclaes: verbal scale - based on information, vocab, and similar skills performance scale - derived from tests of manipulative skill, eye-hand coordination, and speed.

Bem

Masculinity and femininity were two seperate sdimentions; also linked with the concept of androgyny

Major Jungian archetypes: Persona

Mask that is adopted by a person in response to the demands of social convention originates from social interactions in which the assumption of a social role has served a useful purpose to humankind throughout history

Measures of central tendency

Mean Median; the number that divides the distribution in half Mode; if there are two values that are tied for being the most frequently occurring, the data set has two modes, bimodal. outliers, or extreme scores, affect the central tendency

Gate Control Theory of Pain

Melzack and Wall (walls have a gate) pain perception related to interaction of nerve fibers running to and from spine (a "gate" in the spinal cord); pain might not be perceived based on diff factors (including COGNITION)

Victor Frankl

Mental illness and maladjustement stems from a life of meaningless

Ericson - generativity versus stagnation

Middle ages Fav: capability of being a productive, caring, contributing member of society Unfav: Sense of stagnation, bored, and self-centered

2-point threshold

Minimum distance between 2 stimulations on the skin to be perceived as 2 diff stimuli determined by density/layout of nerves

personality tests

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)-most used; adult personality; self-report (focus on clinical diagnosis) California Personality Inventory (CPI); self-report inventory; (focus on how person describes behavior around him) Henry Murray-Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT); story cards; people will project own needs onto the cards (MMPI-->my mental points; CPI-->crowd personality; TAT-->tattoos/images-story cards)

cognitive prototype approach

Mischel- -Examines behavior in social situations -->consistency of behavior is result of cognitive processes NOT personality traits

consistency paradox

Mischel-trait theory criticism- difference in personality by situations (minister is adulterer) (Mischel-Mind chisel-cognitive processes chisels behavior, not traits. anti-air Mischel-->anti-trait missile)

Bipolar disorders

Mood disorder Major type of mood disorder characterized by both depression and mania manic: abnormal and persistent elevated mood, accompanied by decreased need for sleep; flight of ideas; increased self-esteem; rapid onset and a briefer duration than depressive episodes Bipolar 1 - manic episodes Bipolar 2 - hypomania - typically not as significantly imairing, nor are there psychotic features

Major depressive disorder

Mood disorder characterized by at least 1 major depressive episode must last for 2 weeks during which there is a prominent and relatively persistent depressed mood, or loss of interest in all or almost all activities syptoms: appetite disturbances, substantial weight changes, sleep disturbances, decreased energy, worthless, guilt 15% of individuals with schiz die by suicide

Cyclothymic disorder

Mood disorder doesn't meet the criteria for bipolar disorder less severe

Persistent depressive disorder

Mood disorder don't quite meet the criteria for major depressive less severe

Ego Defence mechanism: Suppression

More deliberate, conscious form of forgetting

Self-Enhancement

Motivation that works to make people feel good about themselves and to maintain self-esteem Involves a preference for positive over negative self-views (Biased-improving self-view by pursuing favorable self-knowledge) [Enhance self view-biased towards positive]

Nature/Nurture controversy

Nature: human capabilities are innate and that individual differences are therefore largely the result of GENETIC differences Nurture: human capabilities are determined by the environment and shaped by EXPERIENCE

(DSM-V) Autism spectrum disorder

Neurodevelopmental disorder communication problems, social relatedness problems, unusual rituals/interests

(DSM-V) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

Neurodevelopmental disorder inattentiveness OR hyperactivity OR both that is inconsistent with developmental age treated by stimulants-amphetamine salts (dopamine reuptake inhibitors)

Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Neurodevelopmental disorder developmentally atypical inattention and/or impulsivity very short attention spans and have difficulty staying on task or with organizing things frequently not diagnosed until school age prevalence: 3-5% of school children males> females

Autism spectrum

Neurodevelopmental disorder impairment in social skills and communication skills as well as by repetitive behaviors was previously classied as three: aspergers, autism, pdd-nos impairments in language skills, both receptive and expressive oversentitive to sensory stimuli

Tourette's disorder

Neurodevelopmental disorder tic disorder characterized by multple motor tics (e.g., eye blinking, skipping, deep knee bends) and one or more vocal tics (e.g., grunts, barks, sniffs, snorts) sudden, recurrent, and stereotyped remission may occur 4 to 5 people in 10,000

Karen Horney

Neurotic personality is goverened by one of ten needs; each is directed toward making life and interactions bearable each is directed toward making life and interactions bearable ex: need for affection and approval, need to exploit others, and the need for self-sufficiency and independence primary concept is that of basic anxiety

(DSM-V) Chapter- Gender dysphoria

New chapter in DSM-V Occurs when individual's experienced or expressed gender is not congruent with his or her assigned gender Controversies over this topic; emphasizes the remediation of the individual's distress

(DSM-V) Chapter- Dissociative disorders

New to DSM-V: dissociative fugue is now a specifier of dissociative amnesia rather than a separate diagnosis

T. Newcomb

Newcomb model-->A-B-X A=message sender (e.g teacher) B=message receiver (e.g. student) X=issue of concern (e.g. more homework) A and B work in same relationship; relationship with x might affect their relationship/flow (ruins equilibrium) (Newcomb-->new concern ruins relationship)

Poverty of the Stimulus

Noam Chomsky -language is unlearnable without supplemental innate grammar knowledge because limited data is available to children learning a language

Four types of measurement scales:

Nominal/categorical Ordinal Interval Ratio

Connection between the receptiors (rods/cones) and the optic nerve

Not direct horizontal amacrine bipolar ganglion cells rods and cones connect with bipolar neurons, which connect to ganglion cells. the gangion cells group together to form the optic nerve, each ganglion cell has to be represent the combined activity of many rods and cones. the number of cones converging onto individual ganglion cells is smaller than the number of rods congerign onto individual ganglion cells; cones have greater sensitivity to fine detail than rods.

Freud's psychodynamic theory - Superego

Not directly in touch with reality and strived for the ideal than the real Moral branch of personality, striving for perception two subsystems: conscience (provides rules and norms about what constitutes bad behavior) and the ego-ideal (provides rules for good, appropriate behavior) ultimately, a system of right or wrong is substituted for the parental punishment/reward

Language in nonhuman species

Not seen [speaking yes (parrots), language and rules, no] Most advanced language=chimp sign language, but no syntax, novel constructs, and language is less advanced than 3 year old child

two-factor theory of avoidance

O. H. Mowrer Explains aversive conditioning/phobias better combined classical conditioning (pair of phobia stimulus and fear) and operant conditioning (avoiding phobia stimulus leads to negative reinforcement-removing fear/anxiety) (avoidance=phobia)

Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders

OCD: repeated obsessions (persistent irrational thoughts) that produce tension and/or compulsions (irrational and repetitive impulses to perform certain acts) obsessions: thoughts (obsession over dirt) compulsions: behaviors (washing hands repeatedly)

syntax

ORDER of words into sentences as prescribed by language (subject verb object)

Kernberg

Object relations theorist

Mahler

Object relations theorist

Winnicott

Object relations theorist

Clustering

Occurs when subjects are asked to memorize and then recall the words clustering the words by categories

Interaction

Occurs whenever the effects of one independent variable are not consistent for all levels of the second independent variable When two or more independent variables are involved in a research design, there is more to consider than simply the "main effect" of each of the independent variables (also termed "factors"). That is, the effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable of interest may not be the same at all levels of the other independent variable. Another way to put this is that the effect of one independent variable may depend on the level of the other independent variable.

Freud- Phallic/Oedipal stage

Once the libido is sublimated (lasts until puberty is reaches) When children become aware of their bodies, the bodies of other children, and the bodies of their parents, they gratify physical curiosity by undressing and exploring each other and their genitals, the center of the phallic stage, in course of which they learn the physical differences between "male" and "female", and the gender differences between "boy" and "girl", experiences which alter the psychologic dynamics of the parent and child relationship

Face validity

One of the main reasons that researchers are interested in face validity is a belief that a measure should appear to measure what it measures. In other words, if a research participant thinks that they are completing a questionnaire to identify the best football players in the league, the following question may have strong face validity: How many times have you played in the 1st squad/team this year? After all, it appears to make sense that the best players would have played the most games in the top team for a club. This is what we mean by face validity.

(DSM-V) Chapter- Trauma- and Stressor-related disorders

Only disorders featuring a firm causality (the experience of a traumatic event)

Big 5 Traits

Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extroversion Agreeableness Neuroticism/nervousness stems from Eysenck's work and Cattell's 16 personality factors

DSM-V Organizational Changes

Organization of chapters designed to demonstrate how disorders are related to one another Disorders are framed in age, gender, developmental characteristics

Jung typology of personality: Extroversion

Orientation toward the external, objective world

Jung typology of personality: Introversion

Orientation toward the innter, subjective world

Freud, S.

Originator of the psychodynamic approach to personality

Three main parts of the ear

Outer, Middle, Inner ear

Freud S.

Outlined 5 stages of psychosexual development; stressed the importance of the oedipal conflict in psychosexual development

Erikson

Outlined 8 stages of psychosocial development covering the entire lifespanc

Piaget

Outlined for stages of cognitive development

efferent fibers

PNS-runs away from CNS (efferent=>elsewhere, far out, everywhere, eff-further out)

afferent fibers

PNS-runs towards CNS (afferent=>approaching CNS; affter affected, go to CNS)

Measuring temperament

Parental reports of child bx Observations in naturalistic settings (home) Observations in lab settings

too little dopamine

Parkinson's disease (movement is difficult)

passive downward comparison VS active downward comparison

Passive downward comparison -person compares self to worse off person (no interaction with person) -->e.g. cancer patients motivated by looking at those with worse cancer Active downward comparison -person harms or demeans other, creating a situation where he can make a downward comparison.

Gain-loss theory

People act to gain and avoid loss

Practice effect

People may do better on the second test because they are more familiar with the test format

Consistency theories

People prefer consistency, and will change or resist changing attitudes based upon this preference - if the person is aware of their inconsistency (hating smoking but dates someone who smokes), person will try to resolve it

Watson

Performed experiment on little albert that suggested that the acquisition of phobias was due to classical conditioning

Rescorla

Performed experiments which showed that contiguity could not be explained by classical conditioning; proposed contingency theory of classical conditioning roposes that for learning to take place, a stimulus must provide the subject information about the likelihood that certain events will occur. Robert Rescorla demonstrated that the pairing of a conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (UCS) does not always produce learning and contended that it is necessary for the CS to signify a contingency.

Terman

Performed longitudinal study on gifted children

Zimbardo

Performed prison simulation and used concept of deindividuation to explain results

Clark, K. and Clark M.

Performed study on doll peferences in AA. children; the results were used in the 1954 Brown vs. Topeka supreme court case

K. Clark & M. Clark

Performed study on doll preferences in African American children (used in Brown v. Board of Education); black and white children preferred white dolls Clark and Clark dolls (white and dark dolls)

Piaget's Formal operational stage

Person has the ability to "think like a scientist" Pendulum experiment - asked to find out what determined the frequency of the swing (could be the length of the string, the weight of the pendulum, the force of the push, and the height of the swing) children in this stage were able to manipulate the variables at random and even distorted the data to fit the preconceived ideas

(DSM-V) Chapter- Somatic symptom and related disorders

Person is distressed by somatic symptoms, usually pain, either resulting form normal body functions or not associated with a medical condition Psychologists treat this distress, which is real for the patients, regardless of the nature of the underlying causes

Ego Defence mechanism: Regression

Person reverting to an earlier stage of development in response to a traumatic event

Borderline personality disorder

Personality disorder Features of both personality disorders and some of the more severe psychological disorders stable interpersonal relationships often an intense fear of abondonment suicide attempts are common

Narcissistic personality disorder

Personality disorder Grandiose sense of self-importance or uniqueness, preoccupation with fantasies of success, an exhibitionistic need for consent admiration fragile self-esteem and are constantly concerned with how others are viewing them

Antisocial personality disorder

Personality disorder pattern of disreard for, and violation of, the rights of others illegal acts, deceitfulness, aggressiveness, and/or lack of remorse for said actions

Schizoid personality disorder

Personality disorder pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression little desire for social interaction; not the same as schiz

Rogers

Phenomenological personality theorist

Maslow

Phenomenological personality theorist known for developing a hierarchy of needs and for the concept of self-actualization

Lewin

Phenomenological personality theorist who developed field theory

Anonymity and prison simulation

Philip Zimbardo - people are more likely to commit antisocial acts when they feel anonymous within a social environment mock prison, student prisoners and student guards . the guards became more authoritarian and abusive in the time that followed. prisoners began to have similar breakdowns. Study terminated at the end of 6 days.

Anxiety disorders

Phobia: an irrational fear of something that results in a compelling desire to avoid it specific phobias: anxiety is produced by a specific situation or object (e.g., claustraphobia, acrophobia - fear of heights; cynophobia - fear of dogs, agoraphobia - fear of public places

Four basic components of language

Phonology, Semantics, Syntax, and Pragmatics

Embryonic stage

Physiological development -lasts until end of second month; organ formation

Fetal stage

Physiological development -third month to birth; quantitative growth movement; slowest pace of growth of baby

Germinal stage

Physiological development ~2 weeks, zygote down fallopian tube; grows into 64 cells (cleavage); blastocyst implants self into wall of uterus

assimilation

Piaget-fitting new info into existing ideas (assimilate into a group-fit into existing group; like adding air into a balloon) ass-inflation

accommodation

Piaget-modifying cognitive schema to incorporate new info (accommodate someone-change for someone; like turning your round balloon into the shape of a poodle) accommodate-you change for a date

Sigmund Freud

Pioneer in charting personality and emotional growth linked human psychology and human sexuality together - linked 5 stages of psychosexual development - in each stage, children faced with a conflict between societal demands and the desire to reduce the libidinbal tension associated with different body parts. Fixation occurs when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development the child then forms a personality pattern based on that particular stage, which persists into adulthood

Pinel

Placed in charge of a MH asylum in Paris that was markedby horrible conditions; he believed that everyone should be treated with consideration and kindness (1782) reformed MH asylums

Symptoms of Schiz

Positive symptoms: behaviors, thoughts, or affects added to normal behavior: delusions, hallucinations, disorgsanized speech, and disorganize or catonic behavior Negative symptoms: involve the absence of normal or desired behavior ex: flat affect, blunted emotional expression (something goes away; is removed)

Reinforcements (positive and negative)

Positive=add good; negative=take away something bad reinforcement=want to make a behavior occur

Freud psychodynamic theory

Postulate the existence of unconscious internal states that motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality three major systems: id, ego, and superego

Babbling

Precursor to language Children, including deaf, spontaneously begin to babble during their first year

Touch

Pressure, pain, warmth, and cold 5 different types of receptors that receive tactile information Pacinian corpuscles (deep pressure) Meissner corpuscles (touch) Merkel discs Ruffini endings (warmth) free nerve endings transduction occurs int he receptors, and information travels to the somatosensory conrtex in the parietal lobe of the brain

Two types of long-term memory

Procedural memory (AKA implicit) declarative memory (AKA explicit)

Behaviorism

Proceeded functionalism/classical conditioning

Darwin

Proposed a theory of evolution with natural selection as its centerpiece

Gardner

Proposed a theory of multiple intelligences that divide intelligence into seven different types, all of which are equally important; traditional IQ tests measure only two of the seven types

Lerner

Proposed concept of belief in a just world

Broadbent

Proposed filter theory of attention selective attention

Aronson and Linder

Proposed gain-loss principle (an evaluation that changes will have more effect than an evaluation that remains constant)

Aronson & Linder

Proposed gain-loss theory of attraction-->(gain or loss of positive feedback from the other person has more effect on liking than the absolute level of feedback) (e.g. compliment from person who hates every one better than compliment from common supporter; like hateful person more) (A&L-add and loss; Linder-tinder. Add and loss of liking)

Melzack and Wall

Proposed the gate theory of pain

Thorndlike

Proposed the law of effect; used puzzle boxes to study problem solving in cats

Wever and Bray

Proposed volley theory of pitch perception in response to a criticism of the frequency theory of pitch perception Reconciles the fact that the cochlear microphonic mimicks the sound pressure waves with the implausibility of the temporal code.

Darley & Latane

Proposed-two factors could lead to non-helping: social influence and diffusion of responsibility (Darley->diffusion of responsibility; Latane->lack of helping)

Anna Freud

Psychoanalytic theory and psychotherapy could profit from more direct investigation of the conscious ego and its relation to the world, to the unconscious, and to the superego founder of ego psychology

Adler

Psychodynamic theorist best known for the concept of inferiority compelx

Jung

Psychodynamic theorist who broke with Freud over the concept of libido; suggested that the unconscious could be divided into the personal unconscious, and the collective unconscious, with archetypes being in the collective unconscious

Horney

Psychodynamic theorist who suggested there were three ways to relate to others: moving forward, moving against, and moving away from

Kraepelin

Published a textbook which he noted that some symptoms of mental disorders occurred together regularly enough that the symptom patterns could be considered specific types of mental disorders (1933) Precuorser to our current DSM classification system

color spectrum and order

Rainbow colors low freq to high-->start with red to purple (red=relaxing, blue=destroys melatonin and hurt sleep)

True experiment

Random assignment the researcher manipulates, or controls, the levels in the IV

Konrad Lorenz - Imprinting

Rapid formation of an attachment bond between an organism and an object in the environment often, the stimulus is a specific physical feature of the mother, or a specific movement

Swets

Refined ROC curves in signal detection theory

Pinel

Reformed french asylums in the late 18 century

(DSM-V) Bulimia nervosa

Regular consumption of large amounts of calories at a sitting, leading to feelings of guilt and loss of control and followed by efforts to purge the calories by use of vomiting, laxatives, etc.

Just noticeable different (JND)

Related to the difference thresholds (JND and difference thresholds measure the same things, but in diff. units) ratio is important! one JND needs to be added to or substracted from a stimuklus for a person to say that she notices the difference

releasing stimuli/releasers/sign stimuli (Lorenz's)

Releasing stimuli-one individual of species eliciting an automatic, instinctual behavior triggers another individual to a behavior in same species (Lorenz worked with Tinbergen) (Lorenz-imprinting of ducks) (Ralph Lauren duck boots)

Stratified random sample

Relevant subgroups of the population are randomly sampled in proportion to size

(DSM-V) Chapter- Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders

Repetitive disturbing thoughts (obsessions) with ritualistic, repetitive behaviors (compulsions) 1 hour or more per day in compulsive behavior indicates problematic behavior

John Darley and Bibb Latane

Research on bystander intervention

Diana Baumrind

Research on parental style, and discipline Measured parental control, nurturance, clarity of communication, and maturity

Naturalistic observation/field study

Researcher does not intervene ; measures behavior as it naturally occurs

Client-Centered Theory

Rogers-people have actualizing tendency; people who lack congruence between real self and conscious self-concept develop psychological tension -humanistic theory -(C-C=CONGRUENCE)

"Mentally ill" label

Rosenhan - pretended to be mentally ill and admitted into a psychiatric hospital; he acted normal in the asylum. but even little acts were perceived to be interpreted as evidence of mental illness each experiementer lasted about 3 weeks label never goes away Szasz - most of the disorders treated by clinicians are not really ilnesses - traits or behaviors that differ from the cultural norm

Bem Sex Role Inventory

S. Bem-analyzes how well you fit into your gender role by analyzing personality as masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated -androgenous have higher self esteem, lower anxiety, more adaptability than masculine and feminine (S.ex Bem) Bum sex.

Fechner's Law

S=k log(R) (sensation strength=a logarithm of original intensity) sensation is proportional to the logarithm of the stimulus intensity. Fechner= S=k logR Feck-her=seKs heR=S equals K log R

Stephen's power law

S=kI^B sensation is proportional to stimulus intensity raised to a power; k is a contant

Maslow's hierarchy of needs (motivation)

SESSP bottom up-my needs, social needs, my feelings, self actualiz

G Miller

STM has capacity ~7 items

Unconditioned response

Salivation - pavlolv

Kurt Lewin's field theory

Saw personality as being dynamic and constantly changing personality can be divided dynamically into ever changing regions

(DSM-V) Chapter- Schizophrenia-spectrum and other psychotic disorders

Schizophrenia -Positive symptoms: Hallucinations, experience delusions, demonstrate disorganized thinking or speech, experience movement disturbances -Negative symptoms: social withdrawal, lack of motivation, emotional disturbance -Typically lower levels of activity in frontal lobes

Permissive parenting

Score very low on control/demand measures

Kohlberg - Morality defined by the rules of authority

Second phase, stage 4 "law-and-order" orientation

Kohlberg - Gender stability

Second stage (3-4) Children can predict that they will still be a boy or a girl when they grow up

Learned helplessness

Seligman after enough events when one out of control of events (presence of reinforcements unrelated to responses); external locus of control -->combat with cognitive training fostering learned optimism

Semantic memory

Semantic verification task: subjects are asked to indicate whether or not a simple statement presented is true or false the experimenters measure the time it takes the subject to respond - response latency the ideal is that the pattern of response latencies will provide information on how semantic knowledge is stored in memory

Piaget's four stages of cognitive development

Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete operational Formal operational

somatotypes (literal means=body type)

Sheldon -Endomorph-short fat-pleasure-seeking, social (endo-all about self and insides) -->endo-inside, all me -Mesomorph-muscular athletic-energetic, aggressive -->meos-muscle -Ectomorph-skinny fragile-inhibited, intellectual -->ecto-beyond the body, intellect

Significance testing

Show that one hypothesis (the research hypothesis, or the alternative hypothesis, is supported by data showing tha tother possible (null hypothesis) is inconsistent experimental data disconfirms the null hypothesis can help determine if a 2-point difference is a real difference, or due to chance can tell us the probability that our observed difference is due to chance, that is, the probability that we could have obtained such a difference if our null hypothesis, that there is no difference betweent he two groups, was indeed true you can reject or accept the null or experimental

Sign stimuli/Releasers

Sign stimuli - features of a stimulus that are sufficient to bring about a particular FAP Releasers - sign stimuli that function as signals from one animal to another a release is a particular environmental stimulus that sets off a specific behavior feature of a stimulus sufficient to bring about a particular FAP stimuli that are capable of releasing Fixed Action Pattern (FAP) or consummatory behaviour of the animal. They are signals that evoke instinctive patterns of behaviour in animals, such as fighting behaviour in the territorial animals, triggered by the entry of another male. Lehrman found that courting male dove began to bow and coo to a stuffed model of female in the absence of a living female.

Signal detection theory

Signal Detection Theory holds that the detection of a stimulus depends on both the intensity of the stimulus and the physical and psychological state of the individual." And that's really all it is....Your ability or likelihood to detect some stimulus is affected by the intensity of the stimulus (e.g., how loud a noise is) and your physical and psychological state (e.g., how alert you are). For example, when you walk to your car that is parked in an empty parking lot late at night all by yourself, you might be much more aware of noises because the situation is somewhat threatening (you are primed and listening carefully to hear anything and everything). In this case, you may hear some slight noises that you might otherwise not hear if you were in a different situation that was not as threatening. Thus, your ability to detect signals or noises has been affected by these factors.

Chi-square

Significant tests that work with categorical data, rather than numerical data When the data collected are not numbers but names or categories, such as male or females, and you are making inferences about date of this type, you could use a chi-square test. Nominal - involves classifying or naming Use when individual observations are names or categories

Hubel and Wiesel three diff. types of cells

Simple: Give information about the orientation and boundaries of an object Complex: more advanced information about orientation, such as movement Hypercomplex: info about abstract concepts, such as shape single-cell recording (placing a microelectrode in the contex so sensitive that it could record responses of a single cell)

Freud's psychodynamic theory- Ego

Since mental image cannot effectively reduce tension on a permanent basis secondary process: the ego's mode of functioning reality principle: takes into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id and the id's pleasure principle the aim of this reality principle is to postpone the pleasure principle until the actual object that will satisfy the need has been discovered, or produced promoted the growth and elaboration of the psychologial processes of perception, memory, problem solving, thinking, and reality testing can be understood to be the organization of the Id - receiving its power from the id, it can never really be independent of the id

Thorndike puzzle box vs. Skinner Box

Skinner box=improved; repeated lever pressing Thorndike puzzle box=could only escape once then experiment over

Radical Behaviorism

Skinner's operant ideas that behavior is related ONLY to consequences (no need to focus on mental states); everything we do is behavior

Depressants

Slow CNS; puts person to sleep; facilitates GABA production, can stop glutamate activity -alcohol -barbiturates (usually end in -al, e.g. pentothal)-very deadly when mixed with alcohol because exponentially multiplies effects -anxiolytics (anti-anxiety drugs); e.g. valium, xanax

constituents

Smaller units of sentences (the man traveled slowly=the man and traveled slowly; each of the two phrases are made of two smaller constituents, one word each) People process meaning of sentences one constituent at a time (constituents broken up to smaller parts=cons, tit, ents) (cons-sentence-broken sentence)

Semantic feature-comparison model

Smith, Shoben, and Rips concepts are represented by sets of features, some of which are required for that concept, and some of which are typical of that concept ex: the concept of college is represented by the features has faculty (required, offers degrees (required), has fraternities (typical) and so on..

Machiavellianism

Someone who is manioulative and deceitful tend to agree with statements such as "most people don't really know what's best for them" much more successful manipulators

Sensory memory

Stage theory of memory - stage 1 contains fleeting impressions of sensory stimulis visual memory is often called the iconic memory; auditory often called the echoic memory information does not last long in this memory; at most, a few seconds

Binocularity disparity

Stereopsis; depends on the fact that the distance between the retinal images of the eyes due to slight differences in the horizontal position of each eye in the skull - binocular parallax when the brain combines two views, we get a perception of depth; stereopsis only depth cue that requires two eyes (binocular depth cue) use of only one eye (monocular depth cue)

Edward Titchener

Structuralism - break consciousness down into elements or specific mental structures through introspection introspection: asking subjects to report on their current conscious experiences spawned functionalism, behaviorism, and gestalt psychology

Bowlby

Studied attachment in human children

Hovland

Studied attitude change

Harry Harlow and Attachment

Studied baby monkies; seperated the monkeys from their mothers 6-12 hours after bitrth and placed them in one of two cages with their surrogate mother: 1) wire cylinder with a feeding nipple attached 2) wood cylinder covered with terrycloth - did not have a nipple or provide food monkeys overwhelmingly preferred the clother mother contact comfort > physical needs from mother (food) -- also tried raising the monkeys with their surrogate mothers; monkeys with the wire cylinder - less socially adept and took longer to socially integrate then raised the monkeys on their own and found that they were severely dysfunctional; however, these monkeys could be introduced to everyone by the therapist monkeys

Bowlby

Studied children who were brought up in institutions such as foster homes and orphanages; here, they were often physically well cared but often lacked intimate bodily contact - timid and asocial children

Vygotsky

Studied cognitive development; stressed the importance of the zone of proximal development

Asch

Studied conformity by asking subjects to compare the length of lines

Gibson J

Studied depth cues (especially texture gradients) that help us to perceive depth

Clark and Clark Doll preference study

Studied ethnic self-concept among ethnically white and black children using the famous doll preference task majority of white and black children preferred the white doll

Loftus

Studied eyewitness memory and concluded that our memories can be altered by presenting new ifnormation or by asking misleading quesrions

Hubel and Wiesel

Studied feature detection in visual cortex and discovered simple, complex, and hypercomplex cells

Witkin

Studied field dependence and field independence using the rod-and-frame test

Lorenz

Studied imprinting in birds

Kohler

Studied insight in problem solving

Rotter

Studied locus of control

Ebbinghaus

Studied memory using nonsense syllables and the method of savings; developed the forgetting curve

Zajonc

Studied mere exposure effect; also resolved problems with the social facilitation effect by suggesting that the presence of others enhances the emission of dominant responses and impairs the emission of non dominant responses

Kohlberg

Studied moral development using moral dilemmas

McClelland

Studied need for achievement

Hall

Studied norms for interpersonal distance in interpersonal interactions

Milgram

Studied obedience by asking subjects to administer electroshock; also proposed stimulus-overload theory to explain differences between city and country dwellers

Bandura

Studied observational learning

McGuire

Studied psychological inoculation could help people resist persuasion

Schachter

Studied relationship between anxiety and the need for affiliation

Garcia

Studied taste-aversion learning and proposed that some species are biologically prepared to learn connections between certain stimuli

Tyron

Studied the genetic basis of maze-running ability in rats

Baumrind

Studied the relationship between parental style and discipline

Irving Janis and groupthink

Studied the ways group decisions often go awry the tendency of decision-making groups to strive for consensus by not considering discordant information

S. Asch

Studies conformity by asking subjects to compare the lengths of lines Ashland-->Asch's lines (conformity)

Whole-report procedure

Subject looked for a fraction of a second at a visual display of nine items on average, subjects could only remember four of the nine items

Experiment by Festinger and Carlsmith (1959)

Subjects were asked to perform extremely boring tasks, such as putting 12 spools and removing - doing it again for a while. Then, the subjects had to tell the "next" subject that the exp. was enjoyable and interesting. Subjects either received $1 or $20. Subjects who received the $1 reported after that they enjoyed the experiment more than the $20 group - dissonance between the cognition (the task is boring) and the action (telling the 'subject' that task was interesting) - much more dissonance in the $1 group - $20 group could attribute their dissonance to an external justification (money) - $1 group had to attribute to an internal justification (so they convinced themselves that they really enjoyed the task)

(DSM-V) gambling disorder

Substance-related and addictive disorder Added in recognition of similarities between people who have addictions to substances and people who are unable to stop gambling

Eagly

Suggested that gender differences in conformity were not due to gender, per se, but to differing social roles

A. Eagly

Suggested that gender differences in conformity were not due to gender, per se, but to differing social roles [not biological, but prejudice/social] (Eagle-american freedom for women)

Gilligan

Suggested that males and females have different orientations toward morality

Szasz

Suggested that most of the mental disorders treated by clinicians are not really mental disorders

Premack

Suggested the premack principle: that a more-preferred activity could be used to reinforce a les-preferred activity states that preferred behaviors, or behaviors with a higher level of intrinsic reinforcement, can be used as rewards, or reinforcements, for less preferred behaviors.

Noam CHomsky - Transformational grammar

Syntactic transformations, or changes in word order that differ in meaning this ability must be innate since children begin to do this early on believed in a critical period between 2yo and puberty for language acquisition - child isnt exposed to language at this time, then exposure to language later would be ineffective

Attractiveness stereotype

Tendency to attribute positive qualities and desirable characteristics to attractive people, is a likely explanation

Schizophrenia Spectrum and other psychotic disorders

Term coined by eugen bleuler Used to be called dementia praecox means "split mind" but the founder of the term didn't mean that the spit into different personalities but that the mind is split off from reality characterized by gross distortions of reality and disturbances in the content and form of thought often confused with multiple personality disorder symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought, inappropriate affect, catonic behavior

Three basic methods used to establish the reliability of a test

Test retest method alternate-form method split-half reli

Chi-square test

Tests the equality of two frequencies or proportions A chi-square test for independence compares two variables in a contingency table to see if they are related. In a more general sense, it tests to see whether distributions of categorical variables differ from each another. A very small chi square test statistic means that your observed data fits your expected data extremely well. In other words, there is a relationship. A very large chi square test statistic means that the data does not fit very well. In other words, there isn't a relationship

Lenneberg, Rebelsky, Nicholas (1965)

The age babbling begins is about the same for hearing children with hearing parents, hearing children with deaf parents, and deaf children However...for hearing children, babbling continues and becomes more frequent, reaching its highest frequency between 9 and 12 months

Self-Verification

The drive for a self-concept congruent with one's identity (they want others to think what they think about themselves) People's self-views will cause them to see the world as more supportive of these self-views than it really is [Verify self-biased towards positive]

Self-Assessment

The drive for an ACCURATE self-concept -->seek information to confirm their uncertain self-concept rather than certain self-concept -->enhance their certainty of their own self-knowledge Only self evaluation interested in the ACCURACY of their current self view, rather than improving their self-view [Assess Accurate view-no bias]

Hawthrone effect

The effect that bieng observed has on behavior Possible solution: control groups

Matched-subjects design

The experimenter could match subjects on the basis of the variable that he wants to control (e.g., intelligence) to make sure that both groups have, on the average, roughly, the same level of intelligence. Pairings ensure that both groups approximately equal o the matching variable, in this case, intelligence

G. Stanley Hall

The father of developmental psychology one of the first to do empirical research on children

Population

The group to which the researcher wishes to generalize her results

Cell nucleus

The nucleus of the cell, except for sperm and egg cells, contain all 23 pairs of chromosomes

Zajonc's Theory

The presence of others increases arousal and consequently enhances the emission of dominant responses

Criterion of significance

The probability that represents statistic significance 5% or .05 - psychologists are willing to reject the null hypothesis only if they are very sure that observed differences are not due solely to chance AKA alpha level

recursion

The repeated sequential use of a particular type of linguistic element or grammatical structure examples: -Great-great-great grandchild -He was a tall, handsome, witty doctor often used to create expressions that modify or change the meaning of one of the elements of the sentence (more specific) (can have as many as you want)

Neutral stimulus

The ringing of a bell before putting the food in the dogs' mouth salivation the bell rings became paired, or associated with placing the food powder int he dog's mouth

rHODSPIN

The rods only have one pigment in dark adaptation photochemical made up of a vitam A derivative, called retinal, and a protein called opsin bleaching - when a molecule of rhodspin absorb a photon of light, the pigment begins to decompose or split, into retinene and opsin when you walk out of the dark movie theater into a bright sunny day - visual process that takes place is called light adaptation

Representative sample

The sample matches as many characteristics as possible of the population as a whole

Bogardus Scale

The scale asks people the extent to which they would be accepting of each group social distance scale-would you accept ___ into your group? (family, country, etc.) (usually measured 1-7-->1=will do, 7=won't do) (boo-guard us or add us?)

DV

The variable expected to change due to variations in the IV ex: spelling test performance depends on the action

IV

The variable whos effect is being studied ex: breakfast type (has levels to it) levels of IV: the values the IV has in the study

Stage theory of memory

There are several different memory systems and that each system has a different function. sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory

Klinefelter's syndrome

These males have an extra X chromosone (XXY) sterile and often have ID

Ectomorphy

Thin, fragile and lightly muscled

Jung four psychological function

Thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuiting

Kohlberg - Social construct orientation

Third phase (Post conventional morality) , stage 5 Convention that is designed to ensure the greater good

Kohlberg - Universal ethical principles

Third phase, stage 6 Acting according to a set of universal ethical principles

Kohlberg - Gender consistency

Third stage (4-7) children understand the permanency of gender, regardless of what one wears or how one behaves

Dopamine Hypothesis (DSM-V)

This hypothesis helps to explain the cause behind Schizophrenia and its accompanying symptoms of delusions, hallucinations, and agitations: - oversensitivity/too much dopamine

Diathesis-Stress Model (DSM-V)

This model states that Schizophrenia occurs due to a physiological predisposition paired with an external stressor

British empiricist school of thoughts

Thomas hobbes, george berkeley, david hume, james mill, john stuart mill, john locke believed that all knowledge is gained through experience

Law of effect

Thorndike formed the basis of operant conditioning

law of effect

Thorndike precursor of operant conditioning; people react through cause and effect people do what rewards them, stops what doesn't successful behaviors more likely to be repeated (cats puzzle box-had to figure out how to escape) (Explains BEHAVIOR-early behavioral approach, so Thorndike)

Carl Jung

Thought of libido as psychic energy in general (not just psychic energy rooted in sexuality) identified the ego as the conscious mind, and he divided the unconsicous into two parts: the personal unconscious (similar to freud) and the collective unconscious collective unconscious: powerful system that is shared among all humans and considered to be the residue of the experiences of our early ancestors; includes images that are a record of common experiences, such as having a mother or a father. these images are the building blocks for the collective unconscious - Archetypes (thought or image that has an emotional element)

Thomas and Chess experiment on temperament

Three categories of infant emotional and behavioral style easy: generally displayed a positive mood, regularity in bodily functions, and easy adaptation to new situations slow to warm up: initially withdrew, but was soon able to adapt to new situations difficult: negative emotions and irregular bodily functions; tended to withdraw in new situations

Peter Wolff and Crying

Three distinct patterns of crying Basic cry - associated with hunger Angry cry - frustration Pain cry - painful stimulus

Kohlberg's gender stages

Three-stage theory of self-socializing

structuralist theory

Titchner-perception is sum total of sensory input (the world is understood through the bottom-up theory-->specific sense of one item leads to generalizing idea of sense to that item) mind=most basic parts, like elements of periodic table; only observable pieces can be used to measure; unobservable conscious have no place in society [learned under Wundt, makes sense-first school would be like chemistry, observable, less theory, etc.] (we build our own structure through senses structure=concrete; no abstract)

Purpose of significance testing

To make an inference about a population on the basis of sample data sample size is related to significance levels: the larger the size of the sample, the smaller the difference between the groups has to be in order to be significant

Holphrasis

Toddler's use of a single word to express a complete thought (the single word) Between 18 and 20 months of age, a child will begin combining words

latent learning

Tolman Challenged behaviorism- learning which is not apparent in the learner's behavior at the time of learning, but which manifests later when a suitable motivation and circumstances appear (e.g. remembering a maze you're not paying attention to)

cognitive map

Tolman mental image of area through important/relevant cues latently learned related to latent learning

Gestalt Theory

Top-Down approach Encourages people to stand apart for beliefs from specific experiences of the past. Should fully experience the present abnormal behavior derived from disturbances of awareness (Stop thinking SPEFIC EXPERIENCES (down); start thinking GENERAL present (top)); disturbed awareness=disturbed awareness of overall general present situation (top)

Allport

Trait theorist known for the concept of funcitonal autonomy; also distinguished btween idiographic and nomothetic approaches to personality

Raymond Cattell

Trait theorist that used factor analysis to measure personality in a more comprehensive way, attempting to account for the underlying factors that determine personality identified 16 basic traits that constitute the building blocks of personality

Eysenck

Trait theorist who proposed two dimensions on which human personalities differ: introversion-extroversion and emotional stability-neuroticism

Cattell

Trait theorist who used factor analysis to study personality

Prefrontal lobotomies

Treat schiz (1935-1955) Front lobes of the brain were severed from the brain tissue (but also destroyed parts of the frontal lobe - which is responsible for most of the traits that make us distinctly human) didn't cure schiz; just made them easier to handle in 1950's antipsychotic drugs were introduced to treat schiz; stopped performing lobotomies and using electroshock therapy for tx

Control group design

Treating both groups equally in all respects except that the cereal for one group (the control group) contained no protein, whereas the cereal for the other group (the experiemental) is a modified version. group that does not receive the tx; experimental is the group that receives the tx we can be more confident that it is the difference in protein content that is causing the difference in spelling test performance

Darley and Latane

Two factors that could lead to non-helping: social influence and diffusion of responsibility

Petty and Cacioppo's elaboration likelihood model of persuasion

Two routes to persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route - if very important to us, we're dealing with the central route; if not very important to us, the peripheral route

Two types of statistical significance erros

Type 1 Type 2

Episodic memory

Type of declarative memory memories for particular events, or episodes, that you have personally experienced

Semantic memory

Type of declarative memory remembering general knowledge, especially the meanings of words and concepts

Declarative memory

Type of long-term memory Where explicit information is stored; fact memory two types of declarative memory: semantic memory episodic memory

Procedural memory

Type of long-term memory remembering how thingd are done ex: how to tie your shoes, how to swim, ride a bike

Trait/type theorists

Type: characterize people according to specific types of personality Trait: ascertain the fundamental dimesions of perosnality

(DSM-V) Chapter- Elimination disorders

Typically occur in children; involve inappropriate patterns of urination and defecation

Neurodevelopmental disorders

Typically present during infancy, childhood, or adolescence often linked to the development of the nervous system

simultaneous conditioning

UCS and SC presented at same time

Ego Defence mechanism: Repression

Unconscious forgetting of anxiety-provoking memories

Authoritarian parenting

Use punitive control method and lack emotional warmth

Sherif

Used auto kinetic effect to study conformity; also performed Robber Cav's experiment and found that superordinate goals increased intergroup cooperation

Psychoanalysis - Methods

Used free association, a technique whereby the clients says whatever comes to his or her conscious mind regardless of how personal, painful, or seemingly irrelevent it may appear to be the psychoanalys, with the client, would try to understand their original conflict also used dream interpretation- the defences are relaxed and the mind is freer to express forbidden wishes and desires during dream states resistance - unwillingness or inability to relate to certain thoughts, motives, or experiences transference - attributing to the therapist attitudes and feelings that developed in the patient's relations with significant others in the past countertransference - therapist experience a full array of emotions toward the patient at various points in the tx

Harlow

Used monkeys and 'surrogate mothers' to study the role of contact comfort in bond formation

Ebbinghaus' experiment

Used nonsense syllables to study memory using himself as a subject method of savings - after memorizing the initial list, he compared the number of times he had to read the list in order to rememorize it if he rememorized the list faster than he originally memorized it, he concluded that he had remembered something from the first time he substracted the number of trials it took to rememorize the list from the number of trials it originially took to memorize the list

Luchins

Used the water-jar problems to study the effect of mental sets on problem solving

T-test

Used to compare the means of two groups

Interval scale

Uses actual numbers (not ranks), such as the number correct on a spelling test Equal intervals (ex: temperature)

Weschler three major IQ tests

WPSSI WISC WAIS

Herman Witkin

Wanted to draw a relationship between an individual's personality and his or her perception of the world classified people according to their degree of field of dependence (at one pole, is the capacity to make specific responses to perceived specific stimuli - field independence; at the other pole is a more diffuse response to a perceived mass of somewhat undifferentiated stimuli - field dependence

Classic conditioning

Watson conducted an experiment with an 11yo called little albert; at the beginning, he wasn't afraid of ratss. but eventually learned to associate rats to a loud noise . eventually began to show fear to many white things

Leo Festinger's Social Comparison Theory

We are drawn to affiliate because of a tendency to evaluate ourselves in relationship to other people - people prefer to evaluate themselves by objective, nonsocial means - the less the similarity of opinions and abilities between two people, the less the tendency to make these comparisons - when a discrepancy exists with respect to opinions and abilities, there is a tendency to change one's position so as to move it in line with the group

Equity theory

We consider not only our own costs and benefits but costs and rewards of the other person - We prefer that our ratio of costs and rewards be equal to the other person's ratio

Reciprocity hypothesis

We tend to like people who indicate they like us We tend to dislike the people that dislike us We take into account the other person's evaluation of us

Fechner

Weber's Law - mathematical expression of JND historically important psychological law quantifying the perception of change in a given stimulus. The law states that the change in a stimulus that will be just noticeable is a constant ratio of the original stimulus.

Ego Defence mechanism: Projection

When a person attributes his forbidden urges to others ex: thought of "i hate my uncle" -> thought of "my uncle hates me"

Reactance

When social pressure to behave in a particular way becomes so blatant that the person's sense of freedom is threatened, people will tend to act in a way to reassert a sense of freedom

Rejecting the null

When the observed difference is statistically significant the null = no effect

Type 2 error

When we accept the null, but the null is actually false (false negative) statistically insignificant result was obtained and the null hypothesis was accepted, even though the null was false probability is called beta , after the Greek letter

Substractive color mixture

When we mix pigments mixture of pigments is mixture ex: blue + yellow = green

Type 1 error

When when reject the null but the null is actually true (false positive) there really is no difference between the population values mentioned in the null hypothesis and a statistically significant result was obtained just by chance There are 5 chances of 100 that the decision is wrong

Daryl Bem's self-perception theory

When your attitudes about something are weak or ambiguous, you observe your own behavior and attribute an attitude to yourself (ex: "I guess I do like bread, because i'm always eating it) in the case of the festinger and carlsmith experiment, the $1 subject looks at his own behavior and attributes a liking of the experiment to himself.

Whorfian hypothesis (Linguistic Relativity)

Whorf: hypothesis : -language influences culture perspective/how reality is perceived -[more words you know about topic; more ideas you can have about topic] -USA number of words for color vs natives who use 2 words to describe colors should have different perspectives of colors -->turns out they still have similar perspectives; thus Whorf hypothesis incorrect (Dr. Who-cross culture-language)

Guttman Scale

Yes/No scale (2-point) to questions (gut feeling of yes or no yesman scale)

tri-color/component theory

Young-Helmholtz-3 types of receptors in retinas-cones for red, cones for blue, cones for green occurs in the retina

Dix

Zealous advocate of treating the hospitalized mentally ill in a humane way (1841-1881)

psychoanalysis aggression

a central force in humans that must find a socially acceptable outlet (unconscious must be conscious)

Negative correlation

a change in value of one of the variables tends to be associated with a change in the opposite direction of the other variable A -1 or 1 means absolute certainty that things can be predicted

Variable

a factor that variesin amount or kind and can be measured height, weight, mental abilities, physical abilities

free-recall learning

a list of items learned; must be recalled in any order with no cue

neonate

a newborn child or mammal born with well-developed immunity to various infections (this wears off after ~6 months)

Generation-recognition model

a recall task taps the same basic process of accessing information in memory as does a recognition task

(DSM-V) Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

a subtype of major depressive disorder, with seasonal pattern

Psychodynamic orientation

a system of thought that arose out of a clinical, rather than academic or research setting

Flooding

a way to get rid of irrational fears the client experiences the CS (in this case, cats) without the US that originally elicited fear force the client to hold a cat - after having experienced the cat holding as harmless, the person learns that cats need not be avoided

fitness

ability to reproduce and pass on genes; fittest=those best suited to environment to successfully reproduce

formal operational stage

abstract relationships; logic

projection (defense mechanism)

accuse others of own unacceptable feelings (my doll misses daddy)

Factors to make easier to learn/retrieve

acoustic dissimilarity meaning dissimilarity shortness of term and length of list familiarity concreteness meaning importance to the subject

saltatory condution

action potential jumping down nodes of Ranvier because of insulation of myelin sheath (conduction of nerve)

Pragmatics

actual efficient use of a language the same sentence will have two or more very different meanings depending on how its spoken

Surface structure

actual word order of the words in a sentence

Lateral inhibition

adjacent retinal cells inhibit one another; if a cell is excited, neighboring cells will be inhibited - they do not fire as often, and the corresponding area appears not as bright.

compassionate love

affection we feel for those w/ whom lives deeply entwined (compassion=more with family; intertwined)

relative refractory period

after absolute refractory period; cell can fire only if stronger stimulus

McCollough effect

afterimages perceived because of fatigued receptors (McColor-left)

Bandora's social learning theory

aggression is learned through modeling (direct observation), or through reinforcement - children who had observed the aggressive model (man beating up bobo doll) were more likely to behave aggressively toward the doll - reinforced - people act aggressively because they expect some sort of reward (material benefit, social approval, attention) for doing so

Behavior Theory

all behavior based on learning; changes maladaptive behavior through new learning

statistical (linear) regression

allows you to use correlation coefficients to predict y from an x (least-squares line or regression line is fit to the data) -->find line of best fit

sleep stage 1

alpha and irregular theta waves-lower in ampl, slower in freq; can remember because tired; lose response to stimuli

self-perception theory

alternative explanation to dissonance theory-->when unsure of beliefs, people develop attitudes and opinions by observing their own behavior and drawing conclusions from it. (e.g. You realized that you like classical music because you listen to it a lot)

retrograde amnesia

amnesia that makes you forget past (like interference to old info-the retro/old memory is active)

anterograde amnesia

amnesia that makes you unable to gain new memories (like interference of new info-the pro/new memory is active)

Intensity

amplitude or height of the air-pressure wave measured in bels AKA decibels (tenths of a bel) the more decibels, the noiser the sound is. Sounds above 140 decibels tend to be painful to the human ear intensity is related to loudness

Generalization

an animal is trained to peck for food when a light green turns on. After the training occurs, the animal will peck not only when the green light is on, but also when similar colored lights are on. the closer the color of the light is to green, the more likely it is that the animal will peck

Hypervigilance (relating to PTSD)

an enhanced state of sensory sensitivity accompanied by an exaggerated intensity of behaviors whose purpose is to detect threats; also accompanied by a state of increased anxiety which can cause exhaustion caused by norepinephrine

item analysis

analyzing how large group responded to each item on a test -->weeds out dud/problematic questions

Fraternal twins

and siblings.....have 50% of their genes in common with each other

Major Jungian archetypes: shadow

animal instincts that humans inherited in their evolution from lower forms of life responsbile for the appearance in consciousness and behavior of unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions

Variable ratio

animal receives reinforcement after a varying number of responses ex: slot machine: dropping a coin in a slot machine will be reinforced, by winning, every so often

instinctual drift

animal replaces learned response with instinctual one

Variable interval

animal will be reinforced for the first response made after a variable amunt of time has elapsed since the last reinforcer ex: parent responding to a crying child

Fixed interval

animal will be reinforced on the first response after a fixed period of time has elapsed since the last reinforcement a schedule of reinforcement where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. This schedule causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval, but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer.

Theory of kin selection

animals act to increase their inclusive fitness, rather than their reproductive fitness inclusive fitness takes into account not only the number of offspring who survive to reproductive age, but also the number of other relatives who can survive to reproductive age

inclusive fitness

animals investing in survival of own genes (kin); favored by natural selection over individual fitness (of self)

Functional fixedness

another impediment to effective problem solving people tend to get used to certain things having certain functions. we think of a box as a container and we have problems thinking of a box as candle holder the inability to use a familiar object in an uncertain way

Shaping

another operant conditioning phenomenon reinforce success approximations to the desired behavior; might begin by reinforcing your dog every time she looks at your slippers. after a while, only reinforce her when she walks towards your slippers; then only when she picks up the slippers, and so forth. small steps

Z-score

another way of calculating how many SD above or below the mean your score is You must subtract the mean of the distribution from your score, and divide the difference by the standard deviation Negative z-scores fall below the mean; positive fall above the mean Indicates the number of standard deviations your score is away from the mean if you have a distribution of z-scores and calculate the mean and the standard distribution, the mean of the distribution of z-scores will always be zero and the SD will always be 1

Tricyclics (TCAs)

antidepressant-potent, used for sever depression fewer side effects and medical complications than MAOIs

(DSM-V) Conduct Disorder (simple definition)

antisocial disorder, but ONLY IN CHILDREN/teens

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

any ions in cell released to outside, causes hyperpolarization (more negative than outside); decr chance cell will fire

generation-recognition model

anything one might recall should easily be recognized (e.g. multiple choice) (if you can generate something, you should be able to recognize it)

phi phenomenon (with vision)

apparent motion-perceive smooth motion where there is none (e.g. movies; flipbooks) (phi-flipbook or philm/film)

fovea

area of retina with greatest visual acuity; filled with mostly packed cones (best at seeing fine details); responsible for sharp central vision (f+POV=fov (fine point of view)

sympathetic nervous system

arousal mechanisms (blood circulation, pupil dilation, threat/fear response) "fight or flight"

Relative size

as an object gets farther away, its image on the retina gets smaller distance: comparing the size of the images on the retina with what toy know about their actual size

vocational test

asses to what extend a person's interests match those already found by professionals in a field (vo-cation. no vacation-->personality job matching)

Interest testing

assess an individual's interest in different lines of work best known: strong-campbell interest inventory. given lists of interests and asked to indicate whether they like or disliek the interest listed. Most interests tests provide you with a list of two activities at a time. You then indicate which of these activities appeals to you the most. Based upon your choices, a result with your strongest interests is reported. Sometimes statements are given, for which you indicate whether they apply to you or not.

Binon-simon test

assess the intelligence of French schoolchildren to ascertain which children were too intellectually disabled to benefit from ordinary schooling benet also introduced the concept of mental image

Achievement tests

assess what one knows or can do now ; they can test adequacy of learning content and skill adaptive test is a computerized achievement test that adapts to the test taker's ability by assessing the accuracy of previously answered questions

Norm-referenced testing

assessing an individual's performance in terms of how that individual performs in comparison to others "ex: erika did better in spelling than 99 percent of second graders" we compare the test tasker's performance to that test's norms problem: the population to whom the tests will be administered can be, and often does, change - then no longer representative of the population

Empirical-keying assessments

assessments involving selection of items that can discriminate between various groups -->responses to the items determine if he is like a particular group or not (assessing to see if any questions can key specific experiences/types of people)

Encoding specificity

assumption that recall will be best if the context at recall approximates the context during the original encoding state-dependent learning - recall will be better if your psychological or physical state at the time of recall is the same as your state when you memorized the material; example: if you were upset when you memorized the material, you will probably have better recall of it if you are upset at the time of recall

owls ears

asymmetrically vertically-can tell height better

cross fostering experiments

attempt to separate heredity and environmental effects (twin studies)

reactance

attitudes change in response to feelings that your options are limited (with conformity): refusal to conform to either a blatant attempt to control, or a forewarned attempt to control (changed options because realized they were limited) (take a sTANCE when you REAlize)

Medial geniculate nucleus in the thalamus

audition

auditory cortex in temporal lobe

audition

inferior collicus

auditory

Auditory impulse path

auditory system-->auditory cortex (olivary nucleus, inferior colliculus, and medial geniculate body)

Kinesthetic sense

awareness of body movement and position; specifically with muscle, tendon, and joint position since the receptors are at or near them

blooming and pruning

baby's neural pathways "bloom" (abundance of new connections); unused connections "pruned"/die out

retina

back of eye; receive light images from lens, made of photoreceptor cells

Retina

back of the eye; filled with neural elements and blood vessels image-detecting part of the eye

Labyrinth Sense

balance function of the inner ear

Auditory pathways

basal circuit is that the auditory nerve projects to the superior olivary complex, the inferior colliculus, and the medial geniculate nucleus in the thalamus and finally to the temporal cortex

empirical

based on observation/experience rather logic/theory (empirical-->experiences)

gene

basic unit of heredity parental genes are distributed randomly to all offspring (4 likely possibilities of combining the alleles of the parents)

Frequency theory

basilar membrane vibrates as a whole, and that the rate of vibration equals the frequency of the stimulus; this vibration rate is then directly translated into the appropriate number of neural impulses epr second

sleep stage 0

before sleep; alpha waves-low ampl, high freq; can remember because still awake

cued recall

begins the task, cues your LTM (e.g. fill in blank)

Neobehaviorism

behavior should be the focus of stud, but also accept speculation of human mind (e.g. if baby albert repeated w/ neobehav.-research why babies innately scared of loud noises) newest behaviorism=most open/mixed with cognition

flooding/implosive therapy

behavioral counterconditioning -classical conditioning to relieve anxiety (overexpose to anxiety causer until used to it)

Dollard and Miller

behaviorist theorists-combined psychoanalytic concepts with behavioral framework (Freud's anxiety=signal for danger) -frustration-aggression hypothesis-->dollar and mad (work is frustrating, causes anger)

paired-associate learning

behaviorist; one item is learned with another; the "another" item cues recall of first item (the associations are paired)

token economy

behaviors give you tokens/secondary reinforcers that can use to get primary reinforcers (jail, mental institutes, etc.)

courting

behaviors preceding sex acts to reproduce; isolates and attracts mate of same species

lens

behind cornea; focuses image of outside world onto retina (like lens of camera) (only part of eye to accommodate)

Cultural truisms

beliefs that are seldom questioned (e.g., brushing teeth every day is good) - almost never defended so very vulnerable

semantic effect

believe in conclusion because of what you think instead of logic (your semantics error actual logic--global warming)

John Piaget

believed children to be actively involved in their own development - constructing knowledge of the world through their experiences with the environment

John Piaget

believed that children pass through four stages of cognitive development, each stage being qualitatively different from the others believed that growth is a continuous process that begins at birch and proceeds through these stage children learn from interacting with the environment through reflexive behaviors (ex: grasping)

ciliary muscles

bends (accommodates) lens to cause lens to focus (only muscles in eyes-lens needs to move)

dual code hypothesis

best remembered if learned visually and with understanding (dual=visual and understand; code=coding of info to memory)

REM

beta waves/neural desynchrony (just like awake); everything but muscle paralysis and twitches same as waking state (beta waves, breath rate, heart rate, etc.) 15min begin of sleep cycle; 1hr at end of it; interspersed every 30-40min; 20% of sleep time

Bandura

bobo doll experiment behavior could be learned through observation - vicarious reinforcement

Albert Bandura

bobo doll-children copied what adults did to the doll; including mimicked aggression towards the doll (Bandura-bobo-beat bobo)

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

body feeling->emotion (J-L theory; jitters-love. body-emotion)

Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion

body feeling->interpret/attached cognition with the situation-->emotion can be drinking caffeine makes viewed show funnier (caffeine is not directly to giggly, caffeine->show->funnier) (Schachter-THINKer theory (think about feeling)) (also called cognitive-physiological theory)

Hermaphrodite/intersex

both genitals (usually female fetus; too much testosterone)

inductive reasoning

bottom-up approach; start with specific info, leads to general conclusion -->generalizing from a specific instance (e.g. today I did A, B happened; if I do A every day, B will happen every day)

clustering

brain's tendency to group together similar terms in memory whether learned together or not (conceptual/semantic hierarchies)

icon (w/ memory)

brief visual memory, lasts ~1 second (eye-con; icon)

gyri and sulci

bumps and fissures on cerebral cortex surface (gyri up, sulci down-->letter i up, letter u dips)

Escape - negative reinforcement

bx removes something undesirable (ex: loud buzz when you are buckled up, well by bucking it, it removes the sound

Reproductive isolating mechanisms

bx that prevent animals of one species from attempting to mate with animals of a closely related species work by providing an animal with a way of identifying others of its own species Define "reproductive isolation." Reproductive isolation is the inability to exchange genetic information. Two different organism are considered reproductively isolated if both lack the ability mate and produce healthy fertile offspring under natural conditions.

inbreeding prevented?

by evolution (swans have familial marks on face)

Kitty Genovese case

bystander effect (woman murdered; no one helped-less likely to help when others present) -caused by diffusion of responsibility

variance/standard deviation

calculate how much each score differs from mean, square each of these values, add all together, divide sum by number of scores you have (i.e. average it)--this is variance, square root of all of this for SD SD is the square root of the variance

Bx therapies/behavior modification

can be divided into those based on classical conditioning and those based on operant conditioning

apraxia

can't organize movement (prance=movement)

alexia

can't read (l-ex-->literature expression) a literary axia

agraphia

can't write (graph=graphite)

ideographic approach

case studies instead of large populations (opposite=nomothetic approach-experimental/general) (individual-graphic/case study)

Representativeness heuristics

categorizing things on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category base-rate fallacy: ignoring the numerical information about the items being referred to when categorizing them base-rate fallacy: They focus on other information that isn't relevant instead. Imagine that I show you a bag of 250 M&Ms with equal numbers of 5 different colors. Then, I ask you what the probability is I will pick a green one while my eyes are closed? I also tell you that green M&Ms are my favorite and yesterday I picked out twice as many green M&Ms than red ones. If you ignored the fact that there are 50 of each color, and instead focused on the fact that I picked out twice as many green M&Ms than red yesterday, you have commited a base rate fallacy because what I did yesterday is irrelevant information.

Action potential/nerve impulse

cell becomes stimulated with enough positive ions, fires

glial cells

cells that support neurons (structure, nutrients, etc) includes oligodendrites and Schwann cells

biological preparedness

certain associations evolutionarily made easier than others -food taste and illness; light and shock easy -food taste and shock; light and illness hard/impossible (body is made "prepared" to make associations)

honeyguides

certain markers on flowers honeybees can see

imprinting

certain species; young attach/imprint on first moving object they see at birth; subject to sensitive learning period (won't occur after time)

Behavioral goal

change behavior to desired/adaptive direction; successful w/ phobias, fetishes, OCD, sex problems, childhood disorders (bed wetting)

Compliance

change in behavior that occurs as a result of situational or interpersonal pressure

Positive correlation

change in value of one of the variables tend to be associated with a change in the same direction of the value of the other variable

Postsynaptic potentials

changes in nerve cell's charge as result of stimulation

sublimation (defense mechanism)

channeling threatening devices into acceptable outlets (e.g. working out) sublet-->outlet

pheremones

chemicals detected by vomeronasal organ; most primitive form of communication btwn animals; fear or sex receptiveness

Tabula rasa

child as a blank slate, at birch john locke children are born without predetermined tendencies and child development is completely reliant on experiences with the env.

Symbolic play

children 1-2yrs; pretend roles; objects represent other things

Parallel play

children 2-3yrs; 2 children next to each other playing in similar styles, but not disrupting/influencing either's playing

Watson's developmental behavioristic approach

children passively molded by environment; behavior emerges through imitation of parent

Prisoner's dilemma

class method of investigating people's choices to compete or cooperate OPTIONS - Charges dropped (if one betrays and the other doesnt) and harsh sentence - Felony - moderate sentence (both betray each other) - Midsemeanor (both prisoners remain silent) used to analyze many social interactions - including cooperation and competition in group panic situations. Why would one prisoner be motivated to compete? 1) prisoner wants to get the best outcome for himself 2) prisoner doesnt trust the other prisoner

Garcia effect/Conditioned taste aversion

classical conditioning experiment with thirsty rats four conditions: 1: pairing is between UCS of shock and the CS of sweet water 2: UCS of the nauseating drug and the CS of sweet water 3: UCS of shock and the CS of bright-noisy water 4: UCS of the nauseating drug and the CS of bright-noisy water the rates who received the UCS of nausea-inducing drug showed a conditioned aversion to the sweet water but not the bright-noisy water. converesely, the rats who had received the UCS of shock showed a conditioned aversion to the bright-noisy water but not the bright-noisy water conditioning did not happen in groups 1 and 4 This effect was discovered by John Garcia while he was studying effects of radiation on mice. He noticed that rats would avoid a new food when it was initially presented around the time of radiation exposure, which causes nausea and a general feeling of sickness. The Garcia effect occurs in patients undergoing treatment for cancer who are exposed to radiation as treatment. It can also happen in humans when a bad reaction occurs as a result of ingesting a particular food or drink, either from food poisoning or overindulgence. an aversion or distaste for a particular taste or smell that was associated with a negative reaction (such as nausea or vomiting).

cornea

clear protective coating on outside of eye (corn yellow outer layer=protective of goopy insides)

Cornea

clear, domelike window in the front of your eye, father and focuses the incoming light

motion parallax

closer objects seem to move more distances than further objects, even if same speed (parallel motions, but look different)

Attitudes

cognition or beliefs, feelings, and behavioral predisposition; typically expressed in opinion statements

Creativity / Guilford's test of divergent thinking

cognitive ability that results in new ways of viewing problems or situations Guilford's test of divergent thinking - involves producing as many creative answers to a question as possible "list all of the possible functions for a brick"

Rational-Emotive theory criticisms

cognitive and behavior; RET called too sterile and mechanistic (treats symptoms, not underlying reason for them)

Clinical method/Case study method

collate facts about a particular child and his or her environment in order to gain a better perspective

self-concept

collection of beliefs about oneself; a cognitive or descriptive component of one's self "I am..." instead of "I feel.." -->belief of what you are, not emotion towards

limbic system

collection of structures from cerebrum, interbrain, and midbrain located on both sides of thalamus, under cerebrum includes: olfactory bulbs, hippocampus, hypothalamus, amygdala, cingulate gyrus functions-4 F's: fleeing, feeding, fighting, f--king, also EMOTION (fight or flight, eat, sex--limbs needed). emotion

Cones

color vision and perceive fine detail (cones and color) - both begin with a C most effective in bright light, and allow us to see chromatic and achromatic colors

cones

color; daylight vision; less cones than rods-->cones see better cones=complex=color cones=center (of retina)

Iris

colored part of the eye; involuntary muscles and autonomic nerve fibers

t-tests

compare MEANS of 2 diff groups; see if groups significantly different; measures continuous data (numerical data) (e.g. data of males vs data of females) (t-test-->two item tests)

Cross-sectional studies

compare groups of subjects at different states

Lewis Terman's study of IQ

compared a group of children with high IQ's with a children typical of the general population to discover similarities and differences first study to focus on the "gifted" children and it was a longitudinal study that followed development over time, observing them every 5 years

quasi-experiment

compares 2 groups of people like experiment; but not feasible/ethical to use rando assignment (e.g. use eligibility cutoff mark instead of rando assignment--->randomly assign people to two different groups based off of a certain factor; not completely random, but necessary) (quasi-experiment=kind of an experiment...so close but not quite)

timbre

complexity of sound wave

atmosphere effect (in regard to information)

conclusion influenced by the way the info is phrased (atmosphere of sentence causes error)

hyperthymesia

condition where you form highly detailed episodic memories (near perfect memories) (like episode in House MD-can recall details from any day)

Edward Tolman

conducted experiments with rats in mazes to show that behavior isn't always simply a matter of stimulus-response reinforcement learning - cognitive map Tolman believed individuals do more than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions, and they strive toward goals. Tolman is virtually the only behaviorists who found the stimulus-response theory unacceptable, because reinforcement was not necessary for learning to occur. He felt behavior was mainly cognitive. cognitive map, which is an internal representation (or image) of external environmental feature or landmark. He thought that individuals acquire large numbers of cues (i.e. signals) from the environment and could use these to build a mental image of an environment (i.e. a cognitive map).

Collins and Quillian/connectionism

connectionism=searching cognitive semantic hierarchies-further items are in hierarchy, longer to see connection -->also called parallel distributive processing (connections of everything through hierarchies Collins-->connect through lines)

Cognitive theory

conscious thought patterns=main role in life; how you view experience (not the experience) is important; maladaptive cognitions lead to abnormal behavior/disturbed affect

Loudness

considered to be the subjective experience of the magnitude or intensity of the sound

Pitch

considered to be the subjective experience or perception of the frequency of the sound; pitch is what distinguishes between a low tone and a high tone

Reliability

consistency with which a test measures whatever it is that the test measures high reli: the test measures are dependeble, reproducible, and consistent; would expect an individual would score about the same when retested on the same test, or a comparable form of the test Standard error of measurement - SEM - index of how much, on average we expect a person's observed scores to vary from the score the person is capable of receiving based on actual ability SEM, put in simple terms, is a measure of precision of the assessment—the smaller the SEM, the more precise the measurement capacity of the instrument. Consequently, smaller standard errors translate to more sensitive measurements of student progress

Blacky pictures

consists of 12 cartoonlike pictures that feature a little dog named blacky. Each picture depicts blacky in a situation designed to correspond to a particular stage of psychosexual development

Thematic apperception test (TAT)

consists of 20 simple pictures depicting scenes that have ambiguous meanings. The test taker is told to tell a story about what is happening, to give the events leading up to what is happing in the picture

Two-sided messages

contain arguments for and against a position

Cerebrum

contains cerebral cortex (both hemispheres); limbic system

manifest content

content of dream, provides info about latent content

content validity

content of the test covers goods sample of construct being measured (not just part of it) (all of content valid?)

moon illusion

context affects perception-moon seems bigger in horizon because visual cues at horizon make it seem further; no cues in the sky if further, but seen as same size, it is bigger

motor task learning

continuous tasks easier to learn than discrete tasks continuous=bike riding (one motion) discrete=chess (diff infos)

cerebellum

controls functions of balance and coordination of motor movement; maybe also skill learning

basal ganglia

controls large voluntary muscle movements (movement, speech); degeneration related to Parkinson's and Huntington's disease (base going movements-big muscle movements)

tectum

controls vision and hearing (tec=tick-hear clocks stick, see a tic)

Linear perspective

convergence of parallel lines in the distance

Cognitive theory goal

correct maladaptive cognitions

simuli hit

correctly sensing a stimulus

systematic desensitization

counterconditioning -classical condition to relieve anxiety (step by step, towards more anxious provoking)

neuron cell membrane

covers whole neuron; selective permeability to sometimes let positive ions through

Robber's Cave Experiment

created hostilities through competition and then reduced the hostilities through cooperation had 22 12-year olds (split in two groups) the groups arrived seperately to camp and at first, they each did a lot of cooperation activities (a stutus hierarchy, role differentiation for various tasks, norms for behavior, and self-adopted names for the groups) the first week created group allegieance within both groups. After the first week, the groups were informed of the other group that was at the same camp as them and about a competition tournament that was staged. The tourney was intended to create hostility among groups. The groups were very competitive with each other. Then the researchers arranged for several situations to reduce hostility

William Wundt

created psychology as a science didn't believe that we could use psychology to study cognition and more abstract concepts

Maccoby & Jacklin

criticized sex studies: -few existed that couldn't be explained by social learning -most consistent difference-->females have greater verbal ability, males have greater visual/spatial ability (Mac and Jack says gender studies lack; suggests social learning pack)

John Watson

criticized the fieldof psych as being too focused on mentalistic concepts believed in the importance of the environment shaping the child supported Locke's tabula rasa emphasized responsibility on parents raising the children correctly believed that the only useful methods for the study of psychology were objective methods in the study of behavior

P. Ekman

cross-culture research-humans have 6 basic emotions: -sadness, happiness, fear, anger, surprise, disgust -Code facial expressions for emotion with Facial Action Coding System (FACS coding) (Paul Ekman's facial expression) (Every MAN's expression) (planet's ekman's emotions)

stimuli receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves

curves that graphically represent subject's sensitivity to a stimulus true positive sensation vs false positive sensation

Broca's aphasia

damage to Broca's area; can understand speech but trouble speaking-slow; laborious, missing words aware of problems (Broke-a-->broken speech (can't talk)

Wernicke's aphasia

damage to Wernicke's area (though moreso damage to temporal lobe and underlying white matter), can speak but can't understand how to choose words—fluent but nonsensical; cannot understand written or spoken language unaware of problems

bee communication

dance-round dance=food nearby, wiggle dance=food far; longer dance=further food

Bottom-up processing

data-driven processing object perception that responds directly to the components of incoming stimulus on the basis of fixed rules (feature detection)

Semantics

deals with the meaning of words and sentences

gambler's fallacy

decisions based on recent experiences (the most readily available information) overestimating/underestimating a recent event will occur again (e.g. rolling a 7 four times on dice, expect 7 again soon)

antagonists (concerning neurotransmitters)

decrease neurotransmitter release (antagonists are no fun-no excitement)

Sheldon's early theory of personality

defined physical/biological variables that he related to human behaviors; characterized people by body type, relating body type to personality types

generalizability

degree to which result from experiment can be applied to population and real world

predictive value

degree which independent variable can predict dependent variable

sleep stage 4

delta waves more than 50% of time; deepest level of sleep; heart rate, resp, temp, blood flow to brain reduced; growth hormone secreted sleep walking and sleep talking can occur

Olds & Milner

demonstrated existence of pleasure center in the brain using self-stimulation studies in rats (Mice learner)

neuron structure

dendrites at top; cell body/soma; axon hillock connects soma and axon; nodes of ranvier=dips between "beads" of myelin sheath (axon hillcock-hill is soma, c--k is axon)

(DSM-V) Major depressive disorder

depressed mood or lack of pleasure (anhedonia), along with sleep disturbances, appetite disturbances, lethargy or restlessness, difficulty concentrating, and feelings of hopelessness and worthlessness more REM than normal (because serotonin and nonrepinephrine suppress REM)

too little serotonin

depression

REM rebound effect

deprived of sleep=more time in REM when can sleep

Interposition (AKA overlap)

depth perception when one objects covers or overlaps with another object; we see object as being in front

Acquisition

describe the period during which an organism is learning the association of the stimuli By associating the presentation of food with the sound of a tone, Pavlov was able to condition the dogs to salivate to the sound. The phase in which the dogs began to salivate to the sound is the acquisition period In classical conditioning, repeated pairings of the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) eventually leads to acquisition.

operational definitions (for a paper)

describes exactly what the variables are and how they are measured within the context of your study

Light constancy

despite changes in the amount of light falling on an object (illumination), the apparent lightness of the object remains unchanged https://i.ytimg.com/vi/RIFXcR2NxcY/hqdefault.jpg

free nerve endings

detect pain, temperature changes

stimuli false alarm

detecting stimulus that's not there

Stern

develoeped an equaton to compare mental age to chronological age, which came to be known as the intelligence quotient (IQ) concept related to intelligence. It looks at how a specific child, at a specific age—usually today, now—performs intellectually, compared to average intellectual performance for that physical age, measured in years. The physical age of the child is compared to the intellectual performance of the child, based on performance in tests and live assessments by a psychologist

Berkeley

developed a list of depth cues that help us to perceive depth

PTSD

developed as a reaction to a traumatic events such as sexual abuse, a combat situation, or an accident or situation of violence in which the individual or someone else close to them is injured or killed most common: combat veterans, EMT, survivors of violence or sexual assault

J. Wolpe

developed method of systematic desensitization to eliminate phobias (Wolf-get rid of the scary wolf; wolPe-wolf phobias)

Hering

developed opponent process theory of vision

D. Bem

developed self-perception theory as an alternative to cognitive dissonance theory (evaluate attitudes based on behavior)

E. O. Wilson

developed sociobiology

H. Rorschach

developed the Rorschach inkblot test, a projective test designed to measure personality

Strong & Campbell

developed the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory; used to assess interest in different lines of work

Morgan & Murray

developed the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), a projective test designed to measure personality

Craik & Lockhart

developed the levels-of-processing theory of memory as an alternative to the stage theory of memory

Gibson & Walk

developed the visual cliff apparatus, which is used to study the development of depth perception (Walk=walk off cliff)

psychoanalysis criticisms

developed theories from single case studies of women from 1800s and 1900s—not a scientific method

Erik Erickson Psychosocial Theory

development is a sequence of a central life crises; in each crises, there is a possible favorable outcome and a possible unfavorable outcomes emphasized emotional development and interactions with the social environment development occurred through resolutions of conflicts between needs and social demands; conflicts occur in stages During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative outcome for personality development

Arnold Gesell

development occured as a maturational/biological process, regardless of practice or training nativist - much of the development was biologically based and that the developmental blueprint existed since birth went against importance of environmental factors, conditional learning, and practice

ectoderm

develops into nervous system (along with skin)

Collins & Loftus

devised the spreading activation model of semantic memory (closeness of association between words --> speed of response about relationships between them)

Geographic isolation (no interspecies sex)

diff species breed in diff areas

transformational grammar

differences between surface and deep structure: surface structure-the way words are organized (i studied for hours, for hours i studied) deep structure-underlying meaning of sentence (whatever order, meaning is ___)

Gender development

differences in personality and social behavior, as well as in cognitive abilities (math, spatial, and linguistic abilities)

cohort-sequential design

different ages genders, income, etc. AND longitudinal approach (both between and within subject) (cohort=group of similar people, sequent=long time)

agnosia

difficult processing one sensory info (so can't recognize person, sound, etc.) (AG-nosia-->can be Any General senses)

rods

dim light; night vision; black and white; concentrated on sides or retina (peripheral vision); more rods than cones (peripheral vision larger) rods=roads; black; dark vision vision=darker on sides/peripheral; thus concentrated on sides of retina OR rods=right (and left) side of retina

E. Titchner

discovered structuralism (which was short lived) (opposite of Gestalt. talt at end vs tit in beginning of names)

fogetting curve discredited

discredited for memory of everything because experiments based on memorizing lists of nonsense syllables

phonemes

discrete sounds that make up words (ee, p, sh) (1 or 2 letters each) hard to distinguish one language's phonemes from other languages (cat has 3: c-a-t/ck-ah-t)

retroactive/retrograde interference

disrupting info that is new that makes you forget past STM (e.g. trying to learn words, hear about party, forget the new words) causes retroactive inhibition (interference to old info-the retro/old memory is active)

Proximal stimuli and distal stimuli

distal: actual object or event out there in the world proximal: information our sensory receptors receive about the object (image on the retina)

Ainsworth insecure/resistant attachment

distressed during seperation and are inclined to resist physical contact with the mother upon her return

Z-scores

distribution curve -how many standard dev. score is from mean (-3 to 3) Z= (raw score-mean of population)/standard deviation of the population Z=(x-u)/o Z-score is DIFFERENCE between score and mean divided by standard deviation number (makes sense; gives non-whole number SD score)

T-score

distribution curve -transformation of z-score; mean is 50, standard dev. Is 10. T-score=10(Z)+50 (range=20-80) (used to eliminate decimal places and negative scores) -t-score=10z (eliminate decimal) plus 50 (make positive)

Normal distribution curve

divided into percentiles (% tells us the percentage of scores that fall at or below that particular score) Within 1 SD: 68% of scores Within 2 SD: 96% of scores Beyond 2 SD: 4% fall within

Quasi-experimental

do not use a random assignment and lack sufficient control over their varialves, and therefore difinitive statements on causal factors cannot be made iv manipulated; subjects not randomly assigned

Best-fitting line

drawing a straight line through your dots direction, or the slope, of the line

impossible objects

drawn object, can be perceived, can't be made (triangle thingy)

type A personality

drive, competitive, aggressive, tension, hostility; middle to upper class men -->can lead to heart disease, other health issues (heart disease problems more likely with social isolation, potentially caused by type A personality)

Antabuse

drug that changes metabolism of alcohol; results in severe nausea and vomiting when combined with alc (ant-a-abuse-->anti alc abuse)

Psychopharmacology criticisms

drugs that take away symptoms don't provide interpersonal support

Helmholtz Place-Resonance Theory

each different pitch causes a different place on the basilar membrane to vibrate; these diff. places of disturbance would, in turn, cause different hair cells to bend

allele

each specific trait was controlled by an alternative form of a gene each variation was represented by an allele that was either dominant or recessive 1 gene = 2 alleles

Between-subjects design

each subject is exposed to only one level of each indepependent variable subjects are randomly assigned to groups and subjects in a given group do not receive the same level of IV as meembers of another group statistical theory tells us that even with random assignment, it is possible that groups might differ on these variables merely due to chance

Primary prevention

efforts to seek out and eradicate conditions that foster mental illness and to establish the conditions that foster the mental health ex: increasing access to good prenatal and postnatal care, psychoeducation proactive, not reactive

preoperational stage

egocentric understanding; rapidly acquires words/symbols for things; CANNOT perform mental operations (conservation; etc.) (PREoperational=PREschool kid-egocentric; learn to talk; can't do much else)

electroconvulsive shock therapy (ECT)

electric current induces convulsions; effective intervention for severely depressed patients

EEG

electroencephalogram measures electrical activity of brain (diff when sleep, relaxed, or when abnormal)

Law of proximity

elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit

Law of good continuation

elements that appear to follow in the same direction tend to be grouped together

reaction formation (defense mechanism)

embracing feelings/behaviors opposite to true threatening feelings that one has (e.g gay guy hating gays)

G. Bekesy

empirical studies led to traveling wave theory of pitch perception which, at least partially, supported Helmholtz's place-resonance theory (helmholtz-hertz-->place resonance)

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CTB)

employs principles from cognitive and behavioral theory

Oval window

entrance to the inner ear

K. von Frisch

ethologist who studed communication in honey bees

Lorenz

ethology rejected the idea that animal bx could be understood in the lab ; needed to be out in the field ; natural

diploid

every cell in body except sperm/egg, 23 PAIRS of chromosomes

diffusion of responsibility

everyone waits for someone else to act in large group

optic array

everything in a person's vision; trains people to perceive

mimicry

evolved form of deception (e.g. harmless snake colors of dangerous snake)

Introspection

examination of one's own conscious thoughts and feelings (such as own mental state) Wundt adopted introspection to experimental psych

Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank

example of a sentence completion test; 40 sentence stems and is asked to complete them

cocktail party phenomenon

example of how you can attend to something you are interested in, while not totally ignoring background noise hearing your name from another conversation. so it seems that selective attention is not an all or none filter, but more of a loudness control that dampens, but does not completely block out ancillary stimuli

compensation(defense mechanism)

excelling in one area to make up for shortcomings in another

Jean Piaget

experience interaction between internal maturation and external experience that creates qualitative change (through assimilation and accommodation)

pattern recognition

explained by template matching, feature detection (if want to see o; focus on round letters, then look for those that match o)

Gestalt goal

exploration of awareness and full experiencing of the present -->successful therapy connects client and present existence

Fechner's Law

expresses relationship ebtween the intensity of the sensationa nd the intensity of the stimulus sensation increases more slowly as intensity increass purpose: to relate the intensity of the stimulus to the intensity of the sensation

internal validity

extent which questions measure/test the same thing

genetic drift

extinction of genotypes in population due to natural selection (genetics drift away because of selection)

Down's syndrome cause

extra chromosome (trisomy 21)

malingering (DSM-V)

fabricating or exaggerating the symptoms of mental or physical disorders for a variety of "secondary gain" motives (skipping jail, getting drugs, etc.) -staying sicker longer so more rewards (mal lingers)

oxytocin

facilitates breast feeding, relationships; facilitates birth (positive feedback loop-w/ contractions)

stimuli miss

failing to detect a present stimulus

bogus pipeline

fake lie detector used to try to get more truthful answers in self-report

wider nerve fiber correlates with

faster conduction of inpulses

H. Spencer

father of psych of adaptation -used Lamarckian evolution (characteristics in lifetime can be passed on) -physiology associationism to understand people

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

fear causer->body feeling AND emotion at same time (C-B thory; cause-both)

Hubel and Wiesel's work on visual cortex

feature detection theory: certain cells in the cortex are maximally sensitive to certain features of the stimuli

Turner's syndrome

females only have one X chromosome; failure to develop secondary sex characteristics - often have short fingers and unusually shaped mouths

zygote

fertilized egg cel

sleep stage 3

fewer sleep spindles, delta waves begin-high ampl, low freq

ambiguos figures

figure can be seen 2 ways (rabbit/duck)

Perception of form: figure and ground

figure: integrated visual experience that stands out at the center of attention ground: background against which the figure appears

Antipsychotics

first drugs used; treat positive symptoms (delusions, hallucinations, etc.) -->blocks dopamine receptors; inhibits dopamine production (e.g. phenothiazines, butyrophenones) (anti-psychotics/anti schiz; schiz is too much dopamine)

B. F. Skinner

first experiments to prove law of effect; operant conditioning; Skinner box (rats-lever)

Kolhberg - preconventional morality

first phase, stage 1 right and wrong are defined by hedonisitic consequences of a given action (punishment/reward) orientation during this stage is punishment and obedience

Kohlberg - orientation toward reciprocity

first phase, stage 2 "I'll scratch your back, if you scratch mine."

Reception

first step in all sensory information processing receptors that react to physical external nrg

Four types of partial reinforcement, schedules of reinforcement

fixed-ratio variable-ratio fixed-interval variable-interval

Longitudinal studies

follow a specific group of people over an extended period of time (same sample throughout multiple time points)

overjustification effect

follows self-perception theory -->we must not want to do things we're paid to do (will lose interest in singing after starting to get paid to do it) (overjustifying reason to do something)

Skinner box

food for pressing lever, pain for something else (e.g. waiting)

secondary/elaborative rehearsal

for STM; organizing and understanding material to move to LTM (TRICK: secondary-uses multiple ways to remember (first read word, second understand; elaborative=elaborate to understand)

primary/maintenance rehearsal

for STM; repeating material to move to LTM (TRICK: maintenance=repetitive task-need to keep hammering; primary=quickest-repeat)

Original blocking

for classical conditioning to occur, it's not enough for the CS and the UCS to be contingent; the cs MUST ALSO PRovide useful, that is, nonredundant, information about the occurence of the UCS

repression/denial (defense mechanism)

forget/deny it (motivated forgetting)

Inhibition theory

forgetting is due to the activities that have taken place between original learning and the later attempted recall two basic types of inhibiton: retroactive and proactive

delayed conditioning

form of forward conditioning -CS presented until UCS occurs (they overlap)

Altruism

form of helping bx in which the person's intent is to benefit the other individual at the cost of himself

sexual selection

form of natural selection; some out-reproduce others because they're better at securing mates

M. Seligman

formulated learned helplessness theory of depression (slenderman-you've learned helplessness)

Maccoby and Jacklin

found evidence of better verbal abilities in girls in their studies

Tinbergen's experiment on aggression in male sticklebacks

found that the red belly of the invading stickleback was the most important element in triggering the aggressive behavior, since even a crude model with the belly painted red was apt to be attacked red belly is a sign stimulus, and in fact, also a releaser, which trigers aggression in male sticklebacks during the spring Tinbergen observed that sticklebacks perform an elaborate mating ritual, carried out the same way each time. First the male stakes out a little area of sand on the bottom of the ditch (or pond, or aquarium). This becomes his territory, defended against all other males. The male stickleback then digs a little hole, shoveling sand with his snout until the hole is about two inches deep and two inches wide. He gathers stringy pieces of algae, coats them with a sticky substance secreted from his kidneys, and piles the algae in the pit, forming a little mound. Finally, the male stickleback wiggles through the mount, leaving a tunnel. Now the stickleback changes color, becoming bluish white on the back and bright red on the underside.

John B Watson

founded the school of behaviorism; baby Albert experiment (conditioned-noise/fear with fur) -mental life is false; could only observe mental activity "Give me children, and tell me environment, will say which will become doctor, which will become librarian, etc" (B. Watson-Behavioral Watson; old like watson and crick->first and most extreme behaviorist)

W. Wundt

founder of psychology; founded first official lab; attempted to study and analyze consciousness

Stanley Hall

founder/father of developmental psychology

Diathesis-stress model

framework that can examine the causeses of mental disorder; a diathesis - predisposition toward developing a specific mental disorder biological and psychological levels interact with each other

prefrontal cortex

front part of frontal lobe; integral link to person's personality

Frustration-aggression hypothesis

frustration towards a goal causes aggression, but when the source of the frustration cannot be challenged, the aggression gets displaced onto an innocent target -->causes scapegoating Dollard and Miller: (dollar and mad (work is frustrating, causes anger))

Rods

function best and allow perception only of achromatic colors; low sensitivity to detail and are not involved in color vision many rods in the human eye middle section of the retina, called the fovea, contains only cones

Narcotics/Opioids

functions as painkillers floods system with dopamine (via Ventral tegmental area activation) GABA activation reduced (GABA has opiate receptors), allowing more dopamine release e.g. opium, heroin, morphine (painkillers/reward-->more dopamine; to add even more dopamine, less GABA)

Actor-observer attributional divergence

fundamental attribution error-->actor/one behaving because of environment; observer blames behavior on personality

semantic memory

general knowledge of the world

heritability populations vs individuals

general populations. NOT INDIVIDUALS (if an answer involves individuals, it is not correct; heritability only relates to general populations)

Proprioception

general term for our sense of bodily position and includes aspects of both the vestibular and kinesthetic senses

psychodynamic theory

general term referring to theories that emphasize role of unconscious (individual, analytical, etc.)

overextension (language)

generalizing names for things (all furry animals=doggy) (like Piaget's assimilation) (overextending names overexten-hens. all birds are hens)

Spatial proximity

generate a greater liking for people who are near us mear exposure hypothesis: familiarity to each other; the more exposure you see something, the more you like it - key figure in mear exposure: Robert Zajonc

R.C. Tyron

genes can also affect behavior inheritance of maze-running ability in lab rats - rats were given an equal number of trials to become familiar with the maze - then based on the rats's performance, they were grouped into the 'maze-bright' or 'maze-dull' rats and 'intermediate' rats - then he mated these rats within their respective groups - he bred them for several generations and found that the difference between the maze-bright and the maze-dull rats intensified from generation to generation - learning ability had a genetic basis

Down syndrome

genetic anomaly in which the individual has an extra 21st chromosome one factor: age of parents (older parents (mothers/fathers) have an increased risk of having children with Down syndrome

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

genetic disorder that is a degenerative disease of the nervous system results when the enzyme needed to digest phenylalanine, an amino acid found in milk and other foods, is lacking can be screened for and avoided with a strict diet

who's faster at learning language? boys or girls?

girls

Token economies

given for desirable behaviors and are taken away for various undesirable behaviors. later can be exchanged by the client for a wide aray of rewards and privileges often applied by parents requiring children to do homework before they can play

patient HM

given lesions of hippocampus to treat epilepsy; could no longer store new LTM (HM-hippocampus)

approach-avoidance conflict

goals have both pros and cons; if further from goal, you focus more on pros. if closet to goal, focus more on cons

conformity

going along with group pressure -compliance=go along publicly -acceptance=change actions and beliefs to conform -dissenter=speak out against majority (CAD0-comply-go along when not want; accept-go along and want; diss-->to insult/speak out against)

American Psychology Association (APA)

governing body of field of psychology in America Discovered by S. Hall (hall=building of books)

morphology/morphological rules

grammar rules for morphemes

Syntax

grammatical arrangement of words in sentences

frequency polygon

graph w/ plotted points, connected by lines (measuring frequency)

Risky shift

group decisions are riskier than the average of the individual choices value hypothesis: risky shift occurs in situations in which riskiness is culturally valued the nature of the dilemma may determine the direction of the shift from caution to risk or risk to caution (ex: abortion or mom passing away)

group polarization

group discussion strengthens dominant point of view (more risky decisions because of deindividuation) -->explains risky shift; groups take greater risk than individual

gestalt proximity

group items near each other together (easier to understand; happens when counting cells-counting clusters close together instead of counting all of them without stopping)

phrase

group of words that form single syntactical part of sentence (walking the dog)

somatotropin

growth hormone from pituitary

Psychedelics

hallucinogens, psychotomimetics (mimic psychosis) -->alters perception, emotion, and mood increases serotonin activity e.g. LSD (acid) and weed (makes people very happy-->serotonin)

stroop effect

hard to say color in diff colored ink

Mesomorphy

hard, muscular, and rectangular

temporal lobe

hearing; formation of LTM (modulated by amygdala) Houses Wernicke's area, hippocampus, amygdala ((temperament lobe (amygdala), which helps connect temporary memory to LTM)

number of sound waves per second

hertz; we best hear around 1000 Hz

Wolpe systematic desensitationz

hierarchy of anxiety-producing situations coupled with the use of relaxation techniques

reinforcement hierarchy

hierarchy where higher up the reinforcer is, the better the reinforcement is (Premack Principle-higher up activities/reinforcers reinforce activities below them)

Authoritative parenting

high demands for child compliance (but score low on punitive control methods), use positive reinforcement, and score high on emotional warmth

E. G. Boring

historian of psychology Development of psychology is due to Zeitgeist, or the changing spirit of the times

Karl von Frisch

honeybees are able to communicate the direction and the distance of a food source to their fellow hive members by means of special movement patterns, often called dances

vasopressin

hormone-regulates water levels in body (so blood pressure) (vaso-vases are filled with water) (o-pressin; blood pressure)

tegmentum

houses rest of reticular formation (not the base), so same functions of that; sensorimotor system, analgesic effect of opiates contains Ventral tegmental area (VTA)-origin of dopamine cell bodies; implicated in drug/natural reward (motivation, drugs, psych disorders) (ment-m=>meant to be in middle [midbrain])

dual-process theory

how a phenomenon can occur in two different ways, or as a result of two different processes often consists of an implicit (automatic), unconscious process and an explicit (controlled), conscious process Implicit/Automatic/Unconscious vs Explicit/Controlled/Conscious Automatic=takes a long time to change (to form new habit) Controlled/Explicit=may change fairly easily with persuasion or education (dual process-2 types of processes, so youre DOING SOMETHING (dual code=learning))

Difference Thresholds

how different two stimuli (in magnitude) must be before they are perceived to be different amount of difference compare a standard stimulus to a comparison stimulus, which is different from the standard stimulus

External validity

how generalizable the results of an experiment are interested in teen behavior but you go and sample at at an adolescent home

concepts

how one represents a relationship between 2 things

Double-blinding

how to control for experimenter bias neither the researcher nor subjects know which are the conditions (control and experimental)

autokinetic effect

how to make a light look like its moving illusion occurs when a spot of light appears to move erratically in a dark room, simply because there is no point of reference

Induced motion

how to make a light look like its moving illusion of movement occuring when everything around the spots of light is moved

Apparent motion

how to make a light look like its moving illusion that occurs when two dots flashed in different locations on a screen seconds apart are perceived as one moving dot

Construct validity

how well performance on the test fits into the theoretical framework related to what it is that you want to measure convergent validity discriminant validity: researchers also have to show that performance on the test is not correlated with other variables that the theory predicts that test performance should not be related to

achievement test

how well you know subject (measurement of actual performance/info form the past)

thalamus

hub of information: channels sensory info (all but smell) to cerebral cortex plays major role in regulating arousal/states of consciousness (gives info to hypothalamus to help maintain homeostasis via senses; if problems, controls consciousness so can recover quicker)

Pleasure principle/primary process (psychoanalysis)

human motivation to seek and avoid pain (most noticeable in early life): ID

social exchange theory

humans interact in ways that maximize reward, minimize cost

distribution curve positive skew

hump on left-->median mode lower than mean (mean always middle of graph, mode=highest point) (mean is positive to median and mode) (mean affected by larger/positive number; mode=mid of hump, median between)

distribution curve negative skew

hump on right-->median mode higher than mean (mean always middle of graph, mode=highest point) (mean is negative to median and mode) (mean affected by smaller/negative number; mode=mid of hump, median between)

George Kelly

hypothesized the notion of the individual as a scientist, a person who devises and tests predictions about the behavior of significant people in his or her life constructs a scheme of anticipation of what others will do, based onn his knowledge, perceptions and relationships with these other people [sychotherapy is a process of insight whereby the individual acquires new constructs that will allow him to successfully predict troublesome events

functional fixedness

idea-people have closed minds about functions of certain objects (fixed idea of function of something)

Yerkes-Dodson effect

ideal levels for arousal: simple tasks=higher complex tasks=bell curve never extreme high or extreme low (yerkes (arousal)-do yer-work effect)

scripts

ideas about the way events typically unfold (cognitive theory for behavior)

Freud's greatest contribution

ideas of unconscious mind

hypothesis (in terms of thinking)

ideas used to test relationships and then to form concepts

David McClelland

identified a trait called the need for achievement (N-ach) people high in N-ach tend to be concerned with achievement and have pride in their accomplishments avoid high risks (avoid risk of failing) and low risks (because easy tasks won't generate a sense of achievement)

Thorndike law of effect

if a response is followed by an annoying consequence, the animal will be less likely to emit the same response in the future

step 2 of natural selection

if a specific genetic variation increases the chances of reproduction, it will tend to be passed down to the next generation if it decreases the chances, it will not be passed down

backward masking

if bright light or other pattern before iconic image fades, first image erased (works for auditory system too) works better if new pattern similar to original

base-rate fallacy

if given general info (base-rate info) and specific info (pertaining to one case); mind ignores former, focuses on latter (stemming from representativeness heuristic) (e.g. John is a man who dresses gothic. How likely is he Christian vs Satanist? Most say satanist, even though more Christians in world and random probability of person being Christian is much higher) [fallacy of forgetting base information]

Altruism

if the animal's behavior decreases its reproductive fitness Studies have found that people's first impulse is to cooperate rather than compete; that toddlers spontaneously help people in need out of a genuine concern for their welfare; and that even non-human primates display altruism.

Decay theory

if the information in long-term memory is not used or rehearsed, it will eventually be forgotten problem of this theory: it assumes that what you've learned in the time that has elapsed between memory and attempted retrieval makes no difference The oldest idea about forgetting is that it is simply caused by decay. That is, memory traces are formed in the brain when we learn information, and they gradually disintegrate over time.

Hebb's rule

if two neurons are active at the same time, the synapses between them are strengthened (if you continually repeat thought patterns, neurons in our brain tend to strengthen that learning to become 'habit') "neurons that fire together, wire together" (bb in Hebb looks like 2 neurons together, firing)

displacement activities/irrelevant behaviors

illogical behavior with no survival function (e.g. scratching head when thinking)

identification (defense mechanism)

imitating central figure in one's life (act like boss, dress like parents, etc.) (identify as someone better to be better)

Luchins water-jar problem

impediments to effective problem solving subjects are presented with three empty jars and a list of the capacities of each jar, and they are asked to obtain a particular amount of water in one of the jars

Coachlea

in the inner ear filled with saltwater-like fluid called cochlear fluid; there are a couple of membranes that run the length of the cochlea - basilar membrane capable of exceptional sound analysis, in terms of both frequency and intensity. The human cochlea allows the perception of sounds between 20 Hz and 20 000 Hz

anhedonia

inability to feel pleasure (hedonism=pleasure; this is opposite)

prosopagnosia

inability to recognize faces-can know that looking at face, can't tell who's face it is (pro...so..nosia=problem someone's nose. who's nose?)

resting potential

inactivated state of neuron; negative charge; cell membrane lets no ions in

Mechanical isolation (for no interspecies sex)

incompatible genitals

type 1 errors

incorrectly reject null hypothesis (type A/1 personality=agressive, aggressively reject) WRONG REJECT (common, seeing correlation where is none)

Stimulants

increase activity of CNS; heighten energy level and arousal increases norepinephrine and dopamine effects by being reuptake inhibitors e.g. amphetamines, meth, cocaine, caffeine, nicotine, convulsants (makes heart fast-norepinephrine, enjoy feeling-dopamine)

Existential Theory goal

increase client's sense of being and meaningfulness; alleviate neurotic anxiety

agonists

increase effects of neurotransmitters (e.g. SSRI increase serotonin release) (opposite of antagonist)

norepinephrine

increases heart rate, released by sympathetic nervous system (stress hormone; fight or flight reaction) (no-reps-in-effin-->sex (body response-fight or flight; high heart rate)

sham rage

incredible rage easily provoked when cerebral cortex removed (in animals. not humans. that would be silly....we need that cortex)

Recall

independently reproducing the information that you have been previously exposed to reproducing information you have previously been exposed to

eye movements and gaze duration

indicators of info processing while reading; eye movements from one fixation to another=saccades

Individual Theory 4 personality types based on...

individual activity and benefit to society

Spearman

individual differences in intelligence are largey due to variations in the amount of a general, unitary factors, which he called g his g factor was responsible for overall performance on mental ability tests. Spearman noted that while people certainly could and often did excel in certain areas, people who did well in one area tended also to do well in other areas.

Forced-compliance dissonance situation

individual is forced into behaving in a manner that is inconsistent with his or her beliefs or attitudes (ex: child is told that she can have ice cream for dessert only if she finishes her spinach) (forced into a bx - spinach - that is at odds with her attitude - that she doesn't like spinach

Alfred Adler theory of personality: Fictional finalism

individual is motivated more by his or her expectations of the future than by past experiences

Albert Bandura Self Efficacy theory

individual's belief in his ability to organize and execute a particular pattern of behavior - influenced by performance accomplishments, vicarious experiences, and physiological and emotional states

Phenotype

individual's observable characteristics individual's with identical phenotypes can have different genotypes

(DSM-V) PTSD

individuals troubled by recurrent flashbacks and nightmares accompanied by a state of hypervigilance can result from variety of traumatic experiences-natural disasters, automobile accidents that produce injury, war

Barnum effect

individuals will give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people (e.g. You have a great need for other people to like and admire you) (Bar-numb-->bar raised high for accuracy of description, but actually numb/nothing)

Ainsworth secure attachment

infant mildly distressed during seperations but greet her positively when she returns

how much each age sleeps/REM?

infant-16hrs, 50% REM; older person-6hrs, 25%REM

Crying

infants are equipped to communicate their needs

kinesthetic sense/proprioception

info from receptors in joints and muscles that tell us about position of our own body

Freud psychodynamic theory - Instinct

innate psychological representation (wish) of a bodily (biological) excitation (need)

spine makeup

inner core of gray matter; outer core of white matter; all go to and from brain

W. McGuire

inoculation theory-beliefs are vulnerable if person never faced challenge; once experience challenge, less vulnerable -keeping original views by prepping before argument against them (prep arguments may not be as strong as real argument) (McGuire-acquire inoculations)

Kohler

insight: Insight learning occurs when one suddenly realizes how to solve a problem. Sometimes when you are taking a test you happen upon a problem that you have no idea how to solve. Then all of a sudden, the answer comes to you. Kohler showed the power of insight learning by placing a banana above the reach of chimpanzees and watching how they attempted to reach the food. In the room there were several boxes, none of which was high enough to enable the chimpanzees to reach the banana. Kohler found that the chimpanzees spent most of their time unproductively rather than slowly working towards a solution. They would run around, jump, and be generally upset about their inability to snag the snack until, all of a sudden, they would pile the boxes on top of each other, climb up, and grab the bananas.

aggression (Lorenz's)

instinct, not learned-necessary for natural selection

Instinctual drift

instinctual ways of behaving are able to override behaviors learned through operant conditioning The animal no longer performs the behaviors it has been taught, but goes back to behaviors that are in its nature. It begins to do what it is driven to do regardless of the resulting punishment. For example, a dog with the nature to bark at visitors thinking they are intruders might have been taught to sit quietly when a guest enters through reward and punishment. Under stress, however, it may have instinctual drift, disregarding the learned behavior and barking at the guest.

tachtiscope

instrument used in cognitive/memory experiments; presents image to subject for fraction of a second (tap-image-scope=few seconds of image instrument)

amygdala

integrative center for emotion; responsible for autonomic responses associated w/ fear and fear conditioning

Weschler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence

intelligence test for children 4-6 -three deviation IQs: verbal, performance, & full-scale (preschool/elementary school age)

WAIS-R

intelligence test for children 6-16 (-R=revised for younger)

passionate love

intense longing for union with another; profound psych arousal (passion=lust; high arousal; want to be with someone)

somatic nervous system

interacts with external environment by controlling voluntary movements of muscles (somatic=not automatic)

autonomic nervous system

interacts with internal environment; responsible for fight or flight; made of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system -also called visceral nervous system

biological clocks

internal rhythms that keep animals in sync w/ environment

mediation (stimulus-response)

intervening mental process occurring between stimulus and response -->reminds us how to act based on ideas/past learning (mediate what to do/how to respond)

brightness

is physical intensity

hue

is specific color; dominant wavelength of light

corpus callosum

joins brain hemispheres

Midbrain structures

just above hindbrain, contains cranial nerves, parts of reticular formation, and important relay stations for sensory information contains substantia nigra tectum-top of midbrain, tegmentum-bottom of midbrain

Spreading activation model

key: the shorter the distance between two words, the closer the word are related in the semantic memory subjects will respond to questions about ambulances and fire engines quicker than questions about ambulances and streets

apparent size

know distance based on how big we know the object should be

declarative memory

knowing a fact (declare facts)

implicit memory

knowing something without being aware you know it

Self-esteem

knowing you are worthwile; being in touch with actual strengths

aphasia

language disorder

Edward Tolman

latent learning/cognitive map Expectancy-value theory (people motivated by goals they expect they can meet) (tolls in road=important parts of a map)

Noam Chomsky

leader with language: transformational grammar, language acquisition device (Chomsky-champ of language; chomp=movement of mouth like speaking)

secondary reinforcements

learned reinforcements

Taste-aversion learning - additional problems for classical conditioning

learned taste aversion can occur after only one trial subsequent experiments on taste-aversion learning have shown that such learning can take place even if the UCS occurs up to 24 hours after the CS

Classical conditioning

learning connections between events

serial learning; primary/recency effects

learning list in order; primary=remember first items because repeated most; recency=remember last items because most recent serial position curve shows this effect

Operant conditioning

learning the relationship between one's actions and their consequences

Major theoretical perspectives in language development

learning theory and the early cognitive developmental theory learning theorists believe that language is acquired through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and/or modeling cognitive development: language has to do with the child's capacity for symbolic thought, which develops toward the end of the sensorimotor period

spacing effect

learning/memorization is better when items studied a few times spaced over a long time span rather than repeatedly studied in a short span of time

Broca's area

left frontal lobe (dominany lobe); functions-producing speech, writing, language processing and comprehension (frontal part of brain-B before W; Wernicke in temporal)

Wernicke's area

left temporal lobe (dominant lobe); functions-comprehend speed sounds; receptive language/language comprehension center (located further back in brain than Broca's area---ABC order)

algorithm

lengthiest way to solve problem-try every possible solution until right one made

psychoanalysis therapy goal

lessen unconscious pressure on individual by making as much of unconscious material as possible conscious (psychoanalysis=ALL ABOUT UNCONSCIOUS)-make it all conscious

balance theory

liking product and disliking person will person to change view on one so both same (homeostasis)

George Miller

limit to the amount of information that we can store in the short-term memory Found that second (plus or minus two) pieces, or chunks, of information can be stored in short-term memory chunks are meaningful units of information; chunking inormation into seveon or fewer units of information can be effective method

N. Chomsky

linguist who suggested that children have an innate capacity for language acquisition; distinguished between the surface structure and deep structure of a sentence; studied transformational rules that could be used to transform one sentence into another

Short-term memory

link between our rapidly changing sensory memory and the more lasting long-term memory if nothing is done with the information, it will remain in the short-term memory for only about 20 seconds. If the information is rehearsed, ti can stay in short-term memory for a relatively long time, as long as you keep rehearsing the information - maintenance rehearsal

cingulate gyrus

links behavioral outcomes to motivation (links emotions and decisions) (e.g. a certain action induced a positive emotional response, which results in learning)

George Berkeley

listed various cues for depth

Cortical association areas

locations in cerebral cortex corresponding intervening between sensory input and motor output (cortical==>cortexical; association-between sense input and motor output)

Stanley Milgram's Obedience Experiment

looked at pressure to conform and obedience behavior the subject was instructed to give an electric shock to Mr. Wallace whenever he gave an incorrect answer. After each wrong answer, the subject was to increase the shock level by 15 volts Milgram was interested in how far people would go if they were asked to give increasingly powerful shocks to another person (dv: obedience to authority) - every subject was willing to hurt someone at the experimenter's command Unethical: distress to participant results: drive to obey was stronger than the drive not to hurt someone against his will

Deindividuation

loss of self-awareness and of personal identity

amplitude of soundwave

loudness

morphemes

made up of phonemes; smallest units of meaning in language; words/parts of words with meaning (boy, -ing)

hypothalamus

maintains homeostasis (via ANS-heart rate, temp, thirst, hunger, etc.) links endocrine and nervous system via pituitary gland produces releasing and inhibiting hormones to pituitary gland (start and stop production of other hormones in body)

MMPI

major personality inventories 550 statements - respond "true, false, or cannot say" 10 clinical scales purpose: aid in the assessment of various clinical disorders

blood-brain barrier

makes it hard for toxins in blood to get to brain

neocortex

makes up 90% of cerebral cortex; is evolutionarily newest in brain; made of 6 layers (every other part of brain <6 layers

implicit theories about personality

making assumptions about dispositions of an individual based on actions of that person (personality implied by actions)

oversimplification

making simple explanations for complex events (keep original idea about a cause even w/ new factors) (e.g. Education today isn't as good as it used to be - obviously, our teachers are not doing their jobs)

Antimanics

manages bipolar disorder -->inhibits monoamines (norepinephrine) -relieves the manic phase, so opposite of depression (e.g. Lithium Carbonate) (anti-manic-->inhibit monoamines)

Alfred Adler theory of personality: Style of life

manifestation of the creative self and describes a person's unique ways of achieving superiority

encoding specificity principle

material more likely remembered if retrieve in same context which it was stored (trick: specifically encoded for one environment)

what statistical measurement is affected most by outliers?

mean

domain-referenced tests

measure less-defined properties (e.g. intelligence); need reliability and validity (how do you fit/test in a domain?)

criterion referenced tests

measure mastery of a particular area (e.g. final exam) (do you know all criteria of a subject?)

Bayley Scales of Infant Development

measure sensory and motor development of infants -only used to identifies retards (children/pregnant mom drinking Bayley's) (poor predictors of later intelligence)

F-scale/F-ration

measurement of Fascism or authoritarian personality

fMRI

measures blood/oxygen flow in diff parts of brain; cog psych uses it to measure activity in diff parts of brain

latency/reaction time

measures cognitive processing speed; declines with age

aptitude test

measures innate ability to learn (the potential for successful performance)

Cronbach's Alpha (statistics)

measures internal consistency (reliability) higher value=higher internal consistency/reliability .5 and lower=no .8 = average .9 and higher=good different than p-value alpha

d' (measurement)

measures sensitivity d' = Z(hit rate) − Z(false alarm rate) (delicate/sensitive measurement)

Psychophysics

measuring the relationship between physical stimuli and psychological responses to the stimuli

Psychopharmacology

medicine to treat psych illness; doesn't cure but treats symptoms (useful if paired with therapy) -some emotional disturbances are at least partly caused by biological factors-can be treated with meds

Psychopharmacology therapies

meds that aim for neurotransmitters; most common=dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine (monoamines)

meninges

membranes that envelope and protect brain and spinal cord (meninges-membranes)

trace theory/decay theory

memories fade with time (trace fades)

flashbulb memories

memories forever remembered; usually life changing events; not typically accurate/can be easily changed

working memory

memory needed to perform task at that moment

cognitive map

mental representation of a physical space if a familiar path through the maze was blocked, the rats were able to utilize their cognitive map to adopt an alternative route through the maze animals have mental maps of physical spaces mental representations of physical locations

sleeper effect

message from a low-credibility source can actually increase in persuasiveness (if forget about low credibility, remember message) (e.g. obvious insulting political ads-forget about ad, remain with bad feeling about insulted politician because of rumor you heard somewhere, might now take as fact)

Chunking

method of mnemonic

Research methods

methods to determine the degree of genetic influence on individual differences between people use: family studies, twin studies, and adoption studies family studies are constrained in that more than often, share both genetic and environment similarities (can attribute the similarity to env. or genes)

Brainstem parts

midbrain, pons, and medulla

substantia nigra

midbrain; group of neurons that produce dopamine and which degenerate in Parkinson's disease

Historical perspective

middle ages: babies as miniature adults

Fovea

middle section of the retina, called the fovea, contains only cones as you move away from the fovea, the number of rods increases while the number of cones decreases

long term semantic memory network

mind=giant web of related words; more specific as web goes out pictures connected slower because must be put into words before associations can be made

absolute threshold

minimal amount of a stimuli needed for detection 50% of the time

differential threshold/just noticeable difference

minimal difference that must occur between 2 stimuli in order to be perceived as having 2 diff intensities

Two-point thresholds

minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin such as that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli

Absolute threshold

minimum of stimulus energy that is needed to activate a sensory system human system is very sensitive when we talk about this type of threshold, we are talking about how bright or loud a stimulus must be before it can be perceived AKA limen (ex: subliminal perception - below the threshold of conscious awareness; occur without conscious)

mainstreaming

mixing mental disabled students with normal intelligence ones (can result in lower self-esteem)

method of loci

mnemonic device used in ancient Greek and Roman times -items mentally associated with specific physical locations

bound morphemes

morphemes such as -ing; dependent on another word

glutamate

most abundant excitatory transmitter in nervous system (starts nerve impulses) important for learning/memory (gl--mate-->glad mate=>excited) opposite of GABA

Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

most common intelligence test-adults -three deviation IQs: verbal, performance, & full-scale

Muller-Lyer illusion

most famous illusion; 2 lines seem unequal because arrows at end of each line point inwards or out (lyer-lines. M=shaped kinda like arrows)

binocular disparity

most important depth perception cue; eyes view objects from 2 slightly diff angles; allows us to create 3d image

hippocampus

most important function=memory-transferring STM into LTM located in temporal lobe (college CAMPUS is where you study for long term memory)

pluralistic ignorance

most people in a group disagree w/ something but think everyone else in group agrees with it (because don't know what others think)

smell to brain

most primitive sense (so deepest part of brain) hair receptors in nostrils messages olfactory bulb (base of brain

echolocation

most sophisticated type of perception; bats and dolphins use

Therapies based on classical conditioning

mostly involve phobias, but also with OCD a learned association between an aversive uS and a CS, the CS being what the person is afraid of; one way to get rid of phobias is through extinction you present the feared object, the CS, without the associated US that originally elicited the fear, the fear response to the CS will decrease and will be eventually eliminated change the client's behavior by changing the reinforcement contingency that is associated with the behavior

exploratory drive/reinforcement

motivation to try something new/explore environment

frontal lobe

motor function, problem solving, spontaneity, memory, language, initiation, judgment, IMPULSE CONTROL, social/sexual behavior Houses Broca's area and prefrontal cortex

traveling wave

movement along basilar membrane

Real motion

moving the light how to make a light look like its moving

Loftus

much of eyewitness memory (and testimony) can be erroneous for myriad reasons

nominal variables

names; just different groups (e.g. asking everyone in class to pick favorite movie from a list)

Chomsky

natavist theory of language acquisition there must be some sort of innate, biologically based mechnaism for language acquisition LAD - built-in advanced knowledge of rule structures in language

primary reinforcements

natural/instinct reinforcements (water, food)

field study

naturalistic setting; hard to control environment

Behavioral contract

negotiated agreement between two parties that explicitly states the behavioral change that is desired and indicates the consequences of certain acts one person will perform the behaviors desired by the second person in return for the second person performing the behaviors desired by the first person The behavior contract spells out in detail the expectations of student and teacher (and sometimes parents) in carrying out the intervention plan, making it a useful planning document. Also, because the student usually has input into the conditions that are established within the contract for earning rewards, the student is more likely to be motivated to abide by the terms of the behavior contract than if those terms had been imposed by someone else.

peripheral nervous system

nerves, etc. outside of brain and spinal cord

white matter

neurons' bundles of axons (i.e. nerve fibers) make this up. colored from myelin (so purely one material-no organelles, so white)

gray matter

neurons' cell bodies/somas make this up (full of cellular organelles so not white)

endorphins

neurotransmitters that kick in to reduce/eliminate perception of pain; include analgesia

second-order conditioning

neutral stimulus is paired with a CS rather than a UCS stage 1: regular classical conditioning (ex: conditioning a dog to salivate to a ring bell) stage 2: present a new UCS stimulus - a flash of light - just before presenting the CS (the bell ring) but without presenting the food powder refers to conditioned responses that involve emotional or behavior disturbances to stimuli that are in themselves not directly threatening. This occurs in trauma survivors when there has been a frequent pairing of situations (or a highly disturbing single experience) that involves negative emotions and a neutral cue.

Accomodation

new information doesn't really fit into existing schemata; modifying existing schemata to adapt to the new information

insight

new perspective of old problem; how all pieces of situation actually fit together instant learning instead of gradual

Premenstrual dysmorphic disorder

new to the mood disorders category in DSM-5 and disruptive mood dysregulation disorder affects 20% of women in reproductive age, characterized by dysmorphic or depressed mood, anger, and physiological symptoms

Client-Centered criticisms

no diagnostic tools because Rogers believed this therapy applied to any psych problem; many disagree

null hyptothesis

no real difference in values/no patterns

Natural selection

not every member of a species is euqally successful at surviving and reproducing.

Gestalt criticisms

not suited for low-functioning or disturbed clients

Weber

notion of just noticeable difference(JND)

first phrases children speak are...

noun then verb, or noun then noun (me want; mommy shirt)

first words children speak are...

nouns, then verbs (words=common objects)

Frequency

number of cycles per sound is one cycle per second measured in (Hz); one Hz frequency is inversely related to wavelength; the shorter the wavelegth, the higher the frequency. human sensitivity rating: 20Hz to about 20,000 Hz

parameters

numbers (e.g. mean, median) describing populations (statistics=of a sample)

Objectrelations theory

object - symbolic representation of a significant part of the young child's personality look at the creatio and development of these internalized objects in young children

Top-down processing

object perception that is guided by conceptual processes such as memories and expectations that allow the brain the recognize the whole object and then recognize the components we need both top and down conceptually driven processing

Motion parallax

objects closer to you than your fixation point appear to move in the same direction as you do perceived speed at which these objects appear to move also varies depending on how close the object is to your fixation point variation in apparent speed and motion when an object rather than the perceiver moves, the motion of that object fives us cues about the relative depth of parts of the object - kinetic depth effect

Law of similarity

objects that are similar tend to be grouped together

cross-sectional design

observational design one diff variable in similar group: different ages, genders, income, etc. compared (between subjects, one point in time)

Ordinal scale

observations are ranked in terms of size or magnitude Ranks

Fixed-action patterns

observe certain action patterns that are relatively stereotyped and appear to be species-typical. innate - a series or sequence of acts that occur behaviorally in animals triggered by a sign stimulus: a type of external stimulus The simplest form of instinct This is an innate behavior that is triggered by some sort of sign stimulus and - once initiated - will run to completion. One of the best known examples is the behavior of the nesting Graylag Goose. If an egg is displaced from the nest, the bird will reflexively roll the egg back to the nest with its beak. However, Konrad Lorenz discovered that it will complete this action even if the egg is removed during the behavior. The goose will simply continue with the behavior as if the egg was still there.

motion afteraffect

occurs when you first view a moving pattern, such as stripes moving off to the right (waterfall) and then you view a spot of light: the spot of light will appear to be moving in the opp. direction

Retroactive inhbiiton

occurs when you forget what you learned earlier as you learn something new for example: if you learn list A, then learn list B, but find that you can't recall list A anymroe, you've encountered retroactive inhibition

lexical (general definition)

of or relating to words/vocab of a language

proactive/anterograde interference

old disrupting info that makes new info hard to learn (e.g. past events make harder to learn new things) causes proactive inhibition (interference of new info-the pro/new memory is active)

all or none law

once minimum threshold for neuron firing met; impulse will be sent (no intensity change regardless of amount of stimulation)

lateral inhibition

once one receptor stimulated, nearby ones inhibited allows eye to see contrast and prevents repetitive info from being sent to the brain lateral=nearby/on sides of. nearby/side receptors inhibited

distribution curve-unimodal curve

one hump curve

Thorndike

one of earliest to study learning

language acquisition device (LAD)

one of first nativist theory- humans born with ability to adopt grammar rules of language they hear-I founded the toy

Sir Francis Galton

one of the first researchers interested in individual differences

bee hierarchy

one queen; gives off chemical-suppress other female bees ovaries

Contingency

one stimulus depends on the other, causing association (dependency for CS)

acetylcholine

only neurotransmitter that contracts skeletal muscles (acetyl-muscle action) -deficiency of this associated with alzheimer's

Keller and Marion Breland

operant conditioning could be used to train animals to do pretty much anything used shaping in an attempt to train a raccoon to pick up coins and deposit them 1) they reinforced the raccoon for picking up a coin, then for picking up the coin and despositing it into the bank instinctual drift - the raccoon was reverting to a species-specific behavior pattern; when raccoons catch crayfish, they instinctively rub the crayfish and dip them into water to remove the shell - the raccoon was doing this with the coins

Cognitive structuralists

opposed behaviorists emphasized the thinking ability of people

Chomsky

opposed behaviorists that speech is best explained by operant conditioning and that language is acquired by reinforcement speech is not possibly be due to reinforcement; language study is the most viable route to understanding the mind

visual neural pathway

optic nerve-->optic chiasm-->lateral geniculate nucleus-->striate cortex (primary visual cortex/part of cerebral cortex)

ordinal variables

order (no zero) (order with no value in between; e.g. position in race)

interval variables

order with interval values (.25, .26); no actual zero (thermometer)

ratio variables

order, equal intervals, real zero (weight, time)

Fixed-ratio

organism receives reinforcement only after a fixed number of responses ex: worker receives money for, say, every 1,000 enveloped stuffed

Avoidance - negative reinforcement

organisms gets a warning that an aversive stimulus will soon occur, and the appropriate response completely avoid the aversive stimulus

menarche

organizational effect hormone-onset of menstrual cycle/starts during puberty

Schemata/Schema

organized patterns of behavior and/or thought piaget infants develop behavioral schemata (action tendencies) and older children develop operational schemata (more abstract representations of cognition)

step 3 of natural selection

over time, more and more members of the species will tend to have the genetic variation that increases their chance of reproduction and les and less of the species will tend to have the gentic variation that increases their chance of reproduction

grammar

overall rules of language; behaviorism cannot explain these rules 3 major types of rules: -Syntax -Semantics-meaning -Phonology-sound structure

overregularization

overapplication of grammar rules (e.g. i founded that) found=past, -ed is also past (overregulating grammar rules)

Hyperphagia

overeating with no satiation of hunger; leads to obesity; damage to ventromedial region of hypothalamus has produced this in animals (hyper-food-ia; hypothalamus phagia)

interposition

overlap of objects show which are closer

Errors of growth

overregulation ex: i ran -> i ranned to the store suggests that language acquisition may not be the result of imitation and reinforcement, but the active application of a dynamic internalized sets of linguistic rules language is mastered by age 5

phantom limb pain

pain in limbs now amputated

somatosensory cortex

parietal lobe; destination for all incoming sensory signal for touch (body touch cortex-part of parent of senses lobe)

nucleus accumbens

part of basal ganglia abolishes addiction from drugs in animals (not used in humans because has other functions)

receptive field

part of the body that triggers particular neuron (hair in cochlea, piece of skin, retina, etc.)

ossicles

part of the middle ear smallest bones in your body hammer, anvil, and stirrup (aka malleus, incus, and stapes) - transmit the vibes of the tympanum to the inner

Auditory canal

part of the outer ear receives a sound wave from the pinna channels the sound to the eardrum

Ego Defence mechanism: Displacement

pent-up feelings (often hostility) are discharged on objects and people less dangerous than those objects or people causing the feelings ex: when someone who is harassed by his boss at work goes home and provokes an argument with his wife

Role theory

people are aware of the social roles they are expected to fill, and much of their observable behavior can be attributed to adopting those roles

Premack Principle

people are motivated to do what they do not want to do by rewarding themselves after with something they like to do (Pre-mack (pre-kissing), you have to do work)

Peter principle

people are promoted at work until they reach a position of incompetence, the position which they remain (peter promoting principle)

elaboration likelihood model of persuasion

people involved in issue listen to strength of arguments rather than superficial characteristics (look of speaker) (likelihood persuaded when already elaborated by subject)

Equity theory

people most comfortable in situation w/ rewards and punishments equal, fitting, highly logical

arousal and learning

people must be aroused enough to learn/perform

response bias (stimuli)

people partly motivated by rewards and costs in detections of stimuli (biased to rewards, costs)

gestalt constancy

people perceive objects in the way they are familiar with (book is always a rectangle however you look at it; grass is always green even if seen through sunglasses); size and color constancy

semantic differential charts

people plot meanings of words on graph; similar backgrounds plotted similarly-->words have similar connotations (implied meaning) for cultures/subcultures same as osgood scale 2 bipolar words on a scale; mark which one you're closest too (bad----- ----- ------ ----- -----good)

Door in the face effect

people who refuse a large initial request are more likely to agree to a later smaller request

Belief perseverance

people will hold beliefs even after those beliefs have been shown to be false

Purkinje shift

perceived color brightness changes w/ illumination in room (more light=bright blue, less light=dark blue) (purkinje shift= purple shine shift in light)

Color constancy

perceived color of an object does not change when we change the wavelength of the light we see ex: when you put on amber sunglasses, you can still identify the colors of most of the objects you see

Subjective contours

perceiving contours, and therefore, shapes, that are not present in the physical stimulus

nativist theory

perception and cognition are innate/natural

Law of pragnanz

percetual organization will always be regular, simple, and symettrical as possible

Yerkes-Dodson law

performance is worst at extremely low or extremely high levels of arousal, and optimal at some intermediate level

Robert Rescorla

performed experiements that suggested classical conditioning was a matter of learning signals for the UCS contingency explanation of classical conditioning proposes that for learning to take place, a stimulus must provide the subject information about the likelihood that certain events will occur. Robert Rescorla demonstrated that the pairing of a conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (UCS) does not always produce learning and contended that it is necessary for the CS to signify a contingency.

P. Zimbardo

performed prison simulation and used concept of deindividuation to explain results

Undoing (defense mechanism)

performing often ritualistic activity in order to relieve anxiety about unconscious drives (e.g. washing hands after murder; noisy teen cleans room without being asked) (undo the murder by washing hands)

estrus

period when female is sexually receptive

sensitive/critical periods in learning

periods-developing animal vulnerable to effects of learning (e.g. songbirds learning songs; imprinting)

Long-term memory

permanent storehouse of your experiences, knowledge, and skills items in the long-term memory can be brief or can last a lifetime one way of getting information into long-term memory is by using elaborative rehearsal - organizing the material and associating it with information you already have in long-term memory

Competition

person acts for his or her individual benefits so that he or she can obtain a goal that has limited availability

Depersonalization disorder

person feels detached, like an outside observer of his or her mental processes and/or behavior Dissociative disorder

Metacognition/Metamemory

person's ability to think about and monitor cognition and memory, respectively

Self-efficacy

person's belief that he or she can effectively perform a certain task (self effectivicy)

Major Jungian archetypes: Self

person's striving for unity, and is the point of intersection between the collective unconscious and the conscious Mandala, "magic circle" mythic expression of the self, as the reconciler of opposites, and as the promoter of harmony

Client-Centered therapy

person-centered therapy directed by the client-client decides where/when to meet; therapist is nondirective-only providing atmosphere for client's self exploration

California Personality Inventory (CPI)

personality measure used for more "normal", less clinical groups than MMPI (common person inventory)

Cooperation

persons act together for their mutual benefits so that all of them can obtain a goal

Middle Ages events

philosophy became question of church; by brink of modern world, philosophy reclaimed by scholars

eidetic imagery

photographic memory

Illumination

physical, objective measurement that is simply the amount of light falling on a surface brightness is the subjective impression of the intensity of a light stimulus an objective measurement of the amount of light falling on a surface

W. Cannon

physiologist who studied the autonomic nervous system, including fight or flight reactions; investigated homeostasis; and with Bard, proposed the Cannon-Bard theory of emotions (physiological arousal and brain circuits both affect subjective emotion experience)

outer ear parts

pinna (outer part), auditory canal

optic chiasm

point where half of each optic nerve joins other eye (pathways 50% crossed)left side of VISUAL FIELD completely processed on right side of brain

positive transfer, negative transfer (learning)

positive-previous learning that makes it easier to learn another task later negative-previous learning that makes it harder to learn a new task

Punishments (positive and negative)

positive=add bad; negative=take away something good punishment=want to stop a behavior from occuring

mental set

preconceived notion to how to look at a problem; with vision, factors into why we see what we expect to see

Aptitude tests

predict what one can accomplish through training; they are used to predict future performance include intelligence tests systematic means of testing a job candidate's abilities to perform specific tasks and react to a range of different situations. The tests each have a standardised method of administration and scoring, with the results quantified and compared with all other test takers

Critiques about Piaget

preferred clinical method: preferred observation to statistical measures - no empirical data formal operational thought is not particularly relevant to many people's lives and should thus not be taken as the ultimate endpoint of cognitive development

Somatic disorder

presence of a physical symptoms that suggest a medical condition but which are not fully explained by a medical condition person is not faking, but really believes that he has a medical condition ex:: conversion disorder:unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions (ex: blindess but not damage) illness anxiety disorder person is preoccupied with fears that he or she has a serious disease

Libido (sex drive)

present at birth libidinal energy and the drive to reduce libidinal tension were the underlying dynamic forces that accounted for human psychological processes

amino acids

present in fast acting, direct synapses: glutamate, GABA

semantic processing and semantic priming

presentation prime word before word-decreases reaction time (test before GRE); incr. reaction time if unassociated priming word (lobster before GRE)

primary prevention

prevent psychosocial problems through direct contact with an at-risk (but so far unaffected) group; through proactive intervention-intervention occurs before problem does

reproductive isolating mechanisms

prevents inbreeding btwn 2 different but similar species: -Behavioral isolation -Mechanical isolation -Geographic isolation -isolation by Seasons (BMGs)

age affects learning

prime=3-20 constant level learning=20=50 learning ability drops 50+

M. Deutsch

prisoner's dilemma; trucking company game-->result=people don't trust others -logical response=both do same thing [quiet/high price] -people didn't trust, so they [talk/lower prices] (Douches-prisoners that don't trust); De->dilemma of the douches

Negative reinforcement

probability that the desired response will be performed is increased by REMOVING or taking away something undesirable whenever the desired response is made 2 types: escape and avoidance behavior removes something undesirable; increases prob of bx

Positive reinforcement

probability that the desired response will be performed is increased by giving the organism some it wants (reward) whenever it makes the desired response EX: giving dog a biscuit every time it sits bx is more likely to occur behavior is rewarded; increases prob of bx

self-evaluation

process by which the self-concept is socially negotiated and modified people tend to choose a comparison target that is similar to themselves 4 self-motives influencing evaluation [EVA-I]: -Self-Enhancement -Self-Verification -Self-Assessment -Self-Improvement

Assimilation

process of interpreting new information in terms of existing schemata

sensory transduction

process where physical sensation is turned into electrical messages that the brain can understand

reading/writing same part of brain as

producing and understanding speech, though slight difference (alexia and agraphia exist)

Jensen

prominent educational psychologist who studied intelligence intelligence as measured by IQ tests was almost entirely genetic in nature and that you could not teach someone to score higher on IQ tests

M. Lerner

proposed concept of belief in a just world (Lerner-learn life's tough-just world bias)

A. Paivio

proposed dual-code hypothesis -used the idea that the formation of mental images aids in learning

Melzack & Wall

proposed gate theory of pain (Wall blocking pain)

E. Thorndike

proposed the law of effect (basis for operant conditioning); used puzzle boxes (levers for escape and reward) to study problem solving in cats

R. Sternberg

proposed the triarchic theory that divides intelligence into three types: componential, experiential, and contextual

O. H. Mowrer

proposed two-factor theory of avoidance to explain phobias ("oh" or Mow-->phobia)

Wever & Bray

proposed volley theory of pitch perception in response to criticism of frequency theory of pitch perception (volley=different neurons send impulse just out of phase; when combined, overall greater frequency sent to brain) (Wever-->wavering sounds)

oligodendrites

provide myelin in CNS (all is good brain)

Schwann cells

provide myelin in PNS (schwann-schweverywhere)

Psychopharmacology goal

provide relief from symptoms of psych

Client-Centered goal

provide trusting atmosphere where client can engage in self-directed growth; evidence=congruent self-concept, positive self-regard, internal locus-of-evaluation, willingness to experience

verstibular sacs

provides sense of balance to brain

psychoanalytic theory

psychic determinism-mental processes (bad behavior, dreams, slips of tongue/unconscious behavior) not spontaneous; they're symptoms of underlying/unresolved conflict manifested when ego can't find acceptable way to express conflict

Freud

psychoanalysis theory-most extensive and complex theories of human behavior; conflict central to human behavior

countertransference

psychoanalysis-how therapist feels about patient; therapist can realize this behavior, use to tell patient how their behavior causes people to react

Screen memory

psychoanalysis-memories that serve as representations of important childhood experiences (screen=movie of past memories)

reality principle/secondary process

psychoanalysis-responds to demands of environment by delaying gratification: EGO

transference

psychoanalysis-therapist seen as parent, examine relationship between client and parent (remember-transference v countertransference)

object relations therapy

psychoanalysis-transference used to solve problems of past relationships by correcting emotional experience in therapist-patient relationship (fix emotional problems (objects) relating in transference)

Individual theory therapy

psychodynamic approach-unconscious feelings play a role; examination of person's lifestyle and choices (goals, resources, perceptions, etc.) (GOALS-why inferior?) CHOICES

K. Horney

psychodynamic theorist who suggested that there were three ways to relate to others: moving toward, moving against, and moving away (horny, horns, hour. move toward, move against, move away (cuz of time))

Analytical therapy

psychodynamic; to become aware of unconscious-analyze unconscious materials (dreams, artwork, personal symbols)

Community psychology model

psychology taken to community (e.g. schools); emphasizes respect and recognizes logistics that keep neediest people from seeking help

Binet and Simon

published the first intelligence test Binet-Simon test: Assess intelligence of French schoolchildren for MR; Concept of mental age (fxns intellectually regardless of age). Revised by Terman to develop Stanford-Binet intelligence test

Encoding

putting new information into memory

Timbre

quality of a particular sound; a note on the piano sounds different from a note on the clarinet (even if same pitch and same loudness)

construct validity

questions really tests abstract concept being measured (tests whole construct of idea)

rationalizing (defense mechanism)

rationalize experience

Recognition

realizing that a certain stimulus event is one you have seen or heard before

eardrum

receives a sound from the auditory canal also called the tympanic membrane - vibrates in phase with the incoming sound waves, moving back and forth at a high rate for high freq sounds and more slowly for low freq sounds

reception (senses)

receptors from particular sense detect a stimulus

meissner's corpuscles

receptors in skin that detect touch/contact (meissner corpuscles=my nerves your muscles-->nerves to touch)

pacinian corpuscles

receptors in skin that respond quickly to displacement of skin (corp=relating to body)

chunking

recoding info into fewer but more meaningful units to remember (e.g.) big phone number into sets of 3 numbers; words being broken down-hyper active=hyper and active; extreme activity) (chicken soup chunks into more meatingful units. get it? instead of meaningful? hahaha)

LTM retention measured by:

recognition, recall, savings savings=how much of actual info is learned/in LTM

parasympathetic nervous system

recovery after arousal mechanism (lowering heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, etc.)

Retrieval

recovery of the stored material at a later time Two most common methods: recall (independently reproducing the information that you have been previously exposed to) and recognition (realizing that a certain stimulus event is one you have seen or heard before )

Predictive validity

redictive validity involves testing a group of subjects for a certain construct, and then comparing them with results obtained at some point in the future.

Individual theory goal

reduce feelings of inferiority, foster social interest and social contributions in patients (individual-->inferiority)

Antidepressants

reduces depressive symptoms (does opposite of antimanics) -->increase production and transmission of monoamines, prevents reuptake of neurotransmitters (e.g. serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine) (low levels of monoamines cause depression) (e.g. tricyclics, MAOIs, SSRI's) (anti-depress-->increase activity)

Demand characteristics

refer to any cues that suggest to subjects what the researcher expects from them overall effects of the situation on a subject's behavior

J. A. Swets

refined Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curves in signal detection theory (is wet? signals detect)

Swets

refined the use of ROC curves (to summarize a subject's responses in a signal detection exp.) signal detection For any given sensitivity, d', there is a range of possible outcomes according to signal detection theory. To simplify seeing all of the possible outcomes for a given signal strength, researchers have developed a way to summarize all of the possible outcomes for this situation across all possible criterions. This summary is called the receiver operating characteristic, or the ROC curve. The ROC curve is a graphical plot of how often false alarms (x-axis) occur versus how often hits (y-axis) occur for any level of sensitivity. The advantage of ROC curves is that they capture all aspects of Signal Detection theory in one graph. Sensitivity of d' is captured by the "bow" in the curve. The more the curve bends up to the right, the better the sensitivity. Moving along the bow captures the criterion.

sensorimotor stage

reflexive behavior caused by sensations; circular reactions; develops object permanence; acquire use of representation (visualizing/putting words to objects) (baby stuff; can't find things; based on senses)

follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

regulates development of ovum in females, development of sperm cells in males

continuous reinforcement

reinforcement after every correct response; quickest learned, most easily broken

differential reinforcement

reinforcement of one activity to achieve the target of lessening another activity (e.g. rewarding doing everything with hand besides picking nose; or reinforcing a response with your hand like clapping that makes it so you can't pick your nose because it's preoccupied) (reinforcement by doing something different)

Mania (DSM-V)

related to Bipolar disorder periods of unrealistically elevated mood (little need for sleep; talk incessantly, make impulsive, unwise decisions)

Color perception

related to the wavelength of the light entering the eye human eye can see between 400 and 800 nanometers color and light are related

Etiology of Schiz

remains unclear leading biochemical explanation for schiz is the dopamine hypothesis dopamine is a NT that plays an important role in movement and posture in certain brain pathways this hypothesis suggested that the delusions, hallucinations, and aditation associtated with schiz arise from an excess of dopamine - evidence supporting this: effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in treating schiz

confirmation bias

remembering and using ONLY info that confirms what you think

prototypes

representative event or object (e.g. one image you think of when you think of chair, even though many types of chairs) like an exemplar, but not an actual member of the schema from memory (it's a general example-animal with 4 legs, brown, hairy)

exemplar

representative event or object that IS an actual member of the schema from memory like a prototype, but is a specific example referred to from your memory (see new dog, compare it to Fluffy, your puppy from when you were a kid)

Ego Defence mechanism: Reaction formation

repressed wish is warded off by its diametrical opposite ex: a young boy who hates his brother and is punished for his hostile acts may turn his feelings into the exact opposite; he now showers his brother wish affection

Reaction time

research method measurement of the time elapsed between a stimulus presentation and the subject's response to it AKA mental chronmetry

nonequivalent control group

research problem -a problematic control group when an equivalent one can't be isolated (so exactly what it sounds like)

acquiescence

research problem -people tend to agree with statements when in doubt of answer (answer question when I have no sense)

Experimenter bias/Rosenthal effect

research problem -researchers see what they want to see

selection attrition

research problem -subject that drops out of experiment is diff than rest of sample (sample no longer random)

Kurt Lewin's study

research to determine the effects of different leadership styles three leadership styles: autocratic: more hostile, more aggressive, more dependent on their leader democratic: more satisfying for the boys and more cohesive than auto laissez-faire: less efficient, less organized, less satisfying for the boys than the demo group.

Freud psychodynamic theory - Id

reservoirof all psychic energy, and consists of everything psychological that is present at birth functions according to the pleasure principle - immediately discharge any energy buildup (i.e., relieve tension) primary process: id's response to frustration operating under the dictum of 'obtain satisfaction now, not later." - mental image of the object is known as wish fulfillment (if hungry and no food available, use a memory image of a food to satisfy)

oRGAN OF CORTI

rests on the basilar membrane along its entire length composed of thousand of hair cells; they are the receptors for hearing, analogous to the rods and cones in the eye when these hair cells bend, signals are then transmitted out of the cochlea along the nerve fiber, which then conntects another nerve fibers in the auditory nerve

Meta-analysis

results from diff studies used to show result (research on previously done research)

dark adaptation

results of regeneration of retinal pigment

Storage

retaining the information over time

reticular formation (entire functions)

reticular activation system: general arousal (sleep, waking, attention) base of this is in hindbrain (rest in the midbrain); oldest part of brain (so most center/innermost layer) (earliest formation=most basic function; awakeness/arousal)

Young-Helmholtz theory of color vision/Trichromatic theory

retina containe dthree diff. types of color receptors (cones), which are differentially sensitive to differntiate colors 1) maximally sensitive to red 2) max. sensitive to blue 3) max. sensitive to green all colors are produced by combined stimulation of these receptors light enters the eye, hits the reitina, and all three types of receptors respond differentlly. the ratio of activitiy in the receptors that dtermined color currest research proved he was correct: there are indeed three types of cones in the retina, each one maximally sensitive to a different primary color

how remove excess neurotransmitters?

reuptake; deactivated by enzymes

Stanford-Binet Intelligence scale

revised version of IQ test -->used w/ children-best to determine future academic achievement

Cognitive revolution

revolution against behaviorism by studying and developing successful functions in artificial intelligence and computer science, it becomes possible to make testable inferences about human mental processes (b comes before c in alphabet; behaviorism then cognitive)

Gestalt Psychology

revolves around perception-people tend to see the world as compromised of organized wholes (world is understood through top-down theory-->we do not see specifics in the world as it is, we see it as what we are expecting to see based on the wholes/our knowledge of the wholes) (G-estalt. G-EXPECT)

Lens

right behind the iris helps control the curvature of the light coming in and can focus on near or distant objects in the retina

stimuli correct rejection

rightly stating no stimulus exists (rejecting a stimulus correctly)

receptor cells in eye

rods; cones responsible for sensory transduction-->occurs through chemical alteration of photopigments

PNS (peripheral nervous system)

runs to and from CNS; made of somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system

theory of planned behavior

same as expectancy-value theory/theory of reasoned action, but more developed-->includes perceived control over the behavior as a factor to determine intention people's behavior in a given situation is determined by their attitude about the situation, social norms, and perceived control over the behavior (reason-cognitively why they act)

Osgood Scale

same as semantic differential charts 2 bipolar words on a scale; mark which one you're closest too (bad----- ----- ------ ----- -----good) (is good or bad?)

within-subject

same person multiple times tested

Implosion

same principle as flooding, but here the client only imagines the fearful situation. the client is asked to imagine the anxiety-producing situation by intensely concentrating on the fearful stimulus in a way that nothing fearful can happen, te person is able to confront the phobia

subgroup

sample

Weber's law

says that the size of the just noticeable difference (i.e., delta I) is a constant proportion of the original stimulus value. For example: Suppose that you presented two spots of light each with an intensity of 100 units to an observer. Then you asked the observer to increase the intensity of one of the spots until it was just noticeably brighter than the other. If the brightness needed to yield the just noticeable difference was 110 then the observer's difference threshold would be 10 units (i.e., delta I =110 - 100 = 10). The Weber fraction equivalent for this difference threshold would be 0.1 (delta I/I = 10/100 = 0.1). Using Weber's Law, one could now predict the size of the observer's difference threshold for a light spot of any other intensity value (so long as it was not extremely dim or extremely bright). That is, if the Weber fraction for discriminating changes in stimulus brightness is a constant proportion equal to 0.1 then the size of the just noticeable difference for a spot having an intensity of 1000 would be 100 (i.e., delta I = 0.1 X 1000 = 100).

too much dopamine

schizophrenia; addiction (drugs)

concurrent validity

scores from a new test positively correlate with older tests known to test same thing -->this process is cross validation

Kohlberg - conventional phase of morality

second phase, stage 3 (social rules) "good girl, nice boy" orientation - seeking the approval of others

dreams (defense mechanism)

seen as safe outlets for unconscious material and fulfillment; includes manifest content and latent content

Broadbent selective attention

selective attention acts as a filter between sensory stimuli and our processing systems - if a stimulus is attended to, it will be passed through the filter and analyzed further. if it is not, it will be lost. all or nothing process. if we want to attend to something, we don't attend to everything tlese everything here passes through the filter but not everything receives meaning

Self-handicapping

self-defeating behavior allowing one to dismiss/excuse failure

Social comparison moderators (upwards vs downwards comparisons)

self-esteem; mood; threat

Personality inventory

self-rating device usually consisting of somewhere between 100 and 500 statements. The SUBJECT IS ASKED TO DETERMINE if the given statements apply to him however, truth is not always guaranteed Self-rating device consisting of statements that can be answered by the person taking the test; the tet taker is given a limited number of ways to respond to the statements (e.g., yes, no, uncertain)

California Psychological Inventory (CPI)

self-report inventory created by Harrison G. Gough and currently published by Consulting Psychologists Press. The test was first published in 1956, and the most recent revision was published in 1987. It was created in a similar manner to the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)—with which it shares 194 items. But unlike the MMPI, which focuses on maladjustment or clinical diagnosis, the CPI was created to assess the everyday "folk-concepts" that ordinary people use to describe the behavior of the people around them

terminal buttons

sends neurotransmitters through synaptic vessels

Vestibular sense

sense of balance and of our bodily position relative to gravity the receptors for balance, the semicircular canals, are in the inner ear and behind the coachlea

circular reactions

sensorimotor stage: -Primary-redo event occurring by chance with own body (suck thumb) -Secondary-redo event occurring by chance to other object (flip lights) -Tertiary-redo event different ways to get diff reaction (diff noises for attention)

echoic memory

sensory memory for auditory sensations (echo-ic)

iconic memory-how proven?

sensory memory for vision, people see more than they remember-PARTIAL REPORTS: -shown 3 lines of letters, asked to write letters of one line down, forgot rest by time they're written (eye-conic)

garden-path sentences

sentences that suggest one interpretation that turns out to be wrong used to study parsing E.G. "the child painted............by the artist was sleeping"

Law of effect - Thorndike

series of experiments to prove that problem solving is best explained by law of effect place a hungry cat in what he called a puzzle box, placed a dish of food just outside of the box. only if he presses the correct lever does he get the food trial-and-error learning ; the correct response is reinforced by the food and the other respones are not; all problem solving was of the trial-and-error type He placed a cat in the puzzle box, which was encourage to escape to reach a scrap of fish placed outside. Thorndike would put a cat into the box and time how long it took to escape. The cats experimented with different ways to escape the puzzle box and reach the fish. Eventually they would stumble upon the lever which opened the cage. When it had escaped it was put in again, and once more the time it took to escape was noted. In successive trials the cats would learn that pressing the lever would have favorable consequences and they would adopt this behavior, becoming increasingly quick at pressing the lever. Edward Thorndike put forward a "Law of effect" which stated that any behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is likely to be stopped.

aptitude

set of characteristics indicative of person's ability to learn (e.g. aptitude test)

Louis Thurstone

seven abilities which he calld primary mental abilities (ex: verbal comprehension, number abilitiy, perceptual speed, general reasoning) and used factor analysis with factors more specific than g but more general than s

reciprocity of disclosure (attraction)

sharing secrets/feelings facilitates emotional closeness

displacement (defense mechanism)

shifting unacceptable feelings to less threatening recipient

Behavioral therapy

short-term and direct; counterconditioning techniques

representativeness heuristic

shortcut on assumption to guess answer rather than logic (tall sexy=model instead of lawyer even though more lawyers in world than models)

heuristic

shorter but not always correct--use shortcuts based on what's worked in past

(DSM-V) Major depressive disorder and gender

show same rates for men and women through adolescents; more women then men into adulthood and onwards

Isolation by seasons (no interspecies sex)

similar species mate in diff seasons

(DSM-V) Binge-eating disorder

similar to bulimia nervosa, but without compensating purging activities

Adoption studies

similarities between the biological parent and the adopted child to similarities between the adoptive parents and the adopted child adoptive children's IQ is more similar to their biological parents' IQ than to their adoptive parent = IQ is heritable; criminal behavior is also heritable

C. Hull

simple: performance=drive x habit (first motivated by drive, act according to old successful habits) Complex: (BI)= RT [D x S x T x I] Behavior Intention = Number of reinforced traits X (amount of biological Drive x Size/magnitude of goal x Time until animal allowed to pursue goal x intensity of stimulus that set off the behavior) (Hulling something is a behavior-what caused it?)

fixed action patterns

simply put-->instincts instinctual complex chains of behavior triggered by releasing stimuli; 4 characteristics: -uniform patterns -performed by most members of the species -more complex than simple reflexes -cannot be interrupted

autokinetic effect

single point of light in darkness appears to move (movement in own eyes)

pituitary gland

size of pea; controlled by hypothalamus; "master gland" of endocrine/hormone system. helps control (via secreting hormones): simple: pretty much all hormones complex: growth, blood pressure, some aspects of pregnancy/childbirth, breast milk production, sex organ function, thyroid gland function, metabolism, water regulation in body, water balance in body, temperature regulation, pain relief, sleeping patterns, oxytocin

Zone of proximal development

skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development the child needs guidance to demonstrate those skills and abilities

Morphemes

smallest units of meaning in a language ex: the word 'walked' consist of two morphemes: walk, the indication of action, and ed, indicating that the action took place in the past

Social smiling

smiling associated with facelike patterns at first, any face is sufficient to elicit a smile; at 5mo, only familiar faces tend to elicit smiles

Anxiety disorders

social anxiety disorder: anxiety that is due to social situations; persistent fear when exposed to social/performance situations that may result in emberassment panic disorder: manifests as frequent panic attacks, periods of intense fear or foreboding accompanied by a physiological fight or flight response generalized anxiety disorder: lowkey constant anxiety

upwards comparison (social)

social comparisons with others who are better off or superior (looking up to someone better, you're worse) high self-esteem=more likely upward comparisons, (provides motivation and hope) positive or negative mood=more likely upward comparison (unless recent threat to self-esteem or setback in life) if recent threat to their self-esteem or a setback in their life, upward comparisons resulted in a more negative affect

downwards comparison (social)

social comparisons with others who are worse off or inferior low self-esteem=more likely downward comparison; improves mood, feel hope and motivation for future recent threat to life (illness, poor grades in school) or self esteem=more likely downward comparison

parietal lobe

somatosensory system: integrates/processes sensation to form a single perception (cognition) through somatosensory cortex (parent of senses lobe)

Animal experiemnts

sometimes used to assess contributions of nature and nurture to the development of vision

excitation-transfer theory

sometimes we attribute excitement or physiological arousal about one thing to something else (or someone)

Dimensions of sound

sound is a wave of mechanical pressure and sound wave can be described by specifying certain values frequency intensity

sound localization

sound is localized by the degree that one ear hears a sound prior to and more intense than the other high frequency=intensity difference low frequency=phase (timing) difference

Behavioral isolation (no interspecies sex)

specific courting displays require specific response

telegraphic speech

speech w/out articles or extras (like telegraph) (mommy go, daddy walk, doggie sit)

Gametes

sperm cell and the ovum/egg cell combine to form a zygote/fertilized egg

gamete

sperm or egg; haploid; only 23 SINGLE chromosomes

reflexes from what part of CNS

spinal cord

(DSM-V) Chapter- Personality disorders

stable, maladaptive ways of thinking and behaving might have symptoms earlier, but typically not diagnosed prior to adulthood some disorders now show gender differences -->antisocial personality disorder=more males -->borderline personality disorder=more females (borderline=long‑term patterns of unstable or turbulent emotions, often result in impulsive actions and chaotic relationships with other people)

Prodromal stage

stage that often precedes a schiz diagnosis evidence of deterioration, social withdrwal, role functioning impairment, peculiar behavior, inapprorpriate affect, and unusual experiences this phase is followed by the active phase of symptmatic behavior

inner ear parts/process

stapes taps oval window; causes vibrations in fluid filled cochlea, activating hair-cell receptors on basil membrane and organ of corti (both in cochlea)

Operational def.

stat how the researcher will measure the variables what do you actually mean by a 'good breakfast?'

Meta-analysis

statistical procedure that can be used to make conclusions on the basis of data from different studies combine the results of these studies and come up with a more general conclusion

Thyroid stimulating hormone

stimulates thyroid

Contiguity

stimuli are close to one another in time or space, causing association (continuous ambiguity in space/time)

Projective tests

stimuli in a projective test are relatively ambiguous the test taker is not limited to a small number of possible responses test taker is presented with stimuli and asked to interpret what he sees scoring is subjective ex: rorschach inkblot Thematic apperception test (TAT) Blacky pictures relativley ambiguous stimuli are presented to the test taker then asked to interpret the stimulu

Discriminative stimulus

stimulus condition that indicates that the organism's behavior will have consequences a pigeon pecking at a key to get a food pellet; the food pellet functions as a positive reinforcement, increasing the pigeon's pecking behaviors

Reversible figure

stimulus pattern in which two alternative, equally, compelling percetual organizations spontanouesly oscillate

separation anxiety

strange situation-infant cries when mom leaves room

stranger anxiety

strange situation-infant cries when stranger enters room

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

stress hormone that increases production of androgens (male hormones) and cortisol (Adreno-adrenaline; ACTH-act-adrenaline makes you act) (like cortico-steroids; makes everything more stressful)

Sigmund Freud

stressed the role of subconcious conflicts in the development of functioning and personality

Kulpe

strongly believed that there could be imageless thought; he performed experiements to prove his hypothesis; went against Wundt, who believed that there could be a thought without a mental image

smell connection to

strongly connected to memory, perception of taste

sexual dimorphism

structural differences between genders (di=2; morphism=changes in body)

scaffolding learning

students work by self, teacher only helps when topic is beyond student's capability

cooperative learning

students work together in small groups on projects

L. Vygotsky

studied cognitive development; stressed the importance of the zone of proximal development (zone that learner can do with guidance) (vyGOT. COGnitive)

J. Gibson

studied depth cues (especially texture gradients) that help us to perceive depth (gibson-giving son's depth cues)

E. Loftus

studied eyewitness memory and concluded the misinformation effect: -our memories can be altered by presenting new information or by asking misleading questions

Wiesel & Hubel

studied feature detection in VISUAL cortex--> discovered simple, complex, and hypercomplex cells (Wie..se--H...el--->We SEE hypercomplex cells)

J. Rotter

studied locus of control (internal vs. external); developed a sentence completion test; a projective test designed to measure personality (why do people rot? external locus of control)

Kluver & Bucy

studied loss of normal fear and rage reactions in monkeys resulting from damage to temporal lobes; also studied the amygdala's role in emotions

Hermann Ebbinghaus

studied memories using nonsyllables Forgetting curve; method of savings he showed that at least one of the higher mental processes could be studied empirically

Sir Frederick Bartlett

studied memory in a classic study that used the "war of the ghosts" a native american folk tale found that subjects reconstructed the story in line with their own culture, expectations, and schema for a ghost story Prior knowledge and expectations influence recall

H. Ebbinghaus

studied memory using nonsense syllables and the method of savings (incidental vs intentional learning; implicit memory/relearning past learned; implicit/explicit memory)

S. Milgram

studied obedience by asking subjects to administer electroshock; also proposed stimulus-overload theory to explain differences between city and country dwellers

G. Sperling

studied the capacity of sensory memory using the partial-report method

R. Zajonc

studied the mere exposure effect (develop preference for things because near them more); also resolved problems with the social facilitation effect by suggesting that the presence of others enhances the emission of dominant responses and impairs the emission of nondominant responses

Mary Ainsworth Strange situation procedure

studied the quality of the moth-child attachment relationship Observed and assessed infant behavior, focusing on the infant's reaction to seperation and reunion behavior

M. J. Lerner

studied the tendency of individuals to believe in a just world developing measures that indicate the degree to which an individual believes in a just world

Sociobiology

studies how various social behaviors increase fitness Wilson - adamant in his belief that behavior is due to a complex and dynamic interplan between genetics and the environment; goal of ethology is to test hypotheses about the effect of social behavior on fitness

epigenetics

studies of organisms by changing gene expression (turning them on or off)

Ethologists

study animals in their natural environment

Ethology

study of animal behavior under natural conditions, and is radiacally different from behaviorism tend to concern themselves with behavior that are characteristic of a particula species: species-specific or species-typical behaviors look at instinctual behavior; contrast to behaviorist, who are concerned with learned behavior ethologists observe animal behavior in the animal's natural habitat and tend to look at more complex behavior

Visual cliff

studying infant depth perception table set up to create the illusion that the left half of the table is much lower than the right hald, so that it looks like there is a cliff in the middle of it ; mother stands on the other side perception of the visual cliff was a matter of physical and visual maturity. Babies could see the difference by the age of 8 months, while younger infants with less developed depth perception could not see the cliff. Because 6-month-old children could be enticed to wiggle across the visual edge, while 10-month-old children refused to cross the threshold, it was assumed that the younger children had not yet developed depth perception while the older children had. Later research, however, has demonstrated that children as young as 3 months are able to perceive the visual cliff.

Brightness

subjective impression of the intensity of the stimulus

Theory of Signal Detection (TSD)

subjects detect stimulus because can and because want to (motivation) explains inconsistent responses to signal detections (TSD-think for signal detection)

objective personality inventories

subjects do not make own answers (subject records own responses) (multiple choice, true/false) objective=unbiased test

subliminal perception

subliminal messages-perceiving a stimulus that one is not consciously aware of

Neuromodulators

substance that influences (or "modulates") the activity of several neurons neurotransmitters that are not reabsorbed by the pre-synaptic neuron or broken down by enzymes can float in cerebrospinal fluid, becoming neuromodulators (e.g. serotonin, acetylcholine)

C. Spearman

suggested that individual differences in intelligence were largely due to differences in amount of a general factor called g (spear men=cavemen; low intelligence because of g)

T. Szasz

suggested that most of the mental disorders treated by clinicians are not really mental disorders; wrote "The Myth of Mental Illness" -don't call people "mentally ill" -thought schizo's shouldn't be treated because they are "artistic" (Szasz--pizazz. shizo's aren't crazy, just got some artistic pizazz)

problem space

sum total of possible moves one can take to solve a problem

Superior and inferior colliculus

superior=tectum; inferior=auditory reflexes both appear as bump on brainstem

Method of loci

system of associating information with some sequence of places with which you are familiar remember a list of ten words; you mentally place each one of these words alongside something you see on the pathways between your dorm room and your classroom. once you remember where you've placed everything, you're set. people can remember things for months if they associate what they have to learn with a sequence of places well known to them

Fetal period

takes place during the third month beginning of measurable electrical activity in the brain; in the remaining months, the fetus continues to grow in size fetus is attached to the uterine wall and placenta by the umbilical cord (placenta transmits nutrients to the fetus while returning waste-laden blood to the mother)

Conception

takes place in the fallopian tubes where the ovum or egg cell is fertilized by the male sperm cell

Existential Theory therapy

talking therapy; deep questions relating to client's perception/meaning of existence discussed

Simultanous brightness contrast

target area of a particular luminance appears brighter when surrounded by a darker stimulus than when surrounded by a lighter stimulus. lateral inhibition: adjacent retinal cells inhibit one another; if a cell is excited, neighboring cells will be inhibited - they do not fire as often, and the corresponding area appears not as bright. -

Mnemonic devices

techniques that we use to improve the likelihood that we will remember something

Tranformational rules

tell us how we can change one structure into another "the house is green" and "is the house green?" are related by a transformational rule including the set of rules that tell us how to change a statement to a question

physiological zero

temparature of the skin temperature is judged relative to this when we talk about feeling cold, it is likely that a stimulus has caused the skin temperature to drop below physiological zero neutral temperature perceived to be neither hot nor cold

DNA best analogy

template

Group polarization

tendency for group discussion to enhance the group's initial tendencies towards riskiness or caution ex: if a group originally has a tendency to be risky, further discussion will tend to make the group more risky

Dispositional attribution/Fundamental attribution error

tendency for others to think action caused more by personality than situation (ATTRIBUTE action to personality, not situation)

Generalization

tendency for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit the CR the dog might begin to salivate to bells of a different pitch/and or timbre, or maybe event to chimes

Barnum effect

tendency of people to accept and approve of the interpretation of their personality that you give them; it is relatively simple to generate a "report" from stereotyped statements; these reports are readily accepted as accurate. people fall victim to the fallacy of personal validation. People accept the generalisations that are true of nearly everybody to be specifically true of themselves.

Halo effect

tendency to allow a general impression about a person to influence other, more specific evaluations about a person

Mental set

tendency to keep repeating solutions that worked in other solutions - past experiences affects the strategies we use to solve problems

Zeigarnik effect

tendency to recall uncompleted task better than completed ones

orienting reflex

tendency to turn toward object that's touched you

social loafing

tendency to work less hard in group -caused by diffusion of responsibility -->removed by group monitoring

Hypothesis

tentative and testable explanation oft he relationship between two or more variables

face validity

test items simply look like they measure the construct (the test at a glimpse looks like it measures what it's supposed to measure)

external validity

test measures what it intends to measure

Two-way ANOVA

test significance of means with 2 different independent variables at once (e.g. height of plants of diff seeds and with diff fertilizers)

The Heinz Dilemma

test to determine the moral level of a given individual (hypothetical moral dilemmas) asked what the character of the study should do and give a reason - based on the reasoning that they give, subjects can be placed in one of the six stages

One-way ANOVA

test whether means on 1 outcome are significantly different across groups (e.g. height of plants of just diff seeds)

Chi-square test

tests tell if 2 groups are significantly related (e.g. gender and political stance); checks difference between 2 or more PERCENTAGES or PROPORTIONS of categorical outcomes (not means) like ANOVA but only 2 groups and is categorical and percentage/proportion based measures categorical data (qualitative data; e.g. number of females)

posterior forebrain/interbrain important structures

thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland (posterior=prior to the exterior; cerebrum=exterior)

GABA

the "anti-anxiety molecule" (stops nerve impulses) most abundant inhibitory transmitter in nervous system (opens ion channels in membrane, causes neg charge in cell) (GABA-->garbage=>negative) opposite of glutamate

Serotonin

the "confidence molecule"-happiness affects mood and social behavior, appetite and digestion, sleep, memory and sexual desire and function

Dopamine

the "reward molecule"-reward motivated behavior affects movement, pleasure reward, behavior/cognition, sleep, attention, learning

Blocking

the CS must also provide nonredundant information about the occurence of the UCS in order for conditioning to occur

Categorical perception

the ability to distinguish between differences in sound that do not denote differences in meaning and those differences in sound that do not denote differences in meaning

Empathy

the ability to vicariously experience the emotions of another

Conditioned response

the animal's response to the conditioned stimulus (salivation)

reciprocal interaction

the constant exchange of influences between people is a constant factor in our behavior

Nonequivalent group design

the control group is not necessarily similar tot he experimental group since the researcher doesn't use random assignment

Avolition

the decrease in the motivation to initiate and perform self-directed purposeful activities schizophrenia negative symptom (aVolition-motiVation)

depth of processing

the deeper an item is processed, the easier it is to learn and recall

Poggendorff visual illusion

the diagnol line on the bottom is a continuation of the diagonal line on the top

Ego defence mechanisms

the ego's recourse to releasing excessive pressures due to anxiety defy, falsify, or distort reality operate unconsicously 8 main mechanisms: repression, suppression, projection, reaction formation, rationalization, regression, sublimation, and displacement

Lev Vygotsky's

the engine driving cognitive development is the child's internalization of various aspects of the culture - rules, symbols, language, and so on. internalization of various interpersonal and cultural rules and processes that drives cognitive development in children

Alternate-form method

the examinees are given two different forms of a test that are taken at two different times

Experimenter bias

the face that due to his or her expectations, the experimenter might inadvertently treat the groups of subejcts differently

Visual pathways of the brain

the first significant event occurs at the optic chiasm (the fibers from the nasal half of the retina (close to the nose) cross paths. nasal fibers from the left eye go to the right side of the brain, and vice versa fibers from the temporal halves of the retine do not cross; same brain side and body side from the optic chiasm, information goes to several diff. places in the brain: lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus, the visual cortex in the occipital lobe, and superior collicus **

Skinner

the goal of punishment is to decrease the probability of a particular bx while the goal of negative reinforcement is to increase the probability of a particular behavior we don't know whether something is a negative reinforcement or punisher until we look at the effect it has on bx behavior that used to bring reward no longer do does; decreases prob of bx

Pupil

the hole in the iris, contracts in bright light, and expands in dim light to let more light in

Primacy effect

the items presented first are also remembered fairly well, although not as well as things presented last - it's the stuff in the middle that we forget most often

semantics (language)

the literal meaning of words in a language and the meaning within the sentence -->literally "he could eat a horse"=he can actually eat a horse

mere-exposure effect

the more we see/experience something, more positively we rate it

Recency effect

the most recent information we have about an individual is most important in forming our impressions

Self-Improvement

the motivation of bettering one's self-concept for the future [Future improvements]

Bekesy's Traveling Wave

the movement of the basilar membrane is maximal at a different place along the basilar membrane for each different frequency By using strobe photography and silver flakes as a marker, he was able to observe that the basilar membrane moves like a surface wave when stimulated by sound. Because of the structure of the cochlea and the basilar membrane, different frequencies of sound cause the maximum amplitudes of the waves to occur at different places on the basilar membrane along the coil of the cochlea

Conditioned stimulus

the new stimulus that elicits the response (ex: bell)

Reproductive fitness

the number of offspring that live to be old enouh to reproduce animals will act to increase their reproductive fitness

Primary effects

the occasions when first impressions are more important than subsequent impressions

groupthink

the practice of thinking or making decisions as a group-unquestioned beliefs, pressure to conform -->reach decision without critical evaluation of alternative viewpoints

Punishment

the probability that a response will be made is decreased by giving the organism something undesirable whenever the response is made ex: sending a child to his or her room (something undesirable) because he or she wrote on the walls creases the prob that they will write on the walls again when the stimulus is applied, it is punishment; when removed, it is negative reinforcement bx causes something undesirable; decreases prob of bx

Preparedeness

the rats seem to ahve an in-born tendency to associate certain stimuli with certain conseuqences the idea that people and animals are inherently inclined to form associations between certain stimuli and responses. animals are prepared to learn connections between stimuli Some associations form easily because we are predisposed to form such connections, while other associations are much more difficult to form because we are not naturally predisposed to form them.

Spreading of alternatives

the relative worth of the two alternatives is spread apart (ex: telling yourself that she is ugly just to make yourself feel better)

Test-retest method

the same test is administered to the same group of people twice estimates the inter-individual stability of test scores over time

ethology

the science of animal behavior

relational self

the self we behave as depending on the people with whom we're interacting

Phonemes

the smallest sound units of language ex: the word field consists of four phonemes: the f sound, the e sound, the l sound, and the d sound

Variance

the square of the SD description of how much each score varies from the mean

Variance

the square of the SD (AKA, THE standard deviation times the standard deviation)

physiological zero

the temperature sensed as neither warm or cold

Social loafing

the tendency for people to put forth less effort when part of a group effort than when acting individually ex: tug of war

Zeigarnik Effect

the tendency to remember incomplete tasks better than completed tasks ex: easier to remember the chores you haven't completed than the chores you have completed

Content validity

the test's coverage of the particular skill or knowledge area that it is supposed to measure ex: tet is supposed to measure knowledge of the 20th centruy american history, then it should include questions about the 20th century hsitory

Humanistic theory

theories that emphasize positive, evolving free will in people. Optimistic about human nature; known as "Third Force" in psychotherapy in reaction to psychoanalysis and behavioralism

Horward Gardner's theory

theory of multiple intelligence

Gestalt therapy

therapist dialogues with client (no goal). Client learns from shared dialogue; focuses on "here-and-now" experience rather than talking about past (SIMPLY talk about present; no goal)

Step 1 of natural selection

there are genetic differences between members of a species

Dimensions of personal identity

there are several factors that determine which identity will be enacted in particular situations the more salient the identity, the more we conform to the role of expectations of the identities

Sternberg's triarchic theory

there are three aspects to intelligence: componential (performance on tests), experimential (creativity), and contextual (street smarts, busines sense)

Gate theory of pain

there is a special "gating" mechanism that can turn pain signals on or off, thus affecting whether we perceive pain or not located in the spinal cord, and is able to block sensory input from large, thick sensory fibers before the brain is able to receive the pain signals

Ratio scale

there is a true zero point that indicates the total absence of the quantity being measured income

Kohler theory of isomorphism

there is one-to-one correspondence between the object in the perceptual field and the pattern of stimulation in the brain

Innate releasing mechanism

there must be some mechanism in the animal's nervous system that serves to connect the stimulus with the right response mechanism in the animal's nervous system that connects sign stimuli with the correct FAPs It refers to a neural sensorimotor interface that mediates between a key stimulus and the adequate action pattern. An IRM thus has stimulus recognition and localization properties at its input side and behavior-releasing properties at its output side. The IRM should allow an animal to recognize and respond a behaviorally relevant object that the animal had never encountered before.

sleep stage 2

theta waves, sleep spindles-fast freq; muscle tension and gradual decline in heart rate, respiration, temp

bilingual children language learning

they're slower

Slippery slope

think 1 small step one way will lead to larger ones in same way

ingroup/outgroup bias

think quality of members of group better than those out of group; even though qualities same in each -->basis for prejudice

illusion of control

think you have control over things you don't (lottery, gambling, superstition)

Illusory correlation

thinking 2 unrelated things are related (illusion of correlation)

metacognition

thinking about your own thinking (thinking how to use strategies you know to help solve issue)

convergent thinking

thinking used to find the ONE solution to a problem (e.g. math) converge to one thing

divergent thinking

thinking used when more than one possibility (many answers) (e.g. chess) (Divergence movie, person could do everything))

Halo effect

thinks if one has 1 good quality, then he has only good qualities

Self-serving attributional bias

thinks successes are because of self, situation blamed for failure

False consensus bias

thinks that most other people think as you do

osmoreceptors

thirst receptors; maintains fluid balance in body

absolute refractory period

time after neuron fires-no response to stimulation

serial-anticipation learning

to memorize list, recall one item at a time (e.g. anticipate what comes after each item. what's first item? 1. What comes after 1? 2; know 1 was correct because asked during second question)

prosody

tone inflections, accents, etc. that carry meaning (like melody, but part of sentence)

Existential Theory criticisms

too abstract for severely disturbed individuals

Individual theory- unhealthy

too much affected by inferior feelings to pursue "will to power"; make excuses/have "yes, but" mentality; if goals, they are self-serving/egotistical

analytical theory criticisms

too mystical/spiritual

deductive reasoning

top-down approach; start with general info, leads to specific conclusion -->applying a logic-based rule to a new, specific situation for single-solution (e.g. every day i do A, leading to B; so if i do A today, B will happen) (used in experiments-hypothesis of general idea, check with observed specifics)

Genotype

total genetic makeup of an individual identical genotypes can also produce different phenotypes, due to variations in the environment

somatosensory cortex

touch

cutaneous sensitivity

touch sensitivity (cutaneous=touch) (cuticles on fingers)

Skin senses

touch, cold, warmth, pain, proprioception -touch=pressure=tissue distortion; more sensitive closer to body extremities -temperature->cold receptors are small and more numerous -proprioception-relative position of body parts (this sense does not receive direct stimulation from outside the body) (proprioception=appropriate position)

Ego Defence mechanism: Sublimination

transforming unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors

distribution curve Platykuric distribution

trapezoid looking curve

Culturally competent interventions

treatment/prevention programs that recognize/tailored to cultural differences

evidence-based treatment

treatments that produced results experimentally; argued as only ethical treatment; also argued as nothing like real life situations

Behavioral criticisms

treats symptoms, not underlying problem

luteinizing hormone/lutropin (LH)

triggers ovulation; increases estrogen or (in males) testosterone

selective attention

tuning into something specific while ignoring everything else (cocktail party effect)

heritability of personality

twin studies show 40-50%

Preferential looking

two diff. stimuli are presented side by side; the amount of time spent looking at each one is recorded preferred is the one the baby looked at the longest

dichotic listening

two ears are simultanously presented with two different messages. it has been demonstrated that observers can indeed attend to one message and dampen out the other one.

Hering and Wundt illusion

two horizontal lines are straight and parallel

Muller-lyer visual illusion

two horizontal lines are the same length

Ponzo visual illusion

two horizontal lines in this illusion

Sensory preconditioning

two neutral stimuli are paired together and then one of the neutral stimuli is paired with a UCS stage 1: we pair two neutral stimuli, say flash of light and a bell ring stage 2: we pair the bell with the UCS of food powder

Dissociative identity disorder

two or more personalities that recurrently take control of a person's behavior identify fail to integrat

McClelland and Rumelhart

two-volume book about parallel distributed processes, proposing that information processing is distributed across the brain and is done in a parallel fashion

middle ear parts

tympanic membrane (eardrum; stretched across auditory canal) ossicles (3 small bones that vibrate in response to tympanic membrane; malleus->incus->stapes) (Middle ear=membrane->MIS) (or hammer, anvil, stirrup->HAS)

latent content

unconscious forces dreams are trying to express

Deep/abstract structure

underlying form that specifies the meaning of the sentence

concrete operational stage

understands concrete relationships (simple math); develops conservation (concrete on playground-->elementary school-math, conservation)

time-out procedure

undesirable behavior occurs in situations that reinforce the behavior if you remove the client from the reinforcing situation before he receives reinforcement for his behavior, the behavior will not be reinforced and will, therefore, eventually cease

Confounding variables

unintended independent variables need to discount any other variables that could differentially affect the DV

proposition

units of meaning in a sentence (has a subject and predicate)

Extinction

unlearning classical conditioning eventually stop the patter; when not reinforced

selective breeding

unnaturally selected breeding to increase chances of producing offspring with wanted traits

Narcissism

unrealistic self-esteem-thinking you're better than you are

terminal threshold

upper limit above which stimuli can no longer be perceived (e.g. pitch)

goal of Analytical therapy

use unconscious messages in order to become more aware/closer to full potential

Sperling's partial report procedure

used a 3x3 matrix of letters then he asked subjects to report only one row of the array the subject's recall was nearly pefect when asked to recall a line - capacity of the sensory memory was about 9 items - proved the whole-report procedure was false (not 4, but 9)

M. Sherif

used autokinetic effect to study conformity-->people would be grouped in room; shown light (effect), conform to exact distance light moved; would differ when experiment repeated and asked alone also performed Robber's Cave experiment and found that having superordinate goals increased intergroup cooperation (sheriff - comform or else)

dichotic presentation

used for auditory perception and selective attention-2 diff messages in each ear; must shadow/repeat one message so the other one is not attended to (di-cho-->2 echoes)

stratified sampling

used if convenience sampling; aims to match demographic characteristics of sample to demographics of population (stratified--stat-->match the stats of sample)

Herman Ebbinghaus

used meaningless strings of letters to study the capacity of our memory system

Brain imaging

used to associate various cognitive processes with various parts of the brain

Symbolic codes

used to form mental representations of words-they represent concept instead of physical observation (e.g. letter "x" is not just 24th letter of alphabet, but can represent multiplication) when representation=not literal/exact image of the thing, it's symbolic

Analogue codes

used to mentally represent images-images we form in our minds are highly similar to the physical stimuli (e.g. near-exact representation of trees and rivers)

Anxiolytics

used to reduce anxiety/induce sleep; usually incr effectiveness of GABA (an inhibitory neurotransmitter); high potential for causing habituation and addiction (Valium, Xanax) (anxi-olytics-->anxiety related-drugs)

Eye movements

used to study reading and language comprehension: an 'on-line' measure of information processing

play therapy

used w/ children; during play, child expresses what they might not out of play

Applied Psychology

uses principles or research findings to solve people's problems (limited to questions about DSM-5 and APA publications)

simulations

using perceptual cues to make artificial situations seem real (so yes, the simple "simulation" definition as you know it)

Frequency distribution

using the sample data set graphic representation of how often each value occurs

Texture gradients

variations in perceived surface texture as a function of the distance from the observer the more distant parts of a scene appear to have a smaller, more densely packed elements

tip of the tongue phenomena

verge of retrieval but not successfully doing so

empirical verification

verifying something empirically (verified by experiments/experience)

Lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus

vision

superior collicus

vision

visual cortex in occipital lobe

vision

Size constancy

visual angle determines the size of the image on the retina two things that determine the visual angle (and thuse the retinal size of the object) are the size of the object and the distance between the objects and the eye Emmert's law - size constancy depends on apparent distance; the farther away the object appears to be, the more the scaling device in the brain will compensate for its retinal size by enlarging our perception of the object Ames room: erroneous depth information confuses our notion of size in certain situations moon illusion: the moon on the horizon appears to be larger than when the moon is at its zenith, despite the fact that both moons are the same size (in actuality and on the retina)

occipital lobe

visual processing center (optics lobe)

Afterimages

visual sensation that appears after proloned or intense exposure to a stimulus most interesting: those that involve color support Hering's theory of color vision, since the color of the afterimage will be the "opposite" of the original color

gestalt closure

we complete incomplete figures (close the line)

gestalt continuation

we create whole/detailed figures based on expectations

social learning theory

we learn through culture (socially acceptable behaviors)

gestalt symmetry

we make figures out of symmetrical images (can be stronger than proximity)

Shape constancy

we see a rectangular door as rectangular, even though, in the course of opening and closing the door, its retinal shape can be anything from a trapezoid to a thin line

texture gradient

we see finer details at closer distances

gestalt minimum principle

we see what is easiest/logical to see

cultural competence

what therapists trained in to learn customs, languages, etc. of cultures; reduces bias assumptions

Proactive inhibiton

what you learned earlier interferees with what you learn later ex: if you learn french as a second language and then spanish as a third language, you may find that you are learning spanish, you occasionally speak in french

reciprocal socialization

when 2 parties adapt to or are socialized by each other (e.g. parents using "swag", kids respecting traditions)

Habituation

when a new stimulus is presented to an infant, the infant will orient toward it if the infant cannot tell the difference between the old and the new stimuli, the infant will remain disinterested

Law of closure

when a space is encolosed by a contour, it tends to be perceived as a figure certain figures tend to be perceived as complete

Recency effect

when asked to memorize a list of words, those words are presented at the end of the list are best remembered

Post-decisional dissonance

when dissonance emerges after one's choice

Baton's empathy-altruism

when faced with situations in which others may need help, people might feel distress (mental pain or anguish), and/or they might feel empathy reporting more empathy than distress - more likely to help regardless of they were in the easy- or difficulty-escape conditions

learning curve

when learning something new, rate of learning changes over time (curve shaped like an S, slow fast slow)

frustration-aggression hypothesis

when people are frustrated, people act aggressively

Minimal justification effect

when the external justification is minimal, you will reduce your dissonance by changing internal cognitions (ex: festinger and carlsmith experiment)

Single-blind experiement

when the subjects do not know whether they are in the treatment or control group

Dark adaptation

when you adapt to a darker environment, such as a dark movie theatre - dark adaptation light reaching the photoreceptors before you entered the theater bleached the photopigment in the rods caused by the regeneration of rhodspin, the photopigment in rods the reflex adaptation of the eye to dim light, consisting of a dilatation of the pupil and an increase in the number of functioning rods accompanied by a decrease in the number of functioning cones

Split-half reli

where test takers take only one test, but that one is divided into equal halves. Scores on one half are correlated with the scores on the other half

Face validity

whether or not the test items appear to measure what they are supposed to measure, ex: if you are interested in measuring knowledge of american history and you give them history on europe, this is low face validity

family therapy

whole family is client

Ebbhinghaus - forgetting curve

without practice, we forget rapidly, then at a certain point, forgetting occurs at a much lesser rate.

parsing

words in spoken/written message transformed into a mental representation of meaning of the message helps language studies between cultures

Industrial/Organizational Psychology

workplace psychology, efficiency, functionality

type 2 errors (experiments)

wrongly accept null hypothesis (type B/2 personality=relaxed, nice, accepts the hypothesis) WRONG ACCEPT (less common, don't see correlation)

Hering's theory of color vision/ opponent-process theory of color vision

yellow must be one of the primary colors and that yellow was a basic color along with red blue green (contrary to trichromatic theory) four receptors were arranged in opposing pairs, so that one opponent process would signal the presence of red or green, and another would signal the presence of blue or yellow. red would excite red-green cell; green would inhibit a red-green cell three opposing pairs: rg, by, bw

holophrastic speech

young child using one word to convey whole sentence (me=pick me up) holophrase=the one word holo="whole", so whole sentence is used in one word

Z-score

your score minus the score/standard deviation

R. Descartes

"I think, therefore I am" -dualism/mind-body problem -->mind is nonphysical substance separate from the body

Why Multi-axial system eliminated in DSM-V?

"Removes artificial distinctions" between medical and mental disorders

pragmatics (language)

"practical" rules of using language the meaning of words and grammar used semantically, except within context (inferred meanings); taking turns speaking -->idioms "he could eat a horse"=hungry

cortisol

"stress hormone"; regulated/modulates changes that occur in body in response to stress (blood sugar levels; metabolism; immune response; etc.) higher and prolonged levels (e.g. w/ chronic stress)=negative effects

Standard deviation

'Average' scatter away from the mean (also the square root of the variance) measure of the typical distance of scores from the mean

Cerletti and Bini

(1938) Introduced use of the electroshock for the artificial production of convulsive seizures in psychiatric patients believed that epileptic-like convulsions could cure schiz (not true)

Calculating IQ (Binet scale)

(mental age/chronological age x 100) -chronological age stops at 16 because intelligence stops developing

PET

(positron emission topography) scans glucose metabolism of radioactive tracer to measure activity in various brain regions

Cognitive theory criticisms

(similar to behavioralist)-addresses how person thinks, rather than why original problem developed-->removing symptoms might not cure the problem

Bystander intervention

- Kitty Genovese - Bystanders were trying to figure out what was going on and what to do about it - because of social influence and diffusion of responsibility - studied the behavior of students who witnessed an ambiguous event - pluralistic ignorance: leading others to a definition of an event as a nonemergency

Newcomb

- Studied political norms

Reinforcement theory

- behavior is motivated by anticipated rewards

Leon Festinger's Cognitive dissonance theory

- conflict that you feel when your attitudes are not in sync with your behaviors - changing one's attitude so that it is consistent with the behavior - the greater the dissonance, the greater the pressure to reduce dissonance (changing dissonant elements or by adding consonant elements)

Diffusion of responsibility

- if others are present, however, then the responsibility, blame, and guilt can be shared - may decide that others are in the position to help may sway the person not to help - seizure experiment: the less people in the intercom chat, the less likely the participants were to report the seizure

Verplank

- in 1950's, he suggested that social approval influences behavior (course of a conversation changes dramatically based upon the feedback/approval of others

William McGuire - analogy of inoculation

- in physiological inoculation against disease, an active disease-producing organism, or pathogen, is injected into the body; the body will ultimately develop a resistance to stronger forms of the pathogen - people can be inoculated against the attack of persuasive communications

Bandura

- main figure in social learning theory - proposed that behavior is learned through imitation

Refuted counterarguments

- presenting arguments against the truisms and then refuting the arguments

Free-choice dissonant situation

- situation where a person makes a choice between several desirable alternatives - when talking to 2 chicks but have to make a decision and stick with 1. might feel dissonant about the girl you dissed after you told her wassup. may still have feelings for her but told her to swerve

Attribution theory

- tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behavior - situational (external and are those that relate to the features of the surroundings) versus dispositional (relate to the attitudes, and personality characteristics of the individual - when inferring the causes of others' behaviors, there is a general bias toward making dispositional attribution rather than situational

Sleeper effect

- the persuasive impact of the high credibility source decreased while the persuasive impact of the the low credibility source increased.

Pearson r correlation coefficient

-1 to 1; graph's correlation coefficient -between people and between other tests Low=bad, high=good reliability (x-axis=first test scored, y-axis=second test scored, should be r=1 if scored same)

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

-550 true/false/not sure questions -high validity because constructed with highly discriminatory items -3 validity scales (questions assessing lying, carelessness, faking) -more related to DSM-V than CPI -compares responses to responses of those with known mental disorders (multiple mental personality inventory-->disorders)

Myer-Brigg Type Indicatory (MBTI)

-93 questions, 2 answers each -gives 4 letter "personality type" -introverted v extroverted -sensing v intuition -feeling v thinking -judgment v perception (my personality type)

APA publications

-American Psychologist (official journal) -Psychological Bulletin (papers) -Psychological Abstracts (index, summary of every literature in psych) -PsychINFO (database/online format of Psychological Abstracts)

parenting styles

-Authoritarian-strict; children withdrawn/unhappy -permissive-allowed whatever; children happy but no self-control or self-reliance -authoritative-firm/fair; children self-reliant, self confident, happy

social comparison theory

-Festinger -Evaluate own actions by comparing to others--> we constantly make self and other evaluations across a variety of domains

Jerry Fodor

-Language is independent from other cognitive systems (e.g. perception) -Influenced study of language acquisition -Unknown if language learning principles same as other cognitive learning principles

Projective personality tests (examples)

-Rorschach inkblot -thematic apperception test (TAT) -Rosenweig Picture-Frustration (P-F) study (cartoons where one person frustrating another; describe how frustrated person responds) -Word association -Rotter incomplete sentence -Draw-a-person test (draw person of each sex; tell story about them)

Greek Psych History

-Socrates-original philosopher -Plato-Socrates' pupil; physical world was not all that could be known; abstract philosophy -Aristotle-Plato's pupil; first professor (Greek Spa-socrates plato aristotle)

On-line measurement of sentence processing

-Studying readers' eye movements and neural responses (reading is on-line/continually reading lines

role playing (behavioral counterconditioning)

-allows client to practice new behaviors/responses

Attracted to people who:

-are near us (we get to know them) -are physically attractive -have attitudes similar to our own -like us back (reciprocity)

navigation techniques

-atmospheric pressure (birds) -infrasound-low freq sound of coast (birds) -magnetic sense (birds, bees) -sun compass (birds, bees) -star compass (bees) -polarized light-when sun blocked by clouds (bees)

hindbrain structures

-begins where spinal cord ends medulla, pons, cerebellum, and the base of the reticular formation (connects brain to spine)

Sex-typed behavior

-behavior stereotypical to gender -low during prepubescence; high in young adulthood; lower again after

Histrionic Personality Disorder (DSM V)

-characterized by a pattern of excessive emotionality and attention seeking. -Their lives are full of drama (so-called "drama queens"). -They are uncomfortable in situations where they are not the center of attention -uncomfortable being alone (most pride; center of attention)

W. Kohler

-chimps experiments w/ insight -not gradual learning, instant learning -developed theory of isomorphism (one-to-one correspondence between the object in the perceptual field and the pattern of stimulation in the brain) (anti-nazi; pro ape) (Kohler-->k-OH! ler)

extinction

-classical conditioning ended -caused by CS unpairing with UCS or lack of reward

aversion therapy (behavioral counterconditioning)

-classical conditioning to INCR anxiety (add anxiety where there was none; e.g. fetishes) (antabuse=for alcohol)

spontaneous recovery

-classical conditioning-CS and UCS spontaneously repaired -typically followed by another extinction

split-half reliability

-compare individual's performance on 2 halves of same test -reveals internal consistency of a test

(DSM-V) Chapter- Paraphilic disorders

-condition in which a person's sexual arousal and gratification depend on fantasizing about and engaging in sexual behavior that is atypical and extreme -pedophilia and exhibitionist disorders=illegal -other disorders can cause personal distress, for which someone might seek treatment

Goodenough Draw-A-Man Test

-cross culture intelligent test for children -based on detail and accuracy of drawing of man, not talent

ANOVA (analysis of variance)

-differences among MEANS of continuous (numerical) variables -more flexible than t-tests-->can analyze differences among MORE THAN 2 groups (even if diff sample sizes)

Freud Personality Development

-driving force for development=sexual (BIOLOGICAL) needs -5 stages -over/underindulging stage results in fixation -stress later in life may cause regression

cohort effects (research problem)

-effects resulting from a group born and raised or experiencing a certain experience in the same particular time period

Client-Centered therapist's job/role

-empathy-stand in client's shoes -unconditioned positive regard-facilitates trusting/safe environment -genuineness/congruence-act genuine with clients instead of professional reserve (Rogers-patient is awesome, if you're positive)

medulla oblongata and pons

-entry and exit points for 12 cranial nerves; deals with autonomic functions of breathing, heart rate, blood pressure -contain reticular formation/reticular activation system (general arousal)

sunk cost

-expense incurred that can't be recovered -best strategy-ignore them when making decisions -->money already spent is irrelevant to the future

K. Lewin

-founded social psych -applied Gestalt ideas to social behavior -conceived field theory -Divided leadership styles into three categories: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire -autocratic leaders created more hostility than democratic ones

self (Analytical/Jung)

-full individual potential; symbolized by figures-Buddha, Jesus, the mandala (Hindu)

Freud major changes

-greatest conflict-libido (sex) and ego--->eros (life instinct-sex/love) and thanatos (death instinct; including self-destruction)-"aim of all life is death" (death=most discredited theory of Freud)-->both part of id -life is topographic where conscious elements openly acknowledged and unconscious many layers below conscious--->life is structural, mental life has particular organization instead of layers (id, ego, superego)

prolactin

-hormone-helps females produce milk -also metabolism, regulation of the immune system, and pancreatic development (stuff for milk to be good) (promotes lactation)

T. Hobbes

-human and animals were machines -sense/perception was all that could be known (conservative-people savage)

id, ego, superego

-id=unconscious bio drives and wishes -ego=mediator -superego=socially learned morals/social drives all 3 fight for acknowledgement and expression; how ego handles this is mental health

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

-most recent approach to profoundly depressed patients -fewer side effects than ECT -magnetic fields stimulate frontal lobe

Freud Personality Developmental Stages

-oral-birth-18 months; oral pleasure -anal-18mo-3yrs; pleasure of control and release of feces -phallic-3-6yrs; pleasure from self stimulation of genitals-->boys=Oedipus complex; girls= electra complex; both resolve conflict by identifying w/ same-sex parent -latency-6-puberty; repressed sexuality; identification with same-sex friends; focus on school and growing up -genital-puberty-adult life-hormone reawaken sexual instincts; love object now nonfamilial (Freud: Our AmPLe Genitals) (18mo-3yrs-6yrs==>18= 3 x 6; followed by puberty, then adult)

G. Kelly

-personal constructs determine personality and behavior -based personality theory on the notion of "individual as scientist"

social facilitation

-presence of others help or hurt performance -->presence helps with easy tasks; hurts complex tasks (being surrounded by social facilitates better or worse task)

Gender differences-nature v nurture debate

-prevailing point of view=interactionist (both)

assertive training (behavioral counterconditioning)

-provides tools/experience where client can become more assertive (believed assertiveness incompatible with anxiety)

test of significance

-reject null hypothesis -Significance (p-value) level less than decided alpha value (typically of <.05 or <.01) -Alpha=threshold value determined by experimenter to determine significance (usually .05, .01)

discriminative stimulus

-relates to reinforcement (operant conditioning) -The specific stimulus doing the teaching/relating to a reaction, providing context for response (discriminative stimulus elicits a response/behavior, response is either reinforced or punished)

illusory correlation research problem

-relationship is inferred where there is none (illusioned correlation)

self-awareness vs self-consciousness

-self-awareness is a state -self-consciousness is a trait

Piaget's stages

-sensorimotor (0-2yrs) -preoperational (2-7yrs) -concrete operational (7-12yrs) -formal operational (12+yrs) (ages-->0-2-7-12-) (formal=last; formal=classiest, best)

modeling (behavioral counterconditioning)

-social learning principles (exposes client to more adaptive behaviors/people's reactions; hope to cause imitation)

Tinbergen experiments

-stickleback fish-get red bellies in spring; releasing stimuli=red belly (caused aggression) -herring gull chicks-peck at parent's bill at red dot when hungry (releasing stimuli=dot)-->supernormal sign stimulus (dot hit even harder even when unnatural contrasting of red dot) (Tinbergen and Lorenz; Timber innate actions; bergendy spots on fish)

Cannon-Washburn theory and experiment

-stomach contraction theory-we are hungry when stomach contracts -put balloon in stomach, inflated, no longer felt hungry -later disproven when hunger felt by those with stomach removed (heartBurn? Wash down with a balloon)

demand characteristic research problem

-subjects act in ways they think experiment wants/expects (act in a way that you think experimenter demands)

social desirability-research problem

-subjects do and say what they think puts them in favorable light

Neonate (newborn) reflexes

-sucking-object near mouth -head turning-stroke cheek -Moro reflex-throwing arms/legs because of loud noise -Babinski reflex-fanning toes when touching bottom of feet -Palmar reflex-hand grasping when object in hand (Mor-OH-->loud noise; babin-SKI-->skis on feet; PALM-ar-->palms grasp

trait v state

-traits=relatively enduring characteristics -states=temporary feelings/characteristics (e.g. tired)

psychoanalysis therapy

-unique-see patient 4-5 times a week for many years -hypnosis; free association-->allows uncovering/discharge of repressed emotion (catharsis)

natural language mediators

-using sound, patterns, meanings of words already known to assist learning new info (e.g. 30 days past September, April June....)

Changing behavior consequences (behavioral/operant technique)

-usually referred to with term "behavior modification" remove positive reinforcement with negative behavior and add it with appropriate, adaptive behavior e.g. kid yelling-don't pay attention to him. move to empty bedroom if too much. kid doing right behavior=praise

Sir F. Galton

-wealthy Englishmen, traveled, studied for fun; random contributions -first to use statistics in psych -created correlation coefficient -wrote Hereditary Genius -promoted eugenics-selective human breeding to strengthen species

Freud - Oral stage

0-1 year Libidinal energy centered on the mouth; fixation can lead to excessive dependency gratification is obtained primarily through the putting of objects into the mouth by biting and sucking fixation: exhibit excessive dependency

Erik Erikson Stages

0-18mo-3-6-teen-young adult-middle age-old (18=3x6), teen adult old adult, old babies trust, preschoolers try independence (autonomy), elemenatry schoolers initiate education (no more play), preteens feel inferior/incompetent, teen find self (identity crisis), graduates find love and get babies, adults are productivity, old have wisdom or despair

Etiology of mood disorders

1) NT implicated in mood disorder include norepinephrine and sertonin - both linked together into what is called monoamine theory of depression (aka catecholamine theory of depression) Too much norepinephrine and seratonin leads to mania, while too little leads to depression

Freud - Anal stage

1-3 year Libido is cented on the anus and gratification is gained through the elimination and retention of waste materials Toilet training occurs during this time; fixation can lead to excessive orderliness or messiness

Erickson - Autonomy versus shame and doubt

1-3yo Favorable: feeling of will and and ability to excercise choice as well as self-restraint Unf: Sense of doubt and lack of control

Kohlberg's Moral Development

1. No punishment 2. Yes reward 3. Social Approval 4. Follow law 5. Follow law (if logical) 6. Ethical principles

sleep cycle length; how many cycles per night?

1.5 hrs; 4-6 cycles every night

Rorschach inkblot

10 cards that are reproduction of inkblots describe what it is that the inkblots remind the subject of

Identical twins

100% of their genes in common with their sibling twin

Mean IQ of US (and SD)

100; standard deviation of 15 or 16

Adolescence

13-19ys; begins with puberty; adrenal and pituitary glands secrete hormones (androgen for boys; estrogen for girls) causing second sex characteristics

Dorothy Dix

19th century American advocate of asylum reform

Dix

19th century american advocate of asylum reform

language acquisition timeline

1yr=first words 2yr=>50 spoken words in 2 then 3 word phrases 3yrs=1000 word vocab, many grammar errors 4yrs=grammar problems are random exceptions (1, 2, 3, 4 years. 1=first words; 2=2 word phrases, some words (>50); 3=1000 words (lots; second to last in timeline so words but errors; 4=language acquired)

Forebrain areas

2 areas: posterior forebrain/interbrain (highest/last layer before cerebrum) and the cerebrum (outer layer of brain) (fore-before last layer/cerebrum)

figure-ground pattern

2 different figures based on which shade you look at (vase/faces)

Ponzo illusion

2 equal horizontal lines appear unequal because 2 more vertical lines slant inwards-like train tracks (ponzo-Z has 2 horiz lines, one of the slanted lines)

between-subject

2 groups of people at same time

distribution curve-bimodal curve

2 humps-->median mean same, mode both higher and lower

linear perspective (depth cue)

2 parallel lines converge in distance

H. Eysenck

2 personality-type dimensions: introversion-extraversion and stable-unstable (neuroticism) -->formed a cross w/ 4 quadrants: phlegmatic, melancholic, choleric, sanguine (I-SEnCT-->intersect. 4 quadrants)

Stage we spend most of end of night?

2+REM

Piaget's preoperational stage

2-7 years old Child has not mastered conversation Beginning of representational thought - centration: tendency to be able to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon - concept of conservation:the notion that physical properties of matter do not change simply because the appearance of the matter changes - egocentricism: kid might know what he has a sister but may not be able to tell you if the sister has a brother)

Transduction

2nd step in sens. info. processing translation of physical nrg into neural impulses or action potentials once done, electrochemical nrg is sent to various projection areas in the brain along the neural pathways and can be processed by the nervous system (brain areas that further analyze sensory input)

Kolhberg's stages of moral development

3 phases - 6 stages (each phase has 2 stages) Each stage builds upon another and is associated with changes in cognitive structure

Stage we spend most of beginning of night?

3+4

Freud- Phallic stage

3-5yo Phallic = Oedipal Oedipal conflict for male children or Electra conflict, the analogous conflict for female children the male child envies his father's intimate relationship with his mother and fears castration at his father's hands; he wishes to eliminate his father and posses his mother, but the child feels guilty about his wishes - to eliminate this conflict, he deals with his guilt feelings by identifying with the father, establishing his sexual identity and internalizing moral values Oedipal conflict is resolved during this stage

Erickson - initiative versus guilty

3-6yo Favorable: Purpose, the ability to initiate activities, and the acility to enjoy accomplishments Unfav: fear of punishment that the child may either unduly restrict himself, or overcompensate by showing off

Standard normal distributions

34 : 14 : 2 : 0.26 (normal distrib curve: 0.26%, 2%, 13%, 34%, 34%, 13%, 2%, 0.26%)

ventricles

4 cavities in the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid insulating brain from shock

cerebral cortex

4 lobes-frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal F-POT (in order) (Cortex=>core components)

Piaget's moral development

4-7 yrs: imitates rule-does not question acceptance of rules 7-11yrs: understands rules-follows them 12+yrs: applies abstract thinking to rules; can change if all parties agree (Rules follow development/ages: preop-talk barely; concr oper-talk; formal oper-abstract thinking)

Likert Scale

5-7 point scale of strongly agree, neither, strongly disagree with a particular statement (Like-how much you like the statement)

Basic tastes (gustation=taste)

5: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami (meaty/savory) most taste receptors on tongue (taste buds/papillae): sweet-front tip salty-sides of front sour-sides of mid bitter-back of tonuge umami-middle of tongue (sweat sour bitter umami-->swee-alt, sour bitter, umami)

Erickson - industry versus inferiority

6-12yo Fav: excercise his or her abilities and intelligence in the world - effective Unf: Sense of inadequacy, a sense of inability to act in a competent manner

Piaget's Concrete operational stage

7-11yo Child masters conversation child can conserve and take the perspective of others into account, but are limited to working with concrete objects or information that is directly available

Supernormal stimulus

A model more effective at triggering a FAP than the actual sign stimulus found in nature a term evolutionary biologists use to describe any stimulus that elicits a response stronger than the stimulus for which it evolved — even if it is artificial. ex: porn, junk food

Patient H.M.

A patient whose hippocampus and temporal lobes were removed surgically to control epilepsy caused severe anterograde amnesia (can't form new memories)

Social exchange theory

A person weighs the rewards and costs of interacting with another benefits > costs people will attempt to maximize benefits and minimize costs

Releaser

A sign stimulus that triggers social behaviors between animals

Pinna

A sound wave reaches the fleshy part of the ear visible from the outside - pinna main function: channel sound waves into the auditory canal, also in the outer ear

Placebo effect / Demand characteristic

A type of demand characteristic where a placebo has a beneficial effect on the subjects Possible solution: control groups In one classic experiment published in the journal Psychosomatic Medicine, researchers examined whether demand characteristics and expectations could influence menstrual cycle symptoms reported by study participants. Some participants were informed that the purpose of the study and were told that the researchers wanted to look at menstrual cycle symptoms. The informed participants were significantly more likely to report negative premenstrual and menstrual symptoms than participants who were unaware of the study's purpose. The researchers concluded that the reporting of symptoms was influenced by the demand characteristics as well as social expectations. In other words, people who thought that the researchers wanted to hear about some of the stereotypical symptoms of PMS and menstrual issues were more likely to say that they had experienced such negative symptoms while having their periods.

dual-code hypothesis

A. Paivio Visual and verbal information are processed differently and along distinct channels in the human mind, creating separate representations for information processed in each channel (with word "dog"; can either picture dog, think of the word "dog", or both)

Nominal scale

AKA categorical labels observations so that observations can be categorized (demo-rep, girl-boy) Names

Domain-referenced testing

AKA criterion-referenced testing Concerned with the question of what the test taker knows about a specified content domain performance on such a test is described in terms of what the test taker knows or can do ex: written test you must take for your driver's license is the concept that an examinee's scores on a test are interpreted with reference to the particular cognitive ability being assessed rather than in comparison with the performance of a population of individuals (norm-referenced testing)

Clark's Hukk theory of motivation

AKA drive-reduction theory He based his theory around the concept of homeostasis, the idea that the body actively works to maintain a certain state of balance or equilibrium. For example, your body regulates its temperature in order to ensure that you do not become too hot or too cold. Hull believed that behavior was one of the ways that an organism maintains this balance. Based on this idea, Hull suggested that all motivation arises as a result of these biological needs. In his theory, Hull used the term drive to refer to the state of tension or arousal caused by biological or physiological needs. Thirst, hunger and the need for warmth are all examples of drives. A drive creates an unpleasant state; a tension that needs to be reduced.

Whorf - Whorfian hypothesis

AKA linguistic relativity hypothesis our perception of reality, the way that we think about the world, is determined by the content of language language affects the way we think and not the other way around the hypothesis that language determines how reality is perceived

Within-subjects design

AKA repeated measures Pair subject with himself by using the same subjects in both groups each subject is exposed to more than one condition, allowing the researcher to seperate the effects of individual differences in intelligence from the effects of the IV

Schema

AKA schemata conceptual frameworks we use to organize our knowledge interpret our experiences, and therefore remember the in temrs of our existing schemata

Two types of threshold

Absolute Difference

Phonology

Actual sound stem of language Children need to learn to produce and recognize the sounds of language, sperating them from environmental noises and speech sounds that do not denote differences in meaning 40 phonemes, or speech sounds in English

Individual Theory

Adler people are creative, social, and whole (humanistic-people are good) people are in the process of realizing themselves/"beginning"; INFERIORITY felt when current self doesn't match self-ideal motivation=social needs healthy individual has "will to power" (power of not being inferior) (indiviDLE-->aDLEr) -4 personality types

"will to power"

Adler/Individual-a quest for feelings of superiority; on this quest-pursue goals outside of himself and beneficial to society-->power to help society (humanistic, people good) (power=opposite of inferiority)

Socially useful type (sanguine)

Adler/Individual-high in personal activity; high in social contribution; healthy (sanguine-sanWIN-everything good)

Ruling-dominant type (choleric)

Adler/Individual-high in personal activity; low in social contribution; dominant (choleric=coal-dominant, does nothing)

Getting-leaning type (phlegmatic)

Adler/Individual-low in personal activity; high in social contribution; dependent (phlegm-sucks for you, helps immune system/everyone)

Avoiding type (melancholic)

Adler/Individual-low in personal activity; low in social contribution; withdrawn (melancholic-everything sucks)

Erickson - Identity versus confusion

Adolesence Fav: the ability to see oneself as unique and integrated person with sustained loyalties Unfav: Confusion of one's identity and a kind of amorphous personality that shifts from day to day

Spontanous recovery

After a period of rest, presenting the bell ring without the UCS will actually elicit a weak CR of salivation

BF Skinner

Agreed that envioronmental conseuqences affect the probability of response, but ejected the stress on mentalistic terms such as satisfying and annoying developed the theory of operant conditioning

strange situation attachments

Ainsworth- -secure: ran and clung to mom, explored environment -avoidant: ignored/avoided mom -ambivalent: squirmed/kicked if mom tries to comfort

Individual theory criticisms

Alderian therapy is best used with "normal" people in search of growth

Inferential statistics

Allow us to use relatively small batch of actual observations to make conclusions about the entire population of interest making generalizations from sample to population

Projective personality tests

Allows subject to create own answer; facilitating expression of conflicts, needs, impulses

Trait Theory general idea

Allport--People act differently in diff situations because trait hierarchy -top=cardinal trait -then central traits -then secondary traits -->circumstances may show conflicting secondary traits; (AllporTRAIT) *cardinal trait is always consistent

Trait Theory basis

Allport-ideographic approach- -observe conscious motives of proprium (like Freud's ego) -proprium acts consistency based on traits developed by experience attempted to go through all traits; find best ones (lexical approach) (Allport-all traits)

Aronson and Linder's gain-loss principle

An evaluation that changes will have more of an impact than an evaluation that remains constant

ANOVA

Analysis of variance More than two groups, used to compare the means of two groups estimate how much group means differ from each other by comparing the between-group variance to the within-group variance using a ratio called the F ratio Between/Within = F ratio used to determine if there is any interaction between two or more IVs ("it depends"

archetypes

Analytical/Jung universal concepts passed down since beginning of man; allows us to organize experiences w/ consistent themes (shown through cross-cultural similarity in symbols, myths, etc.) PERSONA SHADOW ANIMA ANIMUS

anima

Analytical/Jung-archetype -female elements that a man possesses; complements own maleness (female animal in man) (ma=mom, female)

animus

Analytical/Jung-archetype -male elements a female possesses; complements own femaleness (male animal in woman)

shadow

Analytical/Jung-archetype -person's dark side, often projected onto others (symbolized by devils and evil spirits)

persona

Analytical/Jung-archetype -person's outer mask/mediator to external world (symbolized by cultures via masks)

psyche

Analytical/Jung-conscious part of the unconscious

collective unconscious

Analytical/Jung-dynamics of psyche inherited from ancestors; contains archetypes

personal unconscious

Analytical/Jung-material from individual's own experience (can become conscious)

Motherese

Anne Fernald universal way parents speak to children-potentially helps children mark word and sentence boundaries

Correlation coefficients

Another type of descriptive that measure to what extent, if any two variables, are related they are related if knowing the value of one variable helps you predict the value of the other variable -1 to 1 A -1 or 1 means absolute certainty that things can be predicted 0 = no relationship

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibition (SSRIs)

Antidepressant-acts only on serotonin; most frequently prescribed; few side effects

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)

Antidepressant-dangerous/one of last resorts; inhibits monoamine enzymes irreversibly (cell must make new enzymes) -->enzymes that oxidize/remove neurotransmitters

(DSM-V) Chapter- Neurodevelopmental disorders

Appearance during childhood Intellectual disability-statistically low IQ; difficulties in life skills

Content-related validity

Appropriate-content

Ability tests

Aptitude Achievement Aptitude and ability tests are standardised ways of assessing how well people typically perform in varying work tasks or react in different situations. They have the advantage of measuring potential rather than simply academic performance, and are often used to make predictions about how people will perform in a work setting.

Humanism

Arose in opposition to both psychoanalysis and behaviorism notion of free will and the idea that people should be considered as wholes rather than in terms of stimuli and responses (behaviorism) or instincts (psychoanalysis)

supernormal sign stimulus

Artificial stimuli exaggerating naturally occurring sign stimulus-more effective than natural releaser

Gender schematic processing theory

As soon as children are able to label themselves, they begin concentrating on those behaviors that seem to be associated with their gender and pay less attention to those they believe are associated with the opposite gender

Counterbalancing

Assigning half of the subjects to experience the low-protein breakfast, and the other half to experience the high-protein breakfast first All subjects experience both levels, just in different orders

Fear

At first, fear is evoked through anysudden change in level of stimulation (ex: turning on a light in a dark room) By the end of the first year, the fear response is reserved either for the sudden absence of a specific individual or the presence of an object or person who in the past has been harmful to the child

Sheldon

Attempted to relate somatotype (body type) to personality type

Factor analysis

Attempts to account for the interrelationships fond among various variables by seeing how groups of variables "hang together" is a technique that is used to reduce a large number of variables into fewer numbers of factors. This technique extracts maximum common variance from all variables and puts them into a common score

Carl Hovland's Model

Attitude change as a process of communicating a message with the intent to persuade someone - the communicator: source, someone who has taken a position on an issue and is trying to persuade someone to adopt his position - the communication: presentation of argument - the situation: surroundings in which the communication takes place - the more credible the communicator/source is, the more persuasive impact - sources can increase their credibility by arguing against their own self-interest (ex: drug user arguing FOR more stringent drug policies)

Gregor Mendel

Austrian monk who lived in the 19th century carefully observed the inheritance of certain traits in pea plants and hypothesized the existence of the basic unit of heredity, genes

shaping

B.F. Skinner rewards for acts that lead to desired act (get close to lever, paw touch lever, etc.) also called differential reinforcement of successive approximations is also behavioral counterconditioning technique

Fritz Heider

Balance theory (consistency)

observational learning (to fear)

Bandura -relieving intense fear and anxiety by having someone you identify closely with get closer and closer to fear and interacting with it. ends with you joining person to approach and interact with fear (e.g. step near dog, then pet dog if afraid of dog)

Kelly

Based personality theory on the notion of the individual as a scientist

lexical decision task

Basic procedure involves measuring how quickly people classify stimuli as words or nonwords

Androgyny

Because people can achieve high scores on measures of both masculinity and femininity on personality inventories, it follows that masculinity and femininity must be two seperate gender dimensions the state of being sumultaneously very masculine and very feminine

Freud - Genital stage

Begins in puberty and lasts through adulthood If prior development has proceeded correctly, the person should enter into healthy heterosexual relationships describe the final stage of human psychosexual development. The individual develops a strong sexual interest in people outside of the famil but if theres sexual traumas of childhood that haven't been resolved, such behaviors as fetishism may result

Behavior theory re personality

Behavior is learned as people interact with their environment Skinner

Dollar and Miller

Behavior theorists who attempted to study psychoanalytic concepts within a behaviorist framework; also known for their work on approach-avoidance conflict

Skinner

Behaviorist

Bandura

Behaviorist theorist - social learning thory; did modeling experiment using punching bag ("bobo")

Behavior therapy

Behaviorists view maladjustment and abnormal behavior as learned through interactions between people and the environment learn faulty coping patterns that are maintained by some kind of reinforcement consider the symptoms to be the disorder

Prosocial behaviors

Behaviors that benefit other individuals or groups of people - i.e., helping behavior and altruism

Gesell

Beieved that development was due primarily to maturation

Difference between Bem's theory and Festinger's

Bem: doesn't hypothesize a state of discomfort or dissonance; no discomfort produced by behavior

Psychoanalysis

Best know type of psychotherapy intensive, long-term treatment for uncovering repressed memories, motives, and conflicts temming from problems in psychosexual development by gaining insight into the repressed material, the energy being utilized to deal with the repressed conflict would be freed up and made available for further development

(DSM-V) Chapter- Bipolar and related disorders

Bipolar disorder mania symptom required patient no longer needs to show depression to be diagnosed occupies a "bridge" position between schizophrenia and depressive disorders because of similarities between the two -depression diagnosis exactly same as depressive disorders

Piaget's sensorimotor stage

Birth - 2yo Primary and secondary circular reactions; object permanence develops Primary circular reactions: the infant begins to coordinate separate aspects of movement (goal-oriented behavior) (circular - repetition of the movement); restricted to motions concerned with the body Secondary circular reactions: directed toward manipulation of objects in the environment Object permanence: when the child realizes that objects continue to exist even though the child cannot perceive their existence (ex: sally doll task)

Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders

Body dymorphic disorder: believes that parts of their body are misshapen or ugly type of OCD includes: Hoarding disorder, trichotillomania (hair pulling disorder), excoriation (skin-picking disorder)

J. Locke

British philosopher who suggested that infants had no predetermined tendencies, that they were blank slates (tabula rasa) to be written on by experience

Locke

British philosopher who suggested that infants had no predetermined trajectories of children's temperament

Hans Eysenck

Broad dimensions of personality were types, which were followed by more specific traits wanted to test extroversion and introversion. two dimensions in which human personalities differed: - introversion-extroversion - emotional stability-neuroticism-psychoticism

Language acquisition

By around 18 months, the child may know dozens of words knowledge of language is evidenced by the ability to produce novel, grammatically correct sentences while refraining from producing nongramatically correct ones By around 2.5 to 3 years, children begin producing longer sentences

Contiguity

CS and UCS are continguous (near) in time

Contingency

CS is a good signal for UCS a future event or circumstance that is possible but cannot be predicted with certainty.

Blocking

CS is a good signal for UCS and provided nonredundant info about the occurence of the ucs blocking effect[1] the conditioning of an association between two stimuli, a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US) is impaired if, during the conditioning process, the CS is presented together with a second CS that has already been associated with the unconditioned stimulus.

higher order/second-order conditioning

CS now acts as new UCS

Backward conditioning

CS presented after UCS presented Proven to be ineffective; even inhibits future conditioning

Forward conditioning

CS presented before UCS (normal) -delayed conditioning=CS presented until UCS occurs -trace conditioning=CS starts and ends before UCS presented (time gap between CS and UCS) (trace=time gap)

trace conditioning

CS starts and ends before UCS presented (time gap between CS and UCS) (trace=time gap)

W. Penfield

Canadian neurosurgeon who used electrodes and electrical stimulation techniques to "map" out different parts of the brain during surgery (penfield-used pen to map out field of brain during surgery; used electrodes)

Symptoms of Schiz

Catatonic motor behavior extreme behaviors chracteristic of some people with schiz spontaneous movement and activity may be greatly reduced, or the patient may maintain a rigid posuter, regusing to be moved

Cattell's 16

Cattell took Allport's 5,000 traitsl identified 16 bipolar source traits (e.g. relaxed-tense)

Congnitive-behavior therapy

Change and restructure patient's distorted and/or irrational thoughts Ex: Beck's cognitive therapy for depression: client might be asked to write down negative thoughts about himself or herself, figure out why they are unjustified, and come up with more realistic and less destructive cognitions Elli's rational-emotive therapy (RET): people develop irrational ways of thinking; the therapist might challenge an irrational belief that the client has, helping him or her to recognize these beliefs and change them to more rational ones

Type theory: Type A

Characterized by behavior that tends to be competitive and compulsive More prone to heart disease Most prevalent among middle- and upper-class men

Thurstone Scale

Checkmark items you agree with (each item has a numerical value indicating how favorable or unfavorable it is judged to be) (check through scale)

Taste and smell

Chemical senses both require receptors to have actual contact with molecules that make up the stimulus taste buds (taste) - group of cells that acts as receptors for taste smell receptors - upper nasal passage of the nose called the olfactory epithelium taste information travels to the taste center in the thalamus; smell travels to the olfactory bulb in the brain

incongruence

Client-Centered/Rogers -feelings/experiences are inconsistent w/ self-image

actualizing tendency

Client-Centered/Rogers -tendency towards self-fulfillment/towards becoming actualized in what one is, potentially (become congruent with ideal self)

Beck Depression Therapy

Cognitive measures number of depressive symptoms a person has to help expose/restructure maladaptive thoughts -short term therapy; focus on tangible evidence of client's logic (what client says/does) -PURE SIMPLE COGNITIVE FIX-figure out depressive thoughts, fix them

Ellis

Cognitive behavior therapist known for his rational-emotive therapy (RET)

Beck

Cognitive behavior therapist known for his therapy for depresson